Land Code

yale school of forestry & environmental studies
The LAND Code: Guidelines for

Environmentally Sustainable Land
Development
editors
Diana Balmori, Yale School of Architecture
Gaboury Benoit, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies
Working Paper Number 5
vvv-vuniic.1iox uv.v1 October 2003
u.1v ov wovxixc v.vvv September 2004
covvv uvsicx Bryan Gillespie, Yale Publishing
Services Center
covvv vuo1o Prairie Waterway, Farmington, Minnesota,
1996. Housing development with water
drainage riparian system as public green
space, designed by Balmori Associates, Inc.
Photo by Charles Tooker.
v.cv i.sou1 Dorothy Scott, North Branford, CT, USA
vvix1ixc Yale Publishing Services Center
v.vvv 60 lb. text, recycled
vui1ov, s.iv vvs Jane Coppock
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covvvsvoxuixc dbalmori@balmori.com
vui1ovs, i.xu couv gaboury.benoit@yale.edu
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Working Paper Number 5
Development
Diana Balmori, Yale School of Architecture
Gaboury Benoit, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies
E DI TORS
introduction
The LAND (Land and Natural Development) Code is a research-based guide to eco-
logically sound land development intended for architects, engineers, developers, city
officials, and interested individuals. Our goal in creating the LAND Code has been to
delineate a clear practical pathway for developing a site in line with natural process-
es. By that we do not mean leaving nature alone. Instead, we encourage the use of any
mechanical device that works the same way as the natural process it supplants. So, for
example, piping water from a site via underground pipes is not consistent with the
LAND Code, but constructing a wetland or swale is. Each kind of site will require
treatment appropriate to its nature and context, and the LAND Code will eventually
cover many kinds of sites, from greenfields to redeveloped urban brownfields and
converted farm fields.
Some of the principles of the LAND Code appear in EPA guidelines and in the
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating
System. LEED primarily addresses buildings, however, and does not deal with large
site developments that have a much greater impact on infrastructure and existing
natural systems and potentially wide climatic or system effects. EPA covers many top-
ics. The LAND Code is the first set of guidelines to exclusively address environmen-
tally sound site development and to offer documentation from the research literature
so users can understand the reasoning behind the recommendations. It can be used
fruitfully in conjunction with LEED or other EPA guidelines.
We have issued this document as a Yale F&ES Working Paper in order to open up dia-
logue and benefit from the insights and experience of our readers. We cordially invite
feedback at dbalmori@balmori.com or gaboury.benoit@yale.edu.
the land code: acknowledgements
acknowledgements
The LAND Code came out of a course taught by faculty members Gaboury Benoit of
the School of Forestry & Environmental Studies and Diana Balmori of the Yale
School of Architecture. The course, Natural Development: Toward Certification of
New Uses of Green and Brown Fields, was a graduate seminar in which students were
divided into teams to research six topics decided upon by the instructors with the
help of Colleen Murphy-Dunning, Director of the Hixon Center for Urban Ecology
at the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. The six topics were: water
quality and hydrology; air pollution and micrometeorology; plant ecology and
population/community ecology; on-site energy and transportation; environmental
competency, and industrial ecology. The course offered a rich mix of outside
specialists who lectured on the six selected topics. In-house specialists critiqued the
students research as it proceeded. We were extremely fortunate in having the help of
Colleen Murphy-Dunning in organizing and running this course. A prodigious
organizer for this very complex seminar with outside speakers, in-house critics, and
constant adjustments in the subjects in response to reviews and research, her energy
and intelligence were critical to being able to pull this all together into the LAND
Code.
Herb Bormann was instigator of this document. He brought Gaboury Benoit and
Diana Balmori together to think about guidelines for the sustainable development of
a site. He then bowed out and left them to carry out the work.
We also thank developer Ned Foss and his partner Lawrence Linder of CGI &
Partners in Delmar, New York, and Margery Groten, Senior Project Manager of Scenic
Hudson, the organization that is developing in a sustainable manner with CGI &
Partners. They gave of their time and arranged for us to visit the property they are
developing in Beacon, NY. This property served as an initial base for the students
work.
We thank very specifically our dedicated graduate students who worked with enthu-
siasm and seriousness on this uncharted terrain. Two graduate students researched
and were responsible for each of the topics we laid out for the Code.
We also would like to thank the many top notch scholars in each of the specialties this
document contains (Hydrology, Law, etc), who lectured on the state of the art of their
discipline, and answered questions by the student team assigned to the topic. In the
latter part of the semester, they also critiqued the first summaries of the work of the
student teams.
We are grateful too for the financial support given to this work by the Hixon Center
for Urban Ecology at the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. A research
and outreach organization, Hixon Center objectives are principally pursued through
four Center programs: the Urban Resources Initiative, The Urban Watershed
balmori and benoit
Program, Public-Private Partnerships for the Urban Environment, and The Program
for Sustainable Environmental Design. This course fit the two last rubrics of the
Centers objectives.
Distinguished Guest Lecturers
Russell Albanese, President, Albanese Development Corporation, Garden City,
NY., Developer of Solaire Building, the first New York City building to be
assigned under the new Battery Park City environmental guidelines.
Clinton Andrews, Associate Professor, E.J. Bloustein School of Planning and
Public Policy, Rutgers University, President, IEEE Society on Social
Implications of Technology.
Wendi Goldsmith, President and Senior Bioengineer and Geomorphologist, The
Bioengineering Group, Inc., Salem, MA.
James Lima, Senior Vice President, Special Projects Division NYC Economic
Development Corporation.
Ruben Lubowski, Natural Resource Economist, USDA.
John Nolon, Professor of Law, Pace University Law School. Director, Land Use
Law Center.
Tom Schueler, Director of Watershed Research and Practice, Center for
Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, MD.
Rafael Pelli, Architect of Solaire Building, New York City.
Jonathan Rose, Developer.
Edward G. Mitchell, Assistant Professor, Yale School of Architecture.
Yale Faculty and Outside Experts
Erin Mansur and Paul Fisette Energy
Mark Ashton and Herb Bormann Ecology
Marian Chertow, Clinton Andrews and Steven Peck Industrial Ecology
MacBroom and Wendi Goldsmith Environmental Engineering
Sheila Olmstead and Ruben Lubowski Economics
John Nolon Law
Gaboury Benoit and Tom Schueler Hydrology
Jonathan Rose and Russell Albanese Development
James Lima Government
Diana Balmori Design
Student Research Teams
Hydrology and Water Quality
Marni Burns
Beth Owen
Air/Micrometeorology
Cherie LeBlanc
the land code: acknowledgements
Ecology
Rosemarie Mannik
Energy
Florence Miller
Carla Short
Environmental Engineering
Christopher Menone
Terrence Miller
Industrial Ecology
William Pott
Elizabeth Roberts
Legal Strategies
Melanie Cutler
William Finnegan
Saving Time and Money
Loni Gardner
Brian Goldberg
Development
table of contents
water quality and hydrology 1
A1. Drainage 3
A2. Impervious Cover 5
A3. Stormwater Management and Treatment 8
Pollutant Removal 9
Residence Time 9
Infiltration 9
Rooftop Collection 9
Runoff Volume and Velocity 9
A4. Water Conservation and Re-Use 11
A5. Erosion Prevention and Control 12
air pollution and micrometeorology 15
B1. Trees 19
B2. Construction 21
B3. Vegetation I 22
B4. Vegetation II 24
B5. Wind 25
B6. Education 26
plant ecology and population/community ecology 27
C1. Site Selection 29
C2. Preserve/Restore Habitat 31
C3. Ecologically Sensitive Areas 34
C4. Buffers Around Critical Habitat 36
C5. Landscape Scale Connectivity 43
C6. Infrastructure Placement and Design 45
C7. Mimicing Nature in Landscape Design 49
C8. Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and Limiting Factors 53
the land code: table of contents
on-site energy and transportation 57
On-Site Energy 58
D1. Building Siting 58
D2. Renewable Energy 60
D3. Outdoor Lighting 62
D4. Lawn Areas and Shade Trees 63
On-Site Transportation 64
D5. Access to Public Transportation 64
D6. Locating Commonly Used Facilities 66
D7. Walking and Biking 67
D8. Non-Motorized Recreation 68
environmental engineering 69
E1. Erosion Control 71
Branch Boxes 71
Coir Fiber 71
Live Stakes 72
Fiber Logs 73
Mats and Blankets 73
Mulches 73
Silt Fencing and Straw Bales 74
E2. Stormwater Management 75
Soil Aeration 75
Dry Well 76
Underground Vault 76
Harvest 77
Permeable Paving 78
Pervious Concrete 78
Grasspave 79
Grassroad Pavers 80
Gravelpave 81
Grasschannels 81
Dry Swales 81
Wet Swales 82
Infiltration Basin 82
E3. Blackwater Management 84
AIRR Wastewater Recovery System 84
Orenco AdvanTex
TM
84
Clearwater Treatment System 85
Clivius Composting Toilet and Greywater System 86
Living Machine 86
E4. Photovoltaics 87
Building Integrated Photovoltaics 87
balmori and benoit
Residential Systems 88
Sunline Solar Electric Power Systems 88
Alternative Power Enterprises 88
E5. Further Resources: Models 91
Lighting 91
Advanced Daylighting and Electric Lighting Integrated New
Environment (ADELINE) 91
California Lighting Model (CLMS) 91
Conjunction of Multizone Infiltration Specialists (COMIS) 91
Energy 91
DOE-2 91
EnergyPlus 92
Home Energy Saver 92
ProForm 92
THERM 92
Stormwater 93
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint
Sources (BASINS) 93
EPA Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) 93
HydroCAD 93
MIKE SWMM 93
MOUSE 94
PCSWMM 94
Transportation 96
TRANPLAN 96
Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS) 96
industrial ecology 97
F1. Site Choice 99
F2. Site Planning and Design 101
Waste Separation 101
Reuse and Recycle 103
F3. Construction and Demolition Waste 105
Planning Packaging 105
Limited Use of Landfills 107
F4. Materials Transport 109
Limited Transportation Mileage 109
Increased Efficiency of Transport 111
F5. Regional Context and Local Support 112
Local Stakeholders 112
Publicity 113
F6. Whole Life Cycle Impact Reduction 114
the land code: table of contents
legal strategies for municipalities and developers 119
Audit of Current Conditions 121
Build-Out Analysis 122
Comprehensive Plan for Development and Conservation 124
Environmentally Friendly Zoning Code 126
Environmental Impact Statements for Development Projects 129
Ordinances to Protect Natural Resources 130
Floating Zones 131
Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) 132
Incentives for Developers 133
Relationships with Community Members 135
Be Prepared to Educate 136
Municipal Codes During Initial Planning Stages 138
APPROACHES TO GREEN DEVELOPMENT SAVING TIME AND MONEY 139
Partnerships 141
Beacon Landing Partnership, Beacon, New York 142
The Civano Project, Tucson, Arizona 144
Builders for the Bay, Maryland 145
Fast Track Approvals 146
Tax Credits, State and Corporate Grants 147
Site Selection 149
Brownfields Development 149
Infill Development 150
Greenfield Development 151
Site Assessment 153
Site Planning and Design 154
Materials Selection 154
Permeable Surfacing Materials 154
Drainage System 155
Sustainable Drainage System (SUDS) 155
Landscape Design 155
Natural Landscape Design 155
Engineered Landscape Design 156
Site Construction 158
Construction Waste and Recycling 158
Site Promotion and Education 159
Future Considerations 160
Non-Point Source Pollution Trading 160
LAND Code Guidelines:
*
Water Quality and Hydrology
recommendations Page
A1. Drainage 3
A2. Impervious Cover 5
A3. Stormwater Management and Treatment 8
Pollutant Removal 9
Residence Time 9
Inltration 9
Rooftop Collection 9
Runoff Volume and Velocity 9
A4. Water Conservation and Reuse 11
A5. Erosion Prevention and Control 12
introduction
Whether new development or reconstruction projects are planned for downtown
New York City or rural Nebraska, innovative and attractive designs for water quality
and hydrologic performance can be incorporated into site plans at the outset of
development projects. Creative site design, and development that protects water qual-
ity and hydrologic function,
1
offers long-run improvements in site aesthetics, sus-
tainability, and economic gains that stretch far beyond the up-front costs and physi-
cal boundaries of the site.
Site designs that maintain, restore, or mimic the natural drainage patterns and
stormwater inltration,
2
storage, and treatment capacity of undeveloped sites can
allow human developments to coexist sustainably with ecological communities on
both local and regional scales. Water conservation practices and erosion control are
equally important, and a series of proactive strategies for achieving these goals are
outlined in the guidelines to follow.
The following set of recommendations offers guidance and specic suggestions for
site planning, layout, and construction that will maintain, or ideally improve, water
quality and hydrologic function.
balmori and benoit
1
* The LAND (Land and
Natural Development)
Code lays out steps
through which to achieve
sustainable development
of land of many types,
whether rural or urban. It
was created by a joint
group of Yale School of
Forestry & Environmental
Studies and Yale School of
Architecture faculty and
students for use by town
officials, developers,
architects, engineers and
interested individuals.
Whenever possible, each
chapter is composed of a
series of comparable rec-
ommendations, each fol-
lowing the same format: 1)
the recommendation, 2)
benefits, both for the envi-
ronment and in fostering
cheaper and faster devel-
opment, 3) strategies to
achieve the recommended
goals (since sites vary enor-
mously, several alternatives
are provided whenever pos-
sible, listed in order of pref-
erence) 4) literature cita-
tions that provide the sci-
entific basis for the recom-
mendations, and can be
consulted for further
details.
1
Hydrology: The study of the
occurrence, properties, and
movement of water on and
beneath the surface of the
earth.
2
Infiltration: The portion of
precipitation that passes
below the earths surface.
Three tiers of strategies are outlined in the chapter, providing a exible framework for
sites with many different baseline conditions and constraints.
The rst strategy listed is generally the preferred alternative for sites with little
previous development, with intact or minimally disturbed ecological communities
and waterways, and without severe limitations on physical space.
The second and third strategies listed offer structural or engineered alternatives for
achieving comparable water quality and hydrologic performance on sites with mod-
erate to severe watercourse disturbance, physical constraints, or impervious surface
coverage above 10%. Developers, architects, and planners are encouraged to view this
tiered system not as a hierarchy, but as a exible range of strategies for creative site
design that will protect water quality and hydrologic function in most conditions.
land code guidelines: water quality and hydrology
2
recommendations
A1. Site Drainage
Recommendation
Conduct hydrologic studies to understand the velocity, volume, and patterns of
water ow into, through, and off the site. Design site layout accordingly, so that it
maintains or restores drainage patterns and channel storage capacity
3
to accom-
modate waters from up to a 5-year storm event (i.e. a 20% probability of occur-
rence in any given year).
Benefits
Deals with site drainage issues at lower cost than with conventional engi-
neered systems;
Flood protection, reduction or elimination of destructive high velocity

ows during storms;
Protection of riparian, stream, or vernal pool ecology through mainte-

nance of existing ow regimes
4
when open waterways are present;
Reduction of material and energy inputs into installation and mainte-

nance of articial drainage systems;
Maintenance and restoration of aesthetically appealing surface water fea-

tures of landscape.
Strategies
Use models and studies of hydrology to predict how water ows will
interact with and react to development plans on-site. Design development
to preserve open vegetated spaces and contour, utilizing existing drainage
patterns on an undeveloped site; or design to create open vegetated spaces
and restore historical drainage patterns for previously developed sites. Site
plans should incorporate vegetated setbacks that are at least 100 feet (33m)
wide from all open waterways to allow adequate slowing and ltration of
runoff velocity before drainage reaches channels.
Or, where space is not sufficient and/or some drainage must be changed:
Use the hydrologic studies to maintain or restore shape and volume of the
major drainageways such as streams, rivers and creeks, for drainage capac-
ity from normal, baseline ow up to a 5-year storm event. Where new
drainage structures must be installed, stabilize new channels using vegeta-
tion, live stakes, or live mats (see engineering section).
balmori and benoit
3
3
Channel storage capacity: The
volume of a stream network
within its banks.
4
Flow regimes: The seasonal
pattern or variation in the
amount and speed of water
flowing in streams or rivers.
Or, where existing site conditions eliminate shapes and flows of major channels
as well as potential for restoration, or where channels are subterranean:
Use bioengineered structures,

5
such as swales,
6
check dams, and construct-
ed wetlands
7
to slow velocity of water within drainageway to rates that
would have been typical based on studies of slope and water volume
capacity.
For urban sites with subterranean drainage, capture all stormwater up to a

5-year storm volume and either reuse it for irrigation or other purposes
on-site or in the local area (see water conservation and reuse section), or
time and meter its release to subterranean drainage structures at a rate
that will not exceed baseow
8
levels in those structures, as determined by
stream monitoring and modeling.
Supporting Literature
Site drainage and open space design
Schueler T., and Holland H. Use of open space design to protect watersheds.
The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection.
Ellicott City, MD: 299-302.
Zielinski J. 2000. The benets of better site design in commercial development.
Zielinski J. 2000. The benets of better site design in residential subdivisions.
Impacts of channelization
Landwehr K. and Rhoads B. 2003. Depositional response of a headwater stream
to channelization, East Central Illinois, USA. River Research and
Applications 19 (1): 77-100.
Rhoads, B. 1990. The impact of stream channelization on the geomorphic stabil-
ity of an arid-region river. f 6 (2): 157-177.
Maintaining and stabilizing drainageways
Brown E. and Caraco D. 2000. Muddy water in, muddy water out? The Practice
of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City,
MD: 305-314.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Stormwater
Management Design Manual. October 2001. Chapter 5-6. URL:
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dow/swmanual/swmanual.html, accessed
April 2003.
Thompson J. and Sorvig K. 2000. Sustainable landscape construction: a guide to
green building outdoors. Island Press: 134-135, 146-154.
4
5
Bioengineered structures:
Structures made of natural
materials, like fiber mats, or
man-made land forms, such
as grass-lined depressions,
which reduce the amount and
speed of runoff from storms.
6
Swales: Shallow manmade
earthen depressions built to
slow down and temporarily
store excess rainwater during
or just after storms, to prevent
flooding and allow time for
rainwater to be absorbed into
the ground. Swales are
usually lined with grass or
other vegetation to help filter
out pollutants and reduce
erosion.
7
Constructed wetland: A man-
made water treatment facility
(often a series of ponds) that
duplicates the processes
occurring in natural wetlands
by slowing runoff and filtering
out pollutants to improve
water quality.
8
Baseflow: Normal water flows
in streams or channels
between storm events.
A2. Impervious Cover
Recommendation
Hydrologic conditions on-site should equal or exceed conventional development
with a maximum of 10% impervious cover.
9
Benefits
Lower costs associated with minimizing paved surface areas;
Ability to develop sites upstream from sensitive aquatic systems;
Stormwater ltration through soils and vegetation;
Removes pollutants, maintaining water quality;
Reduces volume and velocity of stormwater

10
;
Reduces watercourse erosion, sediment suspension,

11
and loss of aquatic
habitats maintains mix of coarse and soft bottom habitats and low-
velocity pools;
Filtration also cools stormwater heated by impervious surfaces that would

otherwise stress aquatic life and reduce dissolved oxygen
12
concentrations
in surface water.
Strategies
Limit impervious cover (buildings, parking lots, roads, paths) on site to 10% of total
area where possible. Vegetate all open areas, or leave sand and scrub in arid areas,
and direct runoff from impervious surfaces to these areas. The following are sug-
gested strategies for reducing total impervious area:
Residential street widths can be limited to less than the conventional range
of 32 to 40 feet (10-12 m) in width, as little as 22 ft (7m) in many instances.
Buildings or residences can be developed in clusters of small individual

lots, and large, common open spaces, to reduce overall impervious area,
and maintain larger areas of contiguous vegetative cover. Housing lots
could be on the order of 1/8 acre each, as compared with conventional
lot sizes;
Street alignment can be designed to connect as many structures as possible

per unit length;
Cul-de-sac radii can be from 33 to 45 feet (10-14 m), rather than the con-
ventional 50 to 60 feet (15-18 m), or wider radii can incorporate vegetated
islands in the center of 15 to 20 feet (4.5-6 m) in diameter;
National, regional, or local parking space assessment studies can be con-

sulted to most accurately assess parking needs for the site;
balmori and benoit
5
9
Impervious cover: Land surface,
such as conventional street
pavement or highly compacted
soil, that does not allow water
to pass through it.
10
Stormwater: This term
describes the increased
volume of water that flows
over land areas to collect in
lakes and streams during and
just after storms.
11
Suspended sediments: When
water runs over land areas or
erodes stream channels,
particles of soil, sand, and
even small stones are picked
up and carried along by the
water. Swift water can carry
more sediment than slow-
moving water. Large amounts
of suspended sediment caused
by erosion can be harmful to
aquatic systems, because it
blocks sunlight to plants and
animals under the water, and
it can drastically modify
natural habitats as water
slows down and deposits
sediment on stream or lake
bottoms. Small particles of
sediment often carry toxic
pollutants, such as heavy
metals, which are picked up as
water runs over land areas,
and these pollutants can
severely degrade water quality
and accumulate in the
environment.
12
Dissolved oxygen: A
measurement of the amount
of gaseous oxygen dissolved in
a given amount of water. In
general, higher dissolved
oxygen levels in lakes and
streams indicate healthier
ecological conditions. Lowered
oxygen levels can damage
aquatic life, and can be
caused, for example, by runoff
from hot pavement, unshaded
streams, or the presence of
too much fertilizer or sewage.
Parking areas can be located below living spaces to reduce impervious

area;
Public transit and shared parking credits can be applied to many sites,
reducing projected parking area estimates, and parking stall dimensions
can be sized for both compact and larger vehicles, as has been successfully
done in Oakland, CA, where demand estimates were reduced from 3 to
1.44 spaces per 1000 gross sq. ft. (93 m
2
);
Recommended parking demand ratios for common types of development:
Single family homes 2 spaces or fewer per home
Professional ofce space 2 spaces or fewer per 1000 sq. ft. (93 m
2
)
Retail 4 to 4.5 spaces or fewer per 1000 sq. ft. (93 m

2
)
A variety of pervious
13
surfacing materials can be used for paths, drive-
ways, sidewalks, and parking lots (see engineering section for product pro-
les);
Soil compacting activities (such as heavy equipment moving, grading,

roadways, etc.) can be limited to the construction area. Areas that will not
be constructed can be protected with fencing, plan delineations, and sig-
nage. Post-construction tilling can be used as a supplement to preventative
practices;
Or, where planned or existing impervious area is greater than 10% after the
above recommendations have been considered and applied where appropriate:
Bioengineered structures can be used to store stormwater and serve to

eliminate water through inltration and evaporation and to slow release
of water off-site. Water inltrated and runoff released should be of equiv-
alent volume and velocity from that of a site with a maximum of 10%
impervious cover (see engineering section for description);
Or, where site conditions and development plans prohibit significant impervious
cover limitations, and space for bioengineered structures is unavailable:
To limit stormwater volumes to less than a 10% impervious site for up to a

5-year storm event or larger, stormwater can be collected in cisterns on-
site and slowly released to municipal stormwater structure, or utilized for
other on-site non-potable purposes such as irrigation, toilet ushing, etc.
(see engineering section for description and example);
Green roof
14
systems can be installed, which have hydrologic function sim-
ilar to vegetated areas and thus can be used to reduce effective impervious
area typically included in building area cover calculations (see engineering
section for description).
6
13
Pervious cover: Land surface,
such as grass, forest, or loose
soil, that allows water to pass
into it.
14
Green roof systems: Gardens
or vegetation installed over
normal roofing material that
collect rainwater and reduce
water runoff and heat build-
up in buildings, especially in
urban environments.
Over 100 studies have shown that the watershed percentage of impervious cover is
negatively correlated with watershed stream health, in terms of hydrologic structure
and stability, and in terms of water and habitat quality.
A compilation of these studies resulted in percentage benchmarks as follows:
0-10% impervious cover is generally associated with sensitive streams

that are in good structural condition with good biodiversity and adequate
habitat;
11-25% impervious cover is associated with impacted streams, in which

banks become unstable, sensitive elements are lost, biodiversity is reduced,
and water quality is degraded;
above 25% impervious cover, streams are classied as non-supporting,

where channels are enlarged and unstable, stream life is lost, and water
quality is poor.
Limiting impervious cover in order to maintain predevelopment hydrologic site
conditions is ideal; however, as space constraints and site conditions often prohibit
this, stormwater reduction can act as the main goal. Highly compacted soils can act
as impervious surfaces, which is why prevention of soil compaction is considered
here as well.
Goldsmith W. July 2000. Bioengineering: an introduction to this emerging eld.
Civil Engineering News.
Management Design Manual. October 2001. Chapter 7, Appendix H. URL:
April 2003.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. An introduction to better site design. The
Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott
City, MD: 623-632.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. Can urban soil compaction be reversed? The
Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicott
City, MD.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. The importance of imperviousness. The
City, MD: 7-18.
Thompson J., and Sorvig K. 2000. Sustainable landscape construction: a guide to
green building outdoors. Island Press: 173-193.
balmori and benoit
7
A3. Stormwater Management and Treatment
Recommendation
Stormwater should be controlled and treated on site unless treatment is available
locally offsite. Use stormwater storage and treatment methods or combination of
methods to match designs with site characteristics, climate, and pollutant behav-
ior. Bioengineered structures should be designed and maintained to achieve at
least the following parameters:
80-90% pollutant and sediment removal;

Pollutants of highest concern are: nutrients
15
from fertilizers or human or
pet waste (nitrogen and phosphorous); pathogens from human or pet
waste (fecal coliform bacteria, cryptosporidium, E. coli, and enterococ-
cus); heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, etc.); oil and grease (motor
oil, gasoline, etc.); organic pollutants; and detergents;
A minimum of 24-hour onsite stormwater residence time

16
for a 5 year
storm;
On-site inltration of all stormwater from 1 to 1.5 year storm events. This
would be approximately 0.1 0.25 inches/storm event (0.25cm
0.65cm/storm event) for the eastern temperate climate, but would vary
with regional precipitation patterns;
Green roofs and/or rooftop collection systems should be designed to

accommodate 75 to 100% of rainwater that falls on the roof;
Volume and velocity of runoff should be low enough at all times to reduce
channel erosion and ooding to levels occurring under undeveloped con-
ditions.
Benefits
Water quality benets facilitate successful National Pollutant Discharge

Elimination System (NPDES) permitting process;
Removes pollutants, maintaining on-site water quality and improving off-

site water quality;
Reduces volume and velocity of storm ow, decreasing likelihood of com-

bined sewer overows that threaten public health;
Reduces watercourse erosion, sediment suspension, and loss of aquatic

habitats dependent on soft substrates and low-velocity pools;
Inltration cools stormwater heated by impervious surfaces that would

otherwise stress aquatic life and reduce dissolved oxygen levels in surface
water;
8
15
Nutrient pollution: The
negative effects of excess
levels of nitrogen and
phosphorus in lakes, rivers,
and streams resulting from
the overapplication of
fertilizers, leaking sewerage
systems, animal manure, pet
waste, and other sources.
16
Residence time: The amount
of time, on average, that a
molecule of water remains in
a given lake, pond, or stream
or in each part of the earths
water cycle (examples: in the
atmosphere, on the earths
surface, or in groundwater).
Converting stormwater to evapotranspiration

17
via the use of vegetated
inltration systems cools the air in summer, provides oxygen, and makes a
more physically comfortable and aesthetically appealing environment.
Strategies
Methods may include a combination of swales, detention/retention ponds,
18
wet-
lands, green roofs, and stormwater collection and recycling. The result of imple-
mented methods should be a site that closely mimics predevelopment hydrologic
conditions (i.e. approximately 5-10% runoff, 40-45% inltration, 45-50% evapora-
tion). Where site conditions prevent historical hydrologic services, the main goal is
runoff volume and velocity reduction and runoff treatment.
Sites with less than 10% impervious cover should have less than 10% runoff
and 80-90% pollutant removal, if the following simple measures are taken:
Direct runoff from the few impervious surfaces, such as house roofs,
driveways, parking lots or paths, into pervious vegetated areas, such as
lawn or roadside swales, or natural or constructed inltration depressions
in the topography of the site;
Leave 100-150 foot (30-45 m) buffers between impervious surfaces and
watercourses, to ensure adequate bioretention
19
and ltering by existing
pervious area.
In order to be considered functional pervious areas, vegetated or other
pervious cover should have adequate soil hydraulic conductivity
20
to absorb
all stormwater from 1-1.5 year storm events. (This would be approximately
0.10.25 inches/storm event (0.25cm 0.65cm/storm event) for the eastern
temperate climate, but would vary with regional precipitation patterns);
Sites with more than 10% impervious surfaces and/or moderate space
constraints that do not allow for 100-150 foot (30-45 m) buffers to water-
courses or 90% on-site inltration can install a network of bioengineered
structures such as green roofs, roadside or lawn swales, detention/reten-
tion ponds, and constructed wetlands (see engineering section for descrip-
tions) to mimic these conditions. In concert, these structures should
achieve the same levels of pollutant and sediment removal, inltration,
and runoff reductions as the scenario above;
Sites with high percentages of impervious cover (60% or greater) and

severe limitations of physical space should consider engineered solutions
for on-site stormwater treatment, or investment in offsite stormwater
inltration or ltration efforts of a scope comparable to that which would
have been required to treat the volume of water leaving the property.
balmori and benoit
9
17
Evapotranspiration: The total
amount of water vapor
released to the atmosphere by
evaporation from land and
water surfaces and water
vapor returned to the
atmosphere by plants as they
breathe.
18
Detention/retention ponds:
Man-made ponds for tempo-
rary storage of excess storm
water built to prevent flooding
or erosion. The temporary stor-
age allows time for sediments
and the pollutants they carry
to settle out.
19
Bioretention areas are sloped
surfaces or depressions
covered with soil and
vegetation that slow and
absorb rainwater runoff,
filtering out pollutants.
20
Soil hydraulic conductivity:
The capacity of a soil to
convey water.
Stormwater can be collected, partially treated, and reused on site for land-
scaping, green roof irrigation, or toilet ushing.
Examples of off-site mitigation projects are purchasing or restoring pervi-
ous urban greenspace elsewhere in the same watershed of equal acreage,
or contributing toward or building an in-building stormwater treatment
system.
Andoh, R. 1994. Urban runoff nature, characteristics and control, Journal of
the Institution of Water and Environmental Management 8 (4): 371-378.
Behera P., Papa F., and Adams B. 1999. Optimization of regional storm-water
management systems, Journal of Water Resources Planning and
Management ASCE 125 (2): 107-114.
Guo J., and Urbonas B. 1996. Maximized detention volume determined by
runoff capture ratio, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management
ASCE, 122 (1): 33-39.
Lawrence A., Marsalek J., Ellis J., and Urbonas B. 1996. Stormwater detention
and BMPs, Journal of Hydraulic Research 34 (6): 799-813.
Mitsch W., and Gosselink J. 2000. The value of wetlands: importance of scale
and landscape setting. Ecological Economics 35 (1) Special Issue, OCT: 25-33.
Management Design Manual. October 2001. Chapter 5-6, Appendix B. URL:
April 2003.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. Comparative pollutant removal capability of
stormwater treatment practices. The Practice of Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD. 2(4): 515-520.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center
for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD: 365-594.
Sieker F. 1998. On-site stormwater management as an alternative to conventional
sewer systems: A new concept spreading in Germany. Water Science and
Technology 38 (10): 65-71.
The Green Roof Industry Resource Portal, URL: www.greenroofs.com, accessed
April 2003.
10
A4. Water Conservation and Re-Use
Recommendation
Produce creative, visible designs that eliminate the need to use imported, potable
water for non-potable purposes, such as toilet ushing and landscape irrigation.
Benefits
Saves money on utility bills, lowering operating costs of site;
Reduces domestic, commercial, and industrial consumption of treated,

potable water;
Creates pleasing aesthetic experience for users of sites incorporating these

designs;
Reduces withdrawals from water supply reservoirs or watershed for main-

tenance of healthy aquatic environments and human recreational uses;
Raises prole and public awareness of the importance of water resources, and
the ways public and private decisions affect freshwater abundance and quality.
Strategies
Use climate-appropriate native, non-invasive vegetation for landscaping;

use plant communities that do not require more water than can be pro-
vided through rainfall and rainwater collection system irrigation;
Use passive techniques to collect and direct rainwater through landscaped

areas; this may include rooftop gutter drains and spouts directed toward
landscaped areas near buildings or topographic forms such as terracing
and runnels to transport water through landscaped and garden areas;
And/Or:
Use engineered cistern and tank systems to collect rainfall from rooftops and
other site areas and use this water for non-potable uses, such as irrigation.
Fane S., Ashbolt N., and White S. Decentralized urban water reuse: The implica-
tions of system scale for cost and pathogen risk. Water Science and
Technology 46 (6-7): 281288.
Thompson J., and Sorvig K. 2000. Sustainable landscape construction: a guide to
green building outdoors. Island Press: 154-165.
U.S. EPA. 1997. A source book on natural landscaping for public ofcials.
Prepared by the Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission. URL:
http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/toolkit/about.html, accessed March 15, 2003.
balmori and benoit
11
12
A5. Erosion Prevention and Control
Recommendation
Prevent erosion and sediment suspension on-site.
Benefits
Keeps sediments out of watercourses, maintaining aquatic habitat depend-

ent on gravel substrates and diverse stream channel features, which can
become buried with high sediment loading;
Reduces pollutant loading, because heavy metals and other toxic pollu-
tants bind to ne sediment particles and are carried into waterways, where
they threaten aquatic life and public health;
Reduces suspended sediments in surface waters that can block sunlight

needed by aquatic plants, choke lter feeders, and bury bottom dwellers.
Strategies
Preventative measures:
Clear and grade only those areas that will be included in construction area;
Do not clear vegetation along streams and waterways; or, if stream is to be

crossed or otherwise utilized, employ engineering techniques to prevent
bank erosion and to prevent sediments from entering stream;
Do not clear land with greater than 10% slope; or, if slopes must be
cleared, maintain topography typical of the area and stabilize soils imme-
diately with mats, vegetation, etc.;
Clearly delineate on design plans areas that will not be cleared and use
protective fencing to keep equipment and vehicles out of the area;
Phase clearing and grading activities: areas should be cleared only as it

becomes necessary, and subsequent construction areas should not be
cleared until the previous areas soils have been stabilized with structures
or vegetation.
Schedule construction to take advantage of good growing conditions.

Where erosion is unavoidable,the following control measures should be used:
Install appropriate erosion control devices prior to clearing;
Manage drainage through site by installing erosion control and settling

devices within drainageways. Erosion control devices may include proper-
ly installed reinforced silt fences, surface water collectors, sediment tanks,
mats, mulch, sod, settling structures that remove at least 95% of sediment,
and earthen dikes;
Monitor drainage for turbidity

21
throughout construction activities and
adjust erosion control practices accordingly; adjust management to
accommodate new constructed forms; adjust management according to
observations during storm events.
Brown E., and Caraco D. 2000. Muddy water in, muddy water out? The Practice
of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City,
MD: 305-314.
Brown W. 2000. The limits of settling. The Practice of Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD: 334-338.
Caraco D. 2000. Keeping soil in its place. The Practice of Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD: 323-328.
Claytor R. 2000. Practical tips for construction site phasing. The Practice of Water-
shed Protection. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD: 317-322.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. Improving the trapping efciency of sediment
basins. The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for Watershed
Protection. Ellicott City, MD: 339-344.
balmori and benoit
13
21
Turbidity: A measurement of
the amount of suspended
particles in a certain volume
of water, based on the
amount of light that is
scattered by particles in the
water. In common terms, it is
the cloudiness of the water.
LAND Code Plant Ecology 9/13/04 11:31 PM Page 56
*
Air Pollution and
Micrometeorology
B1. Trees 19
B2. Construction 21
B3. Vegetation I 22
B4. Vegetation II 24
B5. Wind 25
B6. Education 26
introduction
Air Pollution/Air Quality
It is easy to take the quality of the air we breathe for granted. Unless we have asthma
or experience other chronic lung ailments, we are probably unaware of general air
quality except on very humid or noticeably smoggy days. However, the reality is that
many parts of the United States have persistent air quality problems.
Numerous air pollutants have been shown to harm human health. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) has identied six of these as criteria air
pollutants that are particularly problematic for human health, in addition to volatile
organic compounds (VOCs)
lead
carbon monoxide (CO)
sulfur dioxide (SO

2
)
ozone
nitrous dioxide (NO

2
)
Particulate Matter: (PM10 (PMno larger than 10 microns in diameter);

PM25 (PMno larger than 2.5 microns in diameter)
balmori and benoit
15
Natural Development) Code
lays out steps through
which to achieve
sustainable development of
land of many types,
cheaper and faster develop-
ment, 3) strategies to
details.
These pollutants get into the air through many sources, especially through the
combustion of fossil fuels (coal, gasoline, diesel fuel, and natural gas) in cars, trucks,
trains, power plants, buildings, etc. The U.S. EPA conducts constant air quality
monitoring for each of the criteria air pollutants in every U.S. county and parish.
There are also many other types of air pollutants including dust and chemicals, for
example that can be harmful to human health.
When it comes to development of a single site, air quality considerations may not be
obvious at all but small amounts of pollutants put into the air on thousands of
individual sites can contribute to regional air quality hazards. The main goal of the
LAND Codes air pollution considerations is to guide design and development so that
project sites will not contribute any more air pollution to the atmosphere than is
absolutely necessary. These are some basic air pollution/air quality considerations:
What air pollutants are of particular concern in this area?
How will visitors get to the site and how will people move around the site?
What can be done on the site to help remove existing air pollutants from
the atmosphere?
How will heating and cooling systems be powered?
What kinds of fuel are used to produce the electricity that will be used on
this site?
What persons or developments are downwind of the site?

General air pollution/air quality literature
Colvile R., Hutchinson E., Mindell J., and Warren R. 2001. The transport sector
as a source of air pollution. Atmospheric Environment 35(9): 1537-1565.
Holgate S. T., Gamet J. M., Koren, N. S., and Maynard, R. L., Eds. 1999. Air
Pollution and Health. Boston: Academic Press.
Kahn, E. 2000. The environmental impact of suburbanization. Journal of Policy
Analysis and Management 19(4): 569-586.
Wood, M. 1990. Air pollution control by land use planning techniques: A British
American review. International Journal of Environmental Studies 35: 233-243.
Micrometeorology
Micrometeorology is the study of interactions between the atmosphere and the land
(or built) surface of the earth. Micro means small and meteorology is the study of
weather patterns and processes so micrometeorology is the study of weather vari-
ables like temperature, humidity, wind and concentration of air pollutants at small
geographic scales (for example, a corneld or a city block) over small time intervals
(like hours or days). Investigating small-scale atmospheric phenomena provides
land code guidelines: air pollution and micrometeorology
16
balmori and benoit
17
insight into how air movement and air composition affect the human-scale environ-
ments that we move through in our daily lives (like a backyard or playground or park-
ing lot) and, in aggregate, gives us a sense of what is happening on larger scales.
A single development site (whether large or small) is an appropriate unit of analysis
for micrometeorological study. The main goal of the LAND Codes micrometeorology
guidelines is to encourage the consideration of micrometeorological variables in site
design and development. These questions provide a basic starting point:
How does wind move across the site and how will wind move around
built features on the site? Does this change seasonally?
What factors of the site itself or of the development design will affect
ground surface temperatures at different times of the year? How will this
impact cooling costs in the summer and heating costs in the winter?
How will this development t into the larger picture of development in

this region?
What elements of the existing site are likely to be important to local

wildlife?
General micrometeorology literature
Bonan, G. 2000. The microclimates of suburban Colorado (USA) landscape and
implications for planning and design. Landscape and Urban Planning 49(3-
4): 97-114.
Keeble E., Collins M., and Ryser J. 1990/91. The potential for land-use planning
and development control to help achieve favourable microclimates around
buildings: A European review. Energy and Buildings 16(3-4): 823-826.
Oke, T. 1989. The micrometeorology of the urban forest. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences,
Forest, Weather and Climate 324(1223): 335-348.
18
balmori and benoit
19
recommendations
B1. Trees
Recommendation
Retain more than 50% of healthy mature trees on the site. (A mature tree is
dened as one that has attained the capacity to ower and reproduce.)
Benefits
Cooling: Trees provide shade for natural cooling of buildings, people,

parking lots, etc.;
Wind break or noise barriers: Appropriately-placed trees can screen

parts of the site from wind impacts and/or absorb noise (like vehicle traf-
c, airplanes, trains, etc.);
Carbon sequestration/transformation of air pollutants: Through the

process of photosynthesis, trees absorb and break down carbon dioxide,
which contributes to global warming, and other air pollutants, and pro-
duce oxygen;
Increased property values: Studies show that sites with mature trees on
them have higher property values than those without trees;
Soil retention and stabilization: Tree roots hold soil, protecting it from
wind and water erosion;
Wildlife habitat continuity: In urban, suburban, and rural areas, trees

provide habitat for local wildlife and are part of the local ecosystem;
Aesthetic benefits: Trees improve the scenery.

Strategies
Evaluate health of trees on the site before development design begins;
Communicate clear expectations about tree preservation to construction

contractors.
Beckett K., Freer-Smith P., and Taylor G. 2000. Particulate pollution capture by urban
trees: effect of species and windspeed. Global Change Biology 6(8): 995-1003.
McPherson E., Scott K., and Simpson J. 1998. Estimating cost effectiveness of res-
idential yard trees for improving air quality in Sacramento, California, using
existing models. Atmospheric Environment 32(1): 75-84.
20
Nowak D., Civerolo K., Rao S., Sistla G., Luley C., and Crane D. 2000. A model-
ing study of the impact of urban trees on ozone. Atmospheric Environment
34(10): 1601-1613.
Orland B., Vining J., and Ebreo A. 1992. The effect of street trees on perceived
values of residential property. Environment and Behavior 24(3): 298-325.
Simpson J., 2002. Improved estimates of tree-shade effects on residential energy
use. Energy and Buildings 34: 1067-1076.
Stamps A., 1997. Some streets of San Francisco: Preference effects of trees, cars,
wires, and buildings. Environment and Planning B Planning & Design
24(1): 81-93.
Stathopoulos T., Chiovitti D., and Dodaro L. 1994. Wind shielding effects of trees
on low buildings. Building and Environment 29(2): 141-150.
balmori and benoit
21
B2. Construction
Recommendation
Delineate and clearly mark (on the site design and on the site itself) a construc-
tion envelope that includes only the building and road footprints with equip-
ment maneuvering buffers (buffer width = length of largest piece of construction
equipment plus 5 meters, depending on site activities). All construction activity
should take place within the construction envelope whenever possible.
Benefits
Vegetation: Protect retained vegetation (including trees) from construction damage;
Soil: Avoid site-wide soil compaction by construction vehicles;
Wildlife: Keep the non-human habitants thriving.
Strategies
Communicate clear expectations to construction contractors and ask

them to communicate clear expectations to construction employees;
Use signs to explain the site layout and the role of the construction enve-
lope to visitors.
Kaufman M., 2000. Erosion control at construction sites: The science-policy gap.
Environmental Management 26(1): 89-97.
Krenitsky E., Carroll M., Hill R., and Krouse J. 1998. Runoff and sediment losses
from natural and man-made erosion control materials. Crop Science 38(4):
1042-1046.
22
B3. Site Vegetation I
Recommendation
Outside of the construction envelope, vegetate or retain existing vegetation on
100% of the ground surface of the site.
Benefits
Cooling: Vegetation increases the light reectivity (albedo) of a site, which

helps reect sunlight to keep the site cooler in the summer.
Soil retention and stabilization: All types of vegetation hold soil in

place with their root systems and help keep soil healthy.
Wildlife habitat continuity: Healthy plants are an important part of

both above- and below-ground ecosystems. Plants provide shelter and
food for wildlife.
Carbon sequestration and air pollution removal: Like trees, smaller

plants help clean the air and sequester carbon in their tissues through
photosynthesis.
Water management: Vegetated surfaces aid inltration of rainwater and

help prevent runoff, which can cause erosion and degrade water quality.
Noise reduction: Vegetation absorbs sounds.

Strategies
Evaluate site vegetation before development design begins. Determine

health and species of existing plants. Identify healthy native specimens for
retention.
Communicate clear expectations to construction contractors about pro-

tecting vegetation from construction activity.
Ca V., Asaeda T., and Abu E. 1998. Reductions in air-conditioning energy caused
by a nearby park. Energy and Buildings 29(1): 83-92.
Harbor J., Synder J., and Storer J. 1995. Reducing nonpoint source pollution
from construction sites using rapid seeding and mulching. Physical
Geography 16(5): 371-388.
Herzog M., Harbor J., McClintock K., Law J., and Bennett K. 2000. Are green lots
worth more than brown lots? An economic incentive control on residential
developments. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 55(1): 43-49.
Jo H-K., and McPherson E. 2001. Indirect carbon reduction by residential vege-
tation and planting strategies in Chicago, USA. Journal of Environmental
Management 61: 165-177.
Pal A., Kumar V., Saxena N. 2000. Noise attenuation by green belts. Journal of
Sound and Vibration 234(1): 149-165.
Smardon R, 1988. Perception and aesthetics of the urban environment: Review of
the role of vegetation. Landscape and Urban Planning 15(1-2): 85-106.
balmori and benoit
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B4. Site Vegetation II
Recommendation
If any site vegetation is to be removed during construction, replant or seed within
3 days (or less if a rain event is expected). Plant with native vegetation whenever
possible.
Benefits
Soil retention: Exposed soil is very vulnerable to erosion by wind or water;
Wildlife habitat continuity: De-vegetated sites are unattractive to wildlife;
Aesthetic values: Landscaping with retained plants ensures that the site
will not have an articial, new haircut look.
Strategies
Communicate clear expectations to construction contractors about plans

to retain site vegetation.
Do not begin removing vegetation until replacement plants or seeds have

arrived on site. Coordinate de-vegetation and re-vegetation activities care-
fully, involving all contractors.
Buchanan J., Yoder D., Denton H., and Smoot J. 2002. Wood chips as a soil cover
for construction sites with steep slopes. Applied Engineering in Agriculture
18(6): 679-683.
Harbor J., Synder J., and Storer J. 1995. Reducing nonpoint source pollution
from construction sites using rapid seeding and mulching. Physical
Geography 16(5); 371-388.
24
B5. Wind
Recommendation
Determine direction and seasonality of prevailing winds. In the site design, con-
sider wind impacts on the site itself, on buildings, and on the spaces between
buildings, as well as the imprint of buildings on wind direction and speed.
Benefits
Air quality: Site designs should consider how wind moves over the site in
order to avoid pooling of stale air. Anticipate pollution impacts from
upwind point sources;
Visibility: Breezes can literally clear the air;
Cooling: Consider wind effects on site and building temperatures in both

summer and winter;
Wind tunnels: Avoid umbrella-shredding, hair-tangling wind tunnels

between buildings;
Wind energy potential: On sites with steady prevailing winds and the
possibility of linking to nearby wind facilities, consider the potential for
wind energy generation on site.
Strategies
Prevailing winds are easy to identify at most sites;
Wind-modeling software can be used to identify wind patterns on the site.

Bachlin W., Theurer W., Plate E. 1991. Wind-eld and dispersion in a built-up
area a comparison between eld-measurements and wind-tunnel data.
Atmospheric Environment Part A-General Topics 25(7): 1135-1142.
Chan A., So E., and Samad S. 2001. Strategic guidelines for street canyon geome-
try to achieve sustainable street air quality. Atmospheric Environment
35(24): 4089-4098.
Sadoun B. 1998. A new simulation methodology to estimate energy losses on
urban sites due to wind inltration and ventilation. Information Sciences
107(1-4): 233-246.
Xia J., and Leung D. 2001. Pollutant dispersion in urban street canopies.
Atmospheric Environment 35(11): 2033-2043.
balmori and benoit
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B6. Education
Recommendation
Use prominent signage with non-technical language to explain the ecological ben-
ets of site design elements to visitors during construction. Add environmental
preservation language to construction contracts, including penalties.
Benefits
Cooperation: Let construction contractors and construction workers

know that they are part of an environmentally friendly project, and
responsible for environmental protection on site.
Publicity: Share design elements and plans with members of the

community and curious onlookers. Example: Were keeping many of the
trees on this site so that future visitors can enjoy and benet from them.
These trees will continue to provide wildlife habitat, help clean the air, and
prevent soil erosion for decades to come.
26
*
Plant Ecology and
Population/Community Ecology
C1. Site Selection 29
C2. Preserving/Restoring Habitat 31
C3. Ecologically Sensitive Areas 34
C4. Buffers Around Critical Habitat 36
C5. Landscape Scale Connectivity 43
C6. Infrastructure Placement and Design 45
C7. Mimicing Nature in Landscape Design 49
C8. Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and Limiting Factors 53
introduction
The loss of biodiversity due to human activities and land use change has gained
worldwide attention in the last decade (Savard et al. 2000). Species are facing modern
extinction rates due to human disturbances that are estimated to be 100 to 1000 times
as high as background historical rates (Primack 2002). An analysis of endangered
species has shown that the two main threats to species survival are habitat loss and
invasive species introductions (Wilcove et al. 1998). Habitat loss includes outright
destruction as well the negative effects of disrupting population dynamics and frag-
menting habitat structure. The following LAND Code recommendations address
ways to mitigate these biodiversity threats during site design. The recommendations
are structured to preserve as much habitat as possible, to set guidelines for mitigating
fragmentation effects in the placement of buildings and infrastructure, to promote
natural vegetation structures and composition in landscape design, and to encourage
active management of the site for biodiversity.
The two most important ecological LAND Code recommendations address concerns
of habitat loss by encouraging the selection of a previously developed site and the
preservation of a large area of continuous habitat. Choosing a previously disturbed
site prevents development pressures from increasing for high-quality habitat areas.
Clustering structures within smaller portions of a site and reducing the overall devel-
opment footprint can preserve considerable site habitat. Previously developed sites
may also contain degraded areas that present the opportunity to create new habitat
balmori and benoit
27
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
through restoration. Critical environmental resources such as wetlands, riparian
zones and areas of rare or endangered species should be included within preserved
habitat areas. Placing buildings and other structures outside buffer zones adds pro-
tection to these resources and provides additional quality habitat.
In order to move away from a patchwork of disconnected landscapes, site design must
look at overall landscape patterns and connectivity. Preserving sections of the
property that connect to adjacent preserved areas on bordering properties can
maintain regional habitat. This is particularly important for animal species that
require large territories in order to nd shelter, mates, and food resources. Preserving
vegetated corridors for animal migration can promote additional landscape
connectivity. Landscaping that does occur on the site should mimic the structure and
composition of the surrounding natural environment as much as possible to provide
diverse resources, or niches, that allow for a wide variety of animal life. The choice of
native plant species in landscape design is a key component of this principle. Many of
the non-native invasive plants that are problematic today were originally introduced
for landscaping purposes (Bringham 2001). Lastly, the LAND Code encourages the
active analysis and management of a site for rare or endangered species. This is a site-
specic principle, and general guidelines are presented to promote a scientically-
based plan.
land code guidelines: plant ecology and population/community ecology
28
recommendations
C1. Site Selection
Recommendation
Select a development site to minimize habitat destruction and fragmentation.
Choose a previously disturbed site and avoid areas of high biodiversity value.
Benefits
Choosing a previously disturbed site relieves development pressures on high-quality
habitat areas farther from population centers. This prevents direct habitat destruction
as well as the negative effects caused by fragmented habitat. An analysis of U.S. forests
has shown that the majority of forested land is fragmented, with 44% of forest locat-
ed within 90m of an edge and 62% of forest located within 150m of an edge (Riitters
et al. 2002). Similarly worrisome gures describe habitat loss in many other ecosys-
tems, including tropical forests, grasslands, and wetlands (Primack 2002). Site selec-
tion can support current regional and national biodiversity conservation practices by
avoiding property that is part of a public or private protected area, or property that
contains habitat designated for threatened or endangered species.
Strategies
Choose a site in order of the following preference:

Adjacent to transit;
Browneld;
Currently used urban site;
Urban inll site (unused urban lot);
Previously developed greeneld site.
Do not select a site with the following characteristics:

Previously designated habitat preserve area (unless an area of equal or greater
size and quality is added to another continuous portion of the preserve);
Habitat designated for species that are recognized as threatened or endan-
gered. Species status is determined by checking national government lists
and scientically-based lists developed by non-governmental organiza-
tions (see supporting literature section for lists).
Sites with threatened or endangered species can be developed if the habi-

tat they require is limited to a portion of the site that can be protected
from development. In this case, a conservation plan must be developed to
analyze species ecological needs and expected development impacts. The
plan must show how site design and ultimate use will avoid loss of the
individual species and their required habitat (see recommendation C8.,
Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and Limiting Factors).
balmori and benoit
29
Global, National, and Subnational Conservation Status Ranks. National Heritage
Data Center. URL: http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/ranking.htm,
accessed September, 2003.
Primack B. 2002. Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, MA: 203-210.
Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN). URL: www.redlist.org, accessed September, 2003.
Riitters K., Wickham J., ONeill R., Jones K., Smith E., Coulston J., Wade T.,
Smith J., 2002. Fragmentation of continental United States forests.
Ecosystems 5(8): 815-822.
United States Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Species. URL:
http://endangered.fws.gov, accessed September, 2003.
30
C2. Preserve/Restore Habitat
Recommendation
Preserve continuous expanses of existing habitat or restore degraded habitat.
Benefits
Preserving large expanses of continuous habitat on the site supports a

larger diversity of species, helps prevent local species extinction, and pre-
serves important interior habitat area.
A large continuous area is particularly important for animals that require

large territories in order to nd shelter, mates, and food resources. New
site development can also work to change degraded portions of a site into
an area of improved habitat quality. Re-vegetating cleared areas and
implementing invasive species eradication programs can promote the
return of native species and support their successful survival.
Strategies
Preserve existing habitat on the site as open space.

Best: 50 70% of site area left undisturbed with existing vegetation.
Next best: Greater than 70% of site area left undisturbed with existing
vegetation. 75% of this area must be continuous, with a minimum of
50% continuous area if the use of recommendation C3. (Ecologically
Sensitive Areas) prevents the 75% target.
Restore land area to ecologically functioning habitat.

Additional benets could be achieved through a program to eradicate at
least one invasive species.
Providing a green roof in an urban area.

While green roofs have limited habitat value, they can provide some habi-
tat for birds and insects in urban areas.
Cluster developments can be used to minimize the overall develop-

ment footprint and concentrate disturbance into one area of the site.
Using conventional two-acre residential zoning as a model, it is possible to
preserve 50% of the property for open space. Approximately one acre (0.4
hectare) is needed to provide space for the house, roads, well, on-site septic
system and an alternate replacement system area (if the original septic sys-
tem should fail). The remaining one acre (0.4 hectare) can be preserved for
open space. Allowing higher density housing on the property and connect-
ing the house to public water and sewer allows for over 70% open space
protection (M. Drewniany, Community Planning Program Manager,
National Lands Trust, personal communication, May 9, 2003).
balmori and benoit
31
Example of a successful U.S. cluster development program:
The Pennsylvania Growing Greener program, developed by Natural Lands
Trust in cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation
and Natural Resources (DCNR) and the Penn State Cooperative Extension
Service. This program advocates that communities pass a model conserva-
tion-clustering ordinance that preserves 50-70% of a residential subdivision
for open space. Nine communities in four Pennsylvania counties have
passed cluster ordinances based on the Growing Greener concept. Under
this program, ve communities in Chester County, Pennsylvania preserved
62% of residential subdivision land for open space (920 acres out of 1451
acres) in 2001-2002 (A. Hutchinson, AICP, Community Planning Director,
Natural Lands Trust, personal communication, May 13, 2003).
Underlying Science
The island biogeography theory is a concept in community and population ecology
that explains species abundance based on a balance of immigration rates and extinc-
tion rates. Fragments (or islands) that are larger and less isolated from other sources
of species have increased immigration rates that promote greater diversity and a
lower probability of extinction (Hunter 1996). Bigger fragments also support larger
continuous populations of species that have a robust pool of genetic variability.
Numerous studies have provided supporting evidence of the negative effects of frag-
mentation. They have shown that fragmentation decreases diversity, genetic variabil-
ity, dispersal ability and the overall number of species (Adams 1994; Debinski and
Hold 2000).
Fragmentation also affects the quality of remaining habitat. Habitat along landscape
boundaries changes in characteristic and composition due to what is termed edge
effects. Changes in physical conditions such as light, temperature, and moisture
modify what resources are available along edges and alter which species can survive.
Edge effects can penetrate many tons and even hundreds of meters into fragment
borders (See recommendation C4., Buffers Around Critical Habitat), thereby signi-
cantly reducing the original interior habitat upon which many species depend.
New site development can also work to change degraded portions of a site into an
area of improved habitat quality through re-vegetation with native species or efforts
to remove invasive non-native species which can promote the return of native species
and support their successful survival. (McKinney 2002)
Fragmentation
Adams L., 1994. Urban Wildlife Habitats A Landscape Perspective. University
of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.
32
Debinski D., Holt R.. 2000. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation
experiments. Conservation Biology 14(2): 342-355.
Hunter M., 1996. Fundamentals of Conservation Biology. Blackwell Science,
Cambridge, MA:179-187.
Laurance W., Lovejoy T., Vasconcelos H., Bruna E., Didham R., Stouffer P.,
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E., 2002. Ecosystem decay
of Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation
Biology 16(3): 605-618.
McKinney M., 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience
52(10): 883-890.
Primack B., 2002. Problems of small populations. In: Essentials of Conservation
Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA: 297-328.
Thompson J., Sorvig K., 2001. Sustainable Landscape Construction: A guide to
Green Building Outdoors. Island Press, Washington, D.C.:111-115.
Young A., Mitchell N. 1994. Microclimate and vegetation edge effects in a frag-
mented podocarp-broadleaf forest in New Zealand. Biological Conservation
67(1): 63-72.
Conservation Clustering
Growing Greener: Conservation by Design (Booklet), Natural Lands Trust, URL:
http://www.natlands.org/planning/growgreen.html, accessed September, 2003.
Schueler T., 1995. Stream Protection Clusters in Site Planning for Urban Stream
Protection. Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, M.D. Prepared for
the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C.,
URL: http://www.cwp.org/SPSP/TOC.htm, accessed September, 2003.
Restoration
Harris J., Birch P., Palmer J. 1996. Land Restoration and Reclamation: Principles
and Practice. Addison Wesley Longman, Essex, England.
Sauer L. 1997. The Once and Future Forest: A Guide to Forest Restoration
Strategies. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Zavaleta E., Hobbs R., Mooney H. 2001. Viewing invasive species removal in a
whole-ecosystem context. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16(18): 454-459.
balmori and benoit
33
C3. Ecologically Sensitive Areas
Recommendation
Preserve ecologically sensitive areas including wetlands, old-growth forests, areas
containing rare species and areas with physical characteristics that are not com-
monly found in the region and that are limited in location.
Benefits
In addition to preserving overall habitat, it is important that the preserved

area encompass biodiversity hot spots on the development site. Rare
species are part of smaller populations that face higher extinction probabil-
ities due to processes discussed in recommendation C2. (Preserving/
Restoring Habitat). Site design can contribute to maintaining the biodiver-
sity of the region by preserving areas containing rare species and rare habi-
tat. In addition, rare species are often unevenly distributed geographically
(McCoy 1999; Laurance et al. 2002; Primack 2002a), and without active
identication of their presence and location, vegetation that is cleared for
development may wipe out a signicant portion of the local population.
Wetlands are also targeted for preservation under this principle because of
the signicance of their ecological functions and the fact that they have
undergone considerable worldwide loss (Primack 2002b). Wetlands help
control ooding, promote groundwater recharge, lter and transform pol-
lutants, and provide habitat for a large diversity of plant and animal life.
Strategies
Perform a site analysis to identify pre-development ora and fauna species. Present
their distribution in a map format, with supplementary information describing
characteristics of the species such as density, age, general health, and native/non-
native/invasive status. Additionally, identify:
Any species found on the site that are threatened, endangered, considered
rare or uncommon for the area;
Any endemic species (species found only in one geographic location);
Any habitat found on the site that may be uncommon in the area due to
past development activities. Examples may include old-growth forest,
native meadows or prairies;
Topical features that present unique environmental niches such as ridge-

lines, ravines, caves, etc;
Wetland areas (include streams and rivers on the map, though they are
covered by recommendation C4., Buffers Around Critical Habitat).
34
If any endangered or threatened species exist on the site, it must be shown (see rec-
ommendation C8. (Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and Limiting
Factors) that they will not be adversely impacted by development. From this site
analysis, identify sensitive habitat areas dened as wetlands, areas of rare or
uncommon species, areas of endemic species, areas of rare or uncommon habitat,
and areas of unique topical features. For rare, uncommon or endemic faunal
species, identify the area of their expected home range.
Kent D. 2001. Applied Wetlands Science and Technology, 2nd edition. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL
Gascon C., Bierregaard R., Laurance S., Sampaio E. 2002. Ecosystem decay of
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology
16(3): 605-618.
McCoy E., Mushinsky H. 1999. Habitat fragmentation and the abundance of ver-
tebrates in the Florida scrub. Ecology 80(8): 2526-2538.
Primack B. 2002a. Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd Edition. Sinauer
Associates, Sunderland, MA: 189-203, 227.
balmori and benoit
35
C4. Buffers Around Critical Habitat
Recommendation
Preserve or create buffers to mitigate the effect human activities will have on
species and to provide additional habitat. Place buffers around important natural
resources such as riparian (riverbrook) areas, wetlands, shorelines and property
borders adjacent to natural preserves.
Benefits
Riparian areas perform many critical ecological functions within a land-

scape. Vegetated buffers in riparian areas stabilize riverbanks, prevent ero-
sion, and promote groundwater recharge. Trees provide shade, leaf organic
matter, and woody debris, which are important components of aquatic
stream health. Riparian areas provide terrestrial habitat for a rich variety of
species as well as a corridor for migration.
Wetlands help control ooding, promote groundwater recharge, lter and

transform pollutants, and provide habitat for a large diversity of plant and
animal life. Buffers around wetland areas are needed to allow soil ltration
processes to transform pollutants, to reduce disturbance to wetland species
and to provide habitat for vulnerable species, such as amphibians, that are
dependent on the upland border.
Buffer areas on properties located near public or private natural preserve

areas can prevent the introduction of edge effects into the preserve (such as
increases in sunlight, wind, and temperature, and reductions in soil mois-
ture). Buffers along preserve property borders can stop or reverse habitat
degradation associated with these edge effects inside the preserves, as well
as providing corridors between protected critical habitat areas.
Strategies
The following buffer width recommendations are targeted for forested landscapes
and present general buffer width recommendations. These recommendations can
be used in the absence of more specic analysis that takes into account local ora
and fauna requirements.
Riparian and Wetland (>= 4.0 ha) Buffers

Since riparian and wetland areas play such important ecological functions,
it is a requirement for this section of the LAND Code that any property
with a riparian and wetland area maintain a minimum average width of
15m with a minimum of 10m at any one point.
36
For urban areas and previously developed non-urban areas with struc-
tures within 50m, the average buffer width should be equal to 30m, with
a minimum of 15m at any one point.
For previously undeveloped areas, the average buffer width should be
equal to 50m, with a minimum of 15m at any one point.
Riparian buffer crossings should incorporate all of the following perfor-
mancecriteria (Schueler 1995):
Crossing widths should be the minimum needed for function and main-
tenance;
Crossings should be constructed at right angles to reduce the amount of
land area disturbed;
Only one crossing should be constructed per subdivision or per 1,000 feet
for large properties;
For small stream crossings, slab, arch or box culverts should be used.
Corrugated metal pipe tends to create sh barriers;
The base of the culvert structure should be buried beneath the stream
bottom and a natural bottom surface should be created in the culvert to
ensure passage of aquatic life during low ow conditions.

Small Wetland and Vernal Pool Buffers (< 0.4 ha)
Since small and ephemeral wetlands (wetlands that form during wetter sea-
sons, also known as vernal pools) contain such high biodiversity, it is a
requirement for this section of the LAND Code that any property with a
small wetland maintain a minimum average buffer width of 15m with a
minimum of 10m at any one point.
It is recommended that the minimum total upland buffer be 165m. This
buffer distance protects 95% of species identied in a literature review of
salamander habitat areas (Semlitsch 1998), as well as a considerable portion
of other amphibian species habitat (see Table 1 below in the Underlying
Science section).
If the site has space constraints, a narrower buffer can be established as a
second-best option between the minimum of 10-15m and the optimal 165m.
This is applicable if there are design constraints, but also in those situations
where adjacent habitat is not suitable or not preferred (Russell et al. 2002;
Dodd and Cade 1998) by vulnerable species expected to be found in the
area.
Shoreline Buffers
To separate development from the aquatic environment, create a buffer with
a minimum of 75ft (23m) for lakes measured from the water line and 50ft
(15m) for oceans measured from the mean high water line (Schueler 1995).
balmori and benoit
37
Additional buffer width may be needed for particular animal species that
inhabit the area. For example, a study in California recommends a minimum
distance of 30m in areas where shorebirds concentrate (Thomas et al. 2003).
Alternatives to Buffers
Not all sites may be able to accommodate these buffer requirements as a
result of concentrated urban development, site design constraints, or struc-
tures that already exist within the buffer area. In order to meet these buffer
requirements, particularly the minimum average width of 15m along ripar-
ian and wetland zones, an acceptable alternative is the purchase of an ease-
ment surrounding a similar habitat in a nearby location. Locate this ease-
ment as close to the original property as practical so that buffer benets
accrue to the local area. The length of the easement must be at least the
same length as would apply to the original property.
Urban areas can also incorporate a zoned approach to meet the base buffer
target of 30m. The inner 10m must be left naturally vegetated, and use is
restricted to stormwater channels, trails, and utility or roadway crossings.
The middle zone must be at least 15m, retain natural vegetation, and may
include additional limited activities such as stormwater management and
bike paths. The outer zone is the remaining buffer width and may include
common residential backyard activities with the exception that no septic
systems or permanent structures may exist (modied from Holland 2000).
In recognition of the need to remove structures that currently exist in ripar-
ian zones, additional benet can be gained from the removal of permanent
buildings to create the recommended buffers.
Underlying Science
Riparian and Wetland Buffers
To promote pollution abatement that affects aquatic ecology, a minimum buffer of
30m should be implemented. Studies have shown that this average buffer width
results in approximately 70% or greater sediment and pollutant (nitrogen, phospho-
rous, and total suspended solids) removal (Desbonnet et al. 1994). Protecting stream
hydrology from increased storm runoff is critical for stream health, and is addressed
in the hydrology section of the LAND Code. In addition to aquatic ecological health,
the riparian zone contains a high diversity of resident species and serves as an impor-
tant migratory corridor.Desbonnet performed a literature review of studies to iden-
tify buffer width requirements for habitat value of various species. That information
is summarized in the table below and can be used as an initial guideline for setting
riparian buffer widths. Additional buffer width is often needed in order to preserve
targeted species. For example, a buffer of 100m has been recommended to support
neotropical bird communities (Hodges and Krementz 1996), and a buffer of 150m has
been recommended for freshwater turtles (Bodie 2001).
38
Table 1.
Buffer Pollutant Removal Wildlife Habitat Value
Width Effectiveness (sediment and
pollutant removal)
10m (33ft) Approx. 60% or greater Minimally protects stream habitat; poor
habitat value; useful for temporary
activities of wildlife
15m (50ft) Greater than 60% Minimal general wildlife and avian
habitat value.
30m (100ft) Approx. 70% or greater May have use as a wildlife travel corridor
as well as general avian habitat.
50m (165ft) Approx. 75% or greater Minimal general wildlife habitat value
100m (330ft) Approx. 80% or greater Good general wildlife habitat value; may
protect signicant wildlife habitat.
200m (660ft) Approx. 90% or greater Excellent general wildlife value; likely
to support a diverse community.
Source: Desbonnet et al., 1994.
Small and Ephemeral Wetland Buffers
Amphibians require the conservation of the wetland-upland component because
their life cycles contain both an aquatic and terrestrial component. Adult amphibians
live in the terrestrial environment but migrate to aquatic environments to breed and
lay eggs. Temporary ponds, often referred to as vernal pools, as well as permanent
small wetlands (<4 ha) are important habitat for amphibians (Dodd and Cade 1998;
Preisser et al. 2000; Semlitsch 2000). Preservation of both these habitats and the con-
nection between them are important for amphibian survival. Site development caus-
es physical changes to the environment that can affect amphibian survival capabili-
ties either directly or indirectly. Roads can create barriers to migration (deMaynadier
and Hunter 2000), trafc can cause direct mortality (Carr and Fahrig 2001; Fahrig et
al. 1995), and compacted soils or sod can keep amphibians from burrowing into the
ground (Jansen et al. 2001).
Developed while actual buffer widths are species-dependent and site-dependent
(Semlitsch 1998), the following buffer recommendations were made using a review of
scientic studies evaluating the location and dispersal of amphibian and turtle
species surrounding wetlands.
balmori and benoit
39
Table 2.
Wetland Species Distance Reference
Toad (fossorial) 73m maximum Eggert, 2002
Newts (great crested 95% of the newts fell within 63m Jehle, 2000
and marbled) of the pond
Frog (red-legged) 100m buffer recommended for adult frogs Bulger et al., 2003
Turtles (spotted and Nests within 1-120 m for spotted and
blandings) 70-410m for (blandings). Summer
dormancy 12-80m (spotted) and 30-110m
(blandings). Joyal et al., 2001
Frog (dark gopher) 1000 m buffer recommended Richter et al., 2001
Salamanders 50% of population within 125m Semlitsch, 1998
95% of population estimated to be
within 165m
*a literature review develops the 125m
mean value
Semi-aquatic reptile 15m minimum buffer recommended Brown et al., 1990
nesting (cited in Dodd and
Cade, 1998)
Edge Effect Buffers
Edges allow increased exposure of light and wind into fragmented landscapes. This
causes microclimate changes such as increased temperature variations, decreased
humidity, decreased soil moisture and increased wind turbulence. Overall changes in
habitat alter ecological communities by making it easier for invasive non-native
species to take the place of native species (Laurance et al., 2002). Numerous studies
have found large physical and community compositional changes within 50m from
edges (Young and Mitchell, 1994; Chen et al., 1995; Mesquita et al., 1999; Davies-Colley
et al., 2000; Rheault et al., 2003), moderate changes up to 100m from edges (Laurance
et al., 1998, 2002), and some alterations reaching 100-300m from the edge (Chen et al.,
1995; Gehlhausen et al., 2000; Laurance et al., 2002).
Riparian Zone
Bodie J. 2001. Stream and riparian management for freshwater turtles. Journal of
Environmental Management 62(4): 443-455.
Desbonnet A., Lee V., Pogue P., Reis D., Boyd J., Willis J., Imperial M. 1995.
Development of coastal vegetated buffer programs. Coastal Management
23(2): 91-109.
Hodges M., Krementz D. 1996. Neotropical migratory breeding bird communi-
ties in riparian forests of different widths along the Altamaha River, Georgia.
Wilson Bulletin 108(3): 496-506.
40
Holland H. 2000. The architecture of urban stream buffers. In: T. Schueler and
H. Holland, Eds., The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for
Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, M.D: 155-163.
Kent D. 2001. Applied Wetlands Science and Technology, 2nd edition. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton.
Naiman R., Decamps H. 1997. The ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematic, 28: 621-658.
Pusey B., Arthington A., 2003. Importance of the riparian zone to the conserva-
tion and management of freshwater sh: A review. Marine and Freshwater
Research 54(1): 1-16.
Schueler, TR. 1995. Chapter 5: The architecture of stream buffers, Site Planning
for Urban Stream Protection. Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicott City,
M.D. Prepared for the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments,
Washington, D.C., URL: http://www.cwp.org/SPSP/TOC.htm, accessed
September, 2003.
Small Wetland and Amphibians
Brown M., Schaefer J., Brandt K. 1990. Buffer zones for water, wetlands, and
wildlife in east central Florida. Publication 89-07. Center for Wetlands,
University of Florida, Gainesville.
Bulger J., Scott N., Seymour R. 2003. Terrestrial activity and conservation of
adult California red-legged frogs Rana aurora draytonii in coastal forests
and grasslands. Biological Conservation 110(1): 85-95.
Carr L., Fahrig L. 2001. Effect of road trafc on two amphibian species of differ-
ing vagility. Conservation Biology 15(4): 1071-1078.
DeMaynadier P., Hunter M. 2000. Road effects on amphibian movements in a
forested landscape. Natural Areas Journal 20(1): 56-65.
Dodd C., Cade B. 1998. Movement patterns and the conservation of amphibians
breeding in small, temporary wetlands. Conservation Biology 12(2): 331-339.
Eggert C. 2002. Use of uorescent pigments and implantable transmitters to
track a fossorial toad (Pelobates fuscus). Herpetological Journal 12(2): 69-74.
Fahrig L., Pedlar J., Pope S., Taylor P., Wegner J. 1995. Effect of road trafc on
amphibian density. Biological Conservation 73(3): 177-182.
Jansen K., Summers A., Delis P. 2001. Spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii
holbrookii) in an urban landscape: Effects of nonnatural substrates on bur-
rowing in adults and juveniles. Journal of Herpetology 35(1): 141-145.
Jehle R. 2000. The terrestrial summer habitat of radio-tracked great crested
newts (Triturus cristatus) and marbled newts (T-marmoratus).
Herpetological Journal, 10(4): 137-142.
Joyal L., McCollough M., Hunter M. 2001. Landscape ecology approaches to wet-
land species conservation: a case study of two turtle species in southern
Maine. Conservation Biology 15(6): 1755-1762.
Preisser E., Kefer J., Lawrence J., 2000. Vernal pool conservation in Connecticut: An
assessment and recommendations. Environmental Management, 26(5): 503-513.
balmori and benoit
41
Richter S., Young J., Seigel R., Johnson G., 2001. Postbreeding movements of the
dark gopher frog, Rana sevosa goin and netting: Implications for conserva-
tion and management. Journal of Herpetology 35(2): 316-321.
Russell K., Guynn D., Hanlin H. 2002. Importance of small isolated wetlands for
herpetofaunal diversity in managed, young growth forests in the Coastal
Plain of South Carolina. Forest Ecology and Management 163(1-3): 43-59.
Semlitsch R., Bodie J. 1998. Are small, isolated wetlands expendable?
Conservation Biology 12(5): 1129-1133.
Semlitsch R. 2000. Principles for management of aquatic-breeding amphibians.
Journal of Wildlife Management 64(3): 615-631.
Microclimate Edge Effects
Chen J., Franklin J., Spies T., 1995. Vegetation responses to edge environments in
old-growth Douglas-r forests. Ecological Applications, 2: 387-396.
Davies-Colley R., Payne G., van Elswijk M. 2000. Microclimate gradients across
a forest edge. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 24(2): 111-121.
Gehlhausen S., Schwartz M., Augspurger C., 2000. Vegetation and microclimatic
edge effects in two mixed-mesophytic forest fragments. Plant Ecology 147:
21-35.
Laurance W., Ferreira L., Rankin-de Merona J., Laurance S. 1998. Rain forest
fragmentation and the dynamics of Amazonian tree communities. Ecology
79: 2032-2040.
16(3): 605-618.
Mesquita R., Delamonica P., Laurance W. 1999. Effects of surrounding vegetation
on edge-related tree mortality in Amazonian forest fragments. Biological
Conservation 91: 129-134.
Rheault H., Drapeau P., Bergeron Y., Esseen P. 2003. Edge effects on epiphytic
lichens in managed black spruce forests of eastern North America. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research 33(1): 23-32.
Young A., Mitchell N., 1994. Microclimate and vegetation edge effects in a frag-
mented Podocarp-broadleaf forest in New Zealand. Biological Conservation
67(1): 63-72.
42
c5. Landscape Scale Connectivity
Recommendation
Promote connectivity and species migration in a fragmented landscape. Leave
areas undisturbed that connect to continuous habitat on adjacent properties.
Promote species movement through the presence of ecological corridors.
Benefits
Preserving sections of the property that connect to adjacent preserved areas on bor-
dering properties can maintain regional habitat. This is particularly important for
animal species that require large territories in order to nd shelter, mates and food
resources. Where fragmentation does occur in highly developed areas, a path of
migration along ecological corridors helps mitigate the effects of the fragmentation.
Corridors support increased population densities, promote gene ow, and promote
colonization of new areas.
Strategies
Ecological Corridors
Preserve ecological corridors that connect habitat areas surrounding the develop-
ment site. Important corridor parameters are connectivity, width, and continuity
(Dramstad et al. 1996). Corridors must connect two areas of quality habitat. Quality
in this case is dened as a patch with at least 50% interior habitat. A patch of at least
25-acres (10 hectares) that is regularly shaped, such as a circle or square shape, will
fulll this requirement (Collinge 1996). The corridor may also connect on either end
to another corridor of eligible dimensions. A linear corridor with a width of at least
10m is a minimum. Better is a width of 30m and best is width of 50m or more. To pro-
mote continuity, the cumulative distance of breaks in the corridor must be limited to
10% of its total length. An individual break in the corridor cannot be greater than
30m.
Underlying Science
Connecting isolated populations in small fragments helps avoid extinction processes
discussed in recommendation C2., Preserve/Restore Habitat. Studies have generally
supported the theory that ecological corridors promote movement across the land-
scape (Debinski et al. 2000). This is particularly supported for animals that are less
mobile and that require specialized interior habitat (Debinski et al. 2000; Mech and
Hallett 2001). Corridor width requirements were developed using Desbonets litera-
ture review study mentioned in recommendation C4., Create Buffers Around Critical
Habitat (Desbonet et al. 1994), a study of birds use of corridors by Sieving suggested
a minimum of 10-25m (Sieving et al. 2000), and a study of mammals by Laurance
suggested a minimum of 30-40m (Laurance and Laurance 1999). Breaks in the corri-
dor are discouraged in general, but site design limitations may require such gaps. A
balmori and benoit
43
maximum gap of 10% was set to limit discontinuity. The maximum gap distance of
30m was set as gaps of this distance have been shown to create a barrier to the move-
ment of many species in continuous forest areas (Laurance et al. 2002).
See recommendation C4. (Buffers Around Critical Habitat) for a discussion of edge
effects and the distance to which they penetrate into interior habitat. For LAND Code
purposes, this is set to a distance of 50m.
References
Collinge S. 1996. Ecological consequences of habitat fragmentation: Implications
for landscape architecture and planning. Landscape and Urban Planning
36(1): 59-77.
Debinski D., Holt R. 2000. A survey and overview of habitat fragmentation
experiments. Conservation Biology 14(2): 342-355.
Dramstad W., Olson J., Forman R., 1996. Landscape Ecology Principles in
Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning. Island Press, Washington
D.C.
Laurance S., Laurance W. 1999. Tropical wildlife corridors: Use of linear rainfor-
est remnants by arboreal mammals. Biological Conservation 91(2-3): 231-
239.
16(3): 605-618.
Mech S., Hallett J. 2001. Evaluating the effectiveness of corridors: A genetic
approach. Conservation Biology 15(2): 467-474.
Sieving K., Willson M., De Santo T., 2000. Dening corridor functions for
endemic birds in fragmented south-temperate rainforest. Conservation
Biology 14(4): 1120-1132.
44
C6. Infrastructure Placement and Design
Recommendation
Place infrastructure to minimize habitat loss and fragmentation and to avoid cut-
ting off migration routes. Mitigate a roads barrier effect by minimizing road
width and by including appropriately designed tunnels, pipes, underpasses and
overpasses.
Benefits
The placement of utilities such as water, sewage, electricity, gas, telephone,

cable TV, irrigation, site lighting and storm drainage lines require the
clearing of vegetation for construction and road access. Long-term main-
tenance and repair of these systems also present disturbances to nearby
habitat areas. Placing these utilities together within the same zone and
minimizing the utility corridor width present opportunities to decrease
habitat loss and disturbance effects.
Careful placement of a sites access roads can avoid additional landscape

fragmentation and the destruction of habitat with high biodiversity value.
Roads act as barriers to activities such as foraging, locating breeding habi-
tat, seasonal migration and colonization of new areas. The design and
construction of structural measures such as tunnels, pipes, underpasses
and overpasses can help reconnect the separated populations.
Strategies
Utilities
Follow at least two of the following recommendations when designing
utility infrastructure: (Thompson and Sorvig 2001):
Place utilities together in the same utility zone to minimize overall

area required;
Minimize utility corridor widths to the minimum distance required to

construct, maintain and repair utilities. Recommended maximum
width is 35ft. Rights of ways for utilities can be kept narrow by design-
ing turnarounds at strategic points;
Combine the utility zone with a trail or bike path. In more populated
areas, utilities can be placed beneath sidewalks and roads.
In urban areas where space for vegetation is limited, clearly delineate

underground infrastructure zones from vegetated zones to avoid
harming tree roots during maintenance activities.
balmori and benoit
45
Roads
Identify site locations that contain unique and high value habitat and
route roads away from these areas. These locations may be interior forest
habitat, wetlands, identied rare-species areas, wetland-upland connec-
tions and known animal migratory routes. Place roads at least 20m distant
(Trombulak and Frissell 2000) from these locations to avoid potential
heavy metal contamination associated with roads.
To mitigate the barrier effect of roads:
Minimize residential road widths to 22 ft (7m) rather than the 32 to 40

ft (10-12m) width common in some communities;
Provide road passages such as tunnels, pipes, underpasses and over-

passes with the following criteria:
Use a mix of passage sizes to accommodate a wide variety of species

on the site:
Amphibians: Tunnels 30-100cm
Small mammals: Culverts 0.5-1m
Medium mammals: Culverts 1-1.5m
Vegetate passage entrances with vegetation native to the area and in

sufcient density to provide cover;
The frequency of passage use is negatively correlated with human dis-

turbances. Preferentially place passages away from areas of human
activity. Route trails away from the area;
Place at least one passage per species home range. This can be deter-
mined by a scientic site analysis and literature review or professional
judgment. For small- and medium-sized mammals, a general mini-
mum guideline would be one passage per 150m;
Fencing can be used to guide animals to culverts or to prevent animals

from crossing roads where high trafc densities are expected.
Underlying Science
It is estimated that 15-20% of the land area in the U.S. is ecologically affected by the
presence of roads (Forman and Alexander 1998). Roads affect landscape dynamics
through direct habitat loss, fragmentation, and an overall decrease in interior habitat.
A road placed through a patch of woodland creates edge habitat around both new
segments. This increase in edge habitat around smaller fragments signicantly
decreases the interior-to-edge habitat ratio and reduces overall remaining interior
habitat. Roads have been shown to inhibit or even block the movement of mammals,
46
turtles, amphibians and invertebrates, and the wider the road, the greater the prob-
lem (Forman and Alexander 1998; Trombulak and Frissell 2000). Road barriers
reduce an animals survival capability by negatively impacting its ability to forage for
food, locate mates and breeding habitat, colonize new areas and travel during sea-
sonal migrations. The road increases the chances that the overall population will be
lost by dividing a previously continuous population into isolated segments. The bar-
rier effects of roads can be mitigated through the construction of passages appropri-
ate to species in the site location. Evaluations of animal passages have been shown
that target species as well as numerous local fauna use these constructed passages
(Forman and Alexander 1998; Clevenger and Waltho 2000; Clevenger et al. 2001).
Table 3.
Animal Passage Type Recommendations Source
Amphibians Tunnels 30-100cm Forman and
Alexander, 1998
Mid-size Pipes (culverts) 40 cm, placed to avoid Forman and
animals water ows Alexander, 1998
Small and Culverts Species studied had varied Clevenger et al., 2001
medium structural preferences. Use
mammals culverts of mixed size class.
For small mammals, 0.5-1.
0m. For medium mammals,
1-1.5m. Place one per species
home range, approx 150-
300m apart for small and
medium- sized mammals.
Place vegetated cover near
entrances.
General Culvert 120cm Forman and
Alexander, 1998
Large animals Underpass 8-30m wide, at least 2.5m Forman and
high Alexander, 1998
Large animals Overpass Minimum of 30-50m in the Forman and
center, and 50-80m on ends Alexander, 1998
Carnivores Underpasses Limiting human activity is Clevenger and
most important factor. Waltho, 2000
Avoid long and low
underpasses
Ungulates Underpasses Minimum of 7 m wide and Clevenger and
2.4 m high. Limit human Waltho, 2000
activity
References
Clevenger A., Chruszcz B., Gunson K. 2001. Drainage culverts as habitat linkages
and factors affecting passage by mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 38(6):
1340-1349.
balmori and benoit
47
Clevenger A., Waltho N. 2000. Factors inuencing the effectiveness of wildlife
underpasses in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. Conservation Biology
14(1): 47-56.
Forman R., Alexander L. 1998. Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual
Review of Ecology and Systematics 29: 207+-.
Jim C. 2001. Managing urban trees and their soil envelopes in a contiguously
developed city environment. Environmental Management 28(6): 819-832.
Holland H. 2000. An introduction to better site design. In: T.R. Schueler and
H.K. Holland, Eds., The Practice of Watershed Protection. Center for
Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, M.D: 623-632.
Sipes J., Neff J. 2001. Fencing, wildlife crossings, and roads separating animals
and vehicles. Landscape Architecture 91 (6): 24-+.
Thompson J., Sorvig K. 2001. Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to
Green Building Outdoors. Island Press, Washington, D.C.: 37-40.
Trombulak S., Frissell C., 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on
terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14(1): 18-30.
48
C7. Mimicing Nature In Landscape Design
Recommendation
Increase habitat value in landscape design by using native plants and promoting
naturally wide varieties in structure and composition.
Benefits
Native plants represent important genetic biodiversity that must be pre-

served, and they are well adapted to survive with limited or no maintenance.
Native fauna have evolved to use these native plants for food, shelter and
breeding habitat. Additionally, natives dene the unique local landscape char-
acter. Choosing plants with local provenance is particularly important.
Provenance refers to the geographic location and elevation that produced the
plants unique genetic diversity. This local variation is an important genetic
resource. Exotics should be avoided in landscape design, as they have the
potential to become invasive and out-compete other natives.
The natural environment contains considerable heterogeneity, or natural

variety, that provides habitat niches for a wide range of plants and animals.
Landscape design that includes a variety of local native vegetation, vertical
stratication, and appropriate vegetation density will create an environ-
ment that can support a rich variety of local species. In addition, a land-
scape design that is similar to surrounding undisturbed habitat promotes
species migration between habitat fragments.
Strategies
Choose:
Ideal: 100% native plants.
Strive for: More than 70% native plants with local provenance.
Possible means to implement this option include (Burrell 2001):
Obtain sources within 250-mile radius;
Contract with a nursery to grow natives from cuttings;
Collect and store vegetation from the sites development footprint.
Since the following strategies are site dependent, they must be supported
by professional documentation explaining the sites surrounding natural
structure and how that is reected in the landscape design:
Include the natural vertical structure of the habitat over at least 70%
of landscaped area include multi-levels as appropriate (e.g. trees,
shrubs and groundcover for forested areas);
balmori and benoit
49
Reect natural plant diversity and density of surrounding undisturbed
environments for at least 70% of landscaped area;
Preserve or create composite elements such as snags (standing dead
trees) and coarse woody debris as appropriate for the surrounding
natural area. These important environmental elements provide cover
and shelter for native fauna. Articial cavities may replace natural
snag cavities.
Do not select:
Plants that have been shown to be invasive in the region or exotic plants
for which invasive information is limited or unknown for the region.
A number of organizations exist to help landscape designers to identi-
fy both native and invasive plants. Many local native plant associations
may exist and can be identied through contacting local arboretums
and searching the Internet. A number of national resources are listed
in the reference section below.
Underlying Science
Landscaping with native plants is important to support local native fauna

populations that have evolved to use local plants for food, shelter and
breeding habitat. Studies have shown that a larger number and variety of
native plants supports a larger diversity of native birds and insects
(McKinney 2002). If exotic landscape plants are chosen, they have the
potential to become invasive themselves, or they may transport potential
invasive animals, plants, parasites or disease that attach to the plant during
transport (New 2000). Exotics may become invasive if they adapt to the
physical conditions of the new area and are not kept in check by predators
or disease in the new landscape. Detrimental effects on native plants include
replacing them through direct competition for resources, through direct
predation, through modication of the physical environment, or through
changes in the community dynamics (New 2000; Primack 2002). Even with
research focusing on this area, the mechanisms that allow invasions are not
well understood and it is not possible to predict invasive traits (Prieur-
Richard and Lavorel 2000).
Analysis of rural to urban gradients has shown that the diversity of species
decreases and the proportion of non-native species increases towards an
urban center. Much of this is a result of vegetation loss closer to urban cen-
ters, but also as a result of non-native plant cultivation within homoge-
nously designed landscapes (McKinney 2002). Instead of reecting the
structural diversity of forested areas surrounding many suburban proper-
50
ties, landscapes are usually designed to approximate sparsely forested
savanna or grassland communities (McKinney 2002: 887). It is important
to include natural variety in landscaping design as this increases the num-
ber of resources, or niches, available to support native species (Rickefs 1977;
Carey and Harrington 2001; Tanabe 2002). It is also important to preserve
or create elements such as woody debris piles within the aquatic and forest-
ed environment. These piles should not be removed to clean up the
ground, as they provide valuable shelter, predator protection and feeding
areas for various species (Gurnell et al. 1995; Carey and Harrington 2001).
Additionally, standing dead trees, referred to as snags, should not be
removed from a forested area as they provide similar functions of shelter
and protection (Carey and Harrington 2001). Studies have shown that pre-
serving or recreating natural landscape variety may decrease microclimate
changes within edge habitat, increase species use of surrounding edge habi-
tat, and increase the migration of species between fragments (Fahrig 2001;
Ricketts 2001; Laurance et al. 2002).
The Matrix and Heterogeneity
Carey A., Harington C. 2001. Small mammals in young forests: implications for
management for sustainability. Forest Ecology and Management, 154(1-2):
289-309.
Fahrig L. 2001. How much habitat is enough? Biological Conservation, 100(1):
65-74.
Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology,
16(3): 605-618.
Link R. 1999. Landscaping for Wildlife in the Pacic Northwest. University of
Washington Press (in association with the Washington Dept. of Fish and
Wildlife), Seattle.
McKinney M. 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience,
52(10): 883-890.
Ricketts T., 2001. The matrix matters: Effective isolation in fragmented land-
scapes. American Naturalist, 158(1): 87-99.
Ricklefs R. 1977. Environmental heterogeneity and plant species-diversity-
hypothesis. American Naturalist, 111(978): 376-381.
Tanabe S. 2002. Between-forest variation in vertical stratication of drosophilid
populations. Ecological Entomology, 27(6): 720-731.
balmori and benoit
51
Native/Invasive Species
Burrell C. 2001. Specifying native plants Exercise caution in sourcing plants
and seeds. Landscape Architecture 91(3): 22-24.
McKinney M., 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience
52(10): 883-890.
New T., 2000. Conservation Biology: An Introduction for Southern Australia.
Oxford University Press, Oxford: 239-285.
Prieur-Richard A., Lavorel S., 2000. Invasions: the perspective of diverse plant
communities. Austral Ecology 25(1): 1-7.
Reichard S., White P. 2001. Horticulture as a pathway of invasive plant introduc-
tions in the United States. BioScience 51(2): 103-113.
Wasowski A. 2000. The landscaping revolution: Garden with Mother Nature, not
against her. The Contemporary Gardner. Midas Printing Company, Hong
Kong.
Resources for Identifying Native and Invasive Species
Federal Interagency Committee for the Management of Noxious and Exotic
Weeds. Invasive Plants, Changing the Landscape of America: Fact Book,
Washington, D.C.
National Invasive Species Council, URL: http://www.invasivespecies.gov,
National Park Service, Alien Plant Invaders of Natural Areas: Fact Sheets, URL:
www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact.htm, accessed September, 2003.
Nature Conservancy, Wildland Invasive Species Program, URL: http://
tncweeds.ucdavis.edu, accessed September, 2003.
Wildlife Habitat Council website, native plant resources by state, URL:
http://www.wildlifehc.org/managementtools/backyard-stateresources.cfm,
52
C8. Conservation Plans: Managing Species Habitat and
Limiting Factors
Recommendation
Create conservation plans to actively manage native species in the region that have
not adapted well to human-disturbed habitats.
Benefits
Conservation plans that analyze the existing habitat on the site and which identify
and manage specic characteristics can be benecial in maintaining or even increas-
ing biodiversity. One or more specic resources referred to as limiting factors
often limit species survival on a site. A site analysis combined with a scientic litera-
ture review can identify habitat size requirements and limiting factors that may exist
for species that are endangered, threatened, or disturbance-sensitive and therefore in
decline in the local area. Individual landowners, corporations and homeowners asso-
ciations have the potential to implement conservation plans that actively identify and
minimize the loss of these species limiting resources.
Strategies
Create a conservation management plan for native species in the region

that have not adapted well to human-disturbed environments. The
plan can manage individual species, habitat areas, or a combination of
the two. Corporations are particularly encouraged to implement these
plans, as they own approximately 25% of all private land in the United
States (Kelly and Hodge 1996), and commercial development is the sec-
ond most prevalent form of habitat destruction affecting threatened
and endangered species. Commercial developments account for 35% of
habitat alteration for these species, second only to agriculture at 38%
(Wilcove et al. 1998).
Resources are available that provide a framework for plan development.

These include Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) authorized under
the Endangered Species Act and conservation planning assistance pro-
vided by organizations such as the Wildlife Habitat Council, a non-
prot organization. A site may create an individual conservation plan
for an area as small as 0.5 acres, or it can implement a regional plan that
covers many thousands of acres.
Plans developed for endangered or threatened species must show that

site design and ultimate use will avoid loss of the individual species and
their required habitat. While the Endangered Species Act allows some
loss to these species, this provision is not allowed by the LAND Code.
Conservation plans must explain how the sites development will likely
effect the specic species, how that effect will be minimized and miti-
balmori and benoit
53
gated to the maximum extent reasonable and practical, and what alter-
natives were considered. Design techniques may involve preserving or
creating special areas that provide food, shelter and habitat for particu-
lar animals. Structural measures may include providing nesting struc-
tures or cavities, creating predator control fences, constructing sh lad-
ders or building places for amphibians to hibernate (Kelly and Hodge
1996).
To be eligible for the LAND Code, a conservation plan must:

Be independently, scientically veried by a qualied professional who
did not signicantly contribute to the plans c0reation;
Be based on the best available data. This data must be referenced and
summarized;
Include an adaptive management plan if a minimization/mitigation
method is unproven.
A 1999 study by the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis
at the University of California Santa Barbara evaluated the large major-
ity of Habitat Conservation Plans that had been developed by 1997. Based
on their analysis, they developed a number of recommendations to
improve the HCPs. A number of recommendations that they developed
are listed below.
Strategy Recommendations:
Implement plans that are regional in scale.
When loss of species is expected, estimate the number of species killed
and/or the area of habitat lost with an estimate of the number of
species killed per unit area;
Relate the quantity of species killed to an estimate of the total local
population that this represents. A local population should not fall below
50 individuals, and preferably not below 500 individuals to ensure
genetic variability (Primack 2002);
Preferentially choose well-tested mitigation procedures;
If minimization and mitigation measures will not compensate for
species loss, document why additional remedial actions are not practical
or reasonable;
For mitigation measures that are unproven, evaluate their effectiveness
in the eld before implementing the measure on the whole site and
before development alterations begin.
54
Begin mitigation measures before undertaking development alterations.
If this is not possible, begin mitigation measures at the same time as
development alterations:
Develop and clearly document monitoring provisions that are
statistically sound and based on scientic principles;
Include adaptive management procedures so that minimization and
mitigation measures can be altered if monitoring indicates they are
not effective;
Publish data regarding the effectiveness of the minimization and
mitigation measures to make this information available for future
decision-making.
References
Kelly J., Hodge M. 1996. The role of corporations in ensuring biodiversity.
Environmental Management, 20(6): 947-954.
Kareiva P., Andelman S., Doak D., Elderd B., Groom M., Hoekstra J., Hood L.,
James F., Lamoreux J., LeBuhn G., McCulloch C., Regetz J., Savage L.,
Ruckelshaus M., Skelly D., Wilbur H., Zamudio K., and NCEAS HCP work-
ing group. 1999. Using Science in Habitat Conservation Plans. Sponsored by
National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis University of
California Santa Barbara and American Institute of Biological Sciences,
URL: http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/projects/hcp, accessed September, 2003.
Malcolm L. 1996. Fundamentals of Conservation Biology. Blackwell Science,
Cambridge, MA: 293-323.
Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) National Biology Handbook.
This handbook contains a long list of biological resources to help include
wildlife habitat factors into habitat conservation plans.URL:http://
www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ECS/wildlife/, accessed September, 2003.
Peck S. 1998. Planning for Biodiversity: Issues and Examples. Island Press,
Washington D.C.
Pike R. 1995. Habitat Conservation Plans, 1984-1994. Council of Planning
Librarians Bibliography, No. 327. Council of Planning Librarians, Chicago.
Associates, Sunderland, MA: .306.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Marine Fisheries Service. 1996.
Endangered Species Habitat Conservation Planning Handbook.
Washington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Ofce.
Wildlife Habitat Council, URL: hlttp://www.wildlifehc.org, accessed September,
2003.
balmori and benoit
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LAND Code Plant Ecology 9/13/04 11:31 PM Page 56
*
On-Site Energy and
Transportation
On-Site Energy 58
D1. Building Siting 58
D2. Renewable Energy 60
D3. Outdoor Lighting 62
D4. Lawn Areas and Shade Trees 63
On-Site Transportation 64
D5. Access to Public Transportation 64
D6. Locating Commonly Used Facilities 66
D7. Walking and Biking 67
D8. Non-Motorized Recreation 68
introduction
Two major environmental impacts result from the use of fossil fuels for energy: the
production of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that is contributing to global climate
change, and air pollution from particulate matter, sulfur oxides, heavy metals, nitro-
gen oxides, and smog precursors. The following recommendations are intended to
minimize the overall energy requirements of a site, to minimize fossil fuel use in par-
ticular, and to maximize the proportion of energy requirements that comes from
renewable sources.
The recommendations focus on two separate areas: energy use on-site (that is, rec-
ommendations regarding the overall energy requirements of the site), and energy use
in terms of transportation within and to and from the site. The recommendations do
not consider energy requirements of individual buildings, or energy use associated
with choices of building materials, since LEED guidelines cover both of these topics
comprehensively.
balmori and benoit
57
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
land code guidelines: on-site energy and transportation
58
recommendations
D1. On-Site Energy: Building Siting
Recommendation
Buildings should be sited according to the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards, given the
site and climate conditions, in order to optimize solar gain and loss of heat
between buildings.
Benefits
Appropriate siting of buildings ensures maximum solar gain for daylighting (i.e., nat-
ural lighting of buildings) and passive solar heating, while minimizing unwanted
solar heat gain under high sun conditions. In temperate climates, appropriate siting
can minimize heat loss between buildings. Thus, appropriate siting can help keep
buildings warm in the winter and cool in the summer with minimal use of heating or
air conditioning. This lowers both energy costs and the production of carbon diox-
ide and air pollution through the burning of fossil fuels.
Strategies
Use of ECOTECT or DOE2 (or similar) software can analyze site conditions (i.e.
proximity to water, shade from other buildings or trees, albedo) to recommend siting
for optimal balance between solar gain and energy loss between buildings. Users can
choose to maximize or minimize solar gain as well as maximizing or minimizing heat
loss between buildings, depending on climate and site conditions.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. URL: http://www.ashrae.org, accessed September, 2003.
Square One Research, Environmental Design Website, ECOTECT Software.
URL: http://www.ecotect.com/ecotect.html, accessed September, 2003.
Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 1997. Passive solar estate layout.
General Information Report 27. URL: htp://www.actionenergy.org.uk/
ActionEnergy/default.htm, accessed September, 2003.
Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 2000. The Hockerton Housing
Project designing lessons for developers and clients. New Practice Prole
119. URL: http://www.actionenergy.org.uk/ActionEnergy/default.htm,
EnerLogic and James J. Hirsch & Associates. DOE-2 Building Energy Use and
Cost Analysis Software Website. URL: http://www.doe2.com/, accessed
September, 2003.
balmori and benoit
59
Focus On Lighting. 2002. Ofces in a new light. Energy & Environmental
Management. June, 2002: 6-7.
Focus On Solar Energy. 2002. PV in Buildings. Energy & Environmental
Management. Jan-Feb, 2002:6.
Housing and Development Association of Canada (HUDAC), Ontario Ministry
of Energy, 1980. Builders Guide to Energy Efciency in New Housing.
Toronto: HUDAC.
Housing Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 2002b. Energy efciency in
new housing a guide to achieving best practice. Good Practice Guide: 79.
URL: http://www.est.org.uk/bestpractice/, accessed September, 2003.
Watson D. 1979. Energy Conservation Through Building Design. New York:
McGraw Hill.
60
D2. On-Site Energy: Renewable Energy
Recommendation
Utilize renewable energy sources on site.
Purchase a minimum of 50% of electricity from renewable sources

through local providers or renewable energy certicates;
Commit to a minimum of a ten-year electric utility purchase for power

generated from renewable sources;
Purchase additional electricity from renewable energy sources whenever

possible;
Strive for 20-30% of on-site or between-site (i.e., shared) renewable

energy sources to meet total site electricity requirements.
Benefits
Renewable energy use minimizes dependence on fossil fuel-based energy

and reduces air pollution at the energy source;
On-site or nearby shared production reduces loss of energy in transport,

and therefore minimizes waste in addition to reducing the impact of the
site on local/regional air pollution from fossil fuel-powered electricity
generation;
Increasing customer support for green energy will eventually reduce prices.
Strategies
Twenty-four states now allow electricity consumers to purchase renewable electricity
from a competitive supplier. In states where renewable electricity is not available,
renewable energy certicates can be bought through programs like the Bonneville
Environmental Foundation (which markets Green Tags). Purchase of renewable
energy certicates involves paying a premium for electricity produced locally (possi-
bly from fossil fuels) to offset the cost of renewable production elsewhere, thus reduc-
ing overall fossil fuel use nationwide. On-site or nearby/shared renewable energy pro-
duction may come from PV, wind, geothermal, low impact hydro or biomass power
sources. Work with local developers/developments to lower the cost and increase the
feasibility of renewable energy production by sharing.
Bonneville Environmental Foundation website. URL: https://www.greentag-
susa.org/GreenTags/index.cfm, accessed September, 2003.
Environmental Protection Agency eGRID website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/
cleanenergy/egrid/index.html, accessed September, 2003.
balmori and benoit
61
Focus On Solar Energy. 2002. PV in buildings. Energy & Environmental
Interstate Renewable Energy Council 2001. August 2001. Municipal guide to pur-
chasing renewable energy. URL: http://www.irecusa.org/municipal/ munici-
pal_guide.pdf, accessed September, 2003.
Sustainable Energy Authority. 2001. Renewable energy application in commercial
buildings. 7th Commercial Building Energy Forum. Victoria, Australia. July,
2001. URL: http://www.seav.vic.gov.au/index.asp, accessed September, 2003.
62
D3. On-Site Energy: Outdoor Lighting
Recommendation
Provide outdoor lighting that is powered by renewable energy.
Best: lighting that is 100% powered by renewable energy;
Next best: lighting that is 50% (or more) powered by renewable energy;
Extra benet: lights that are full cut-off to reduce energy loss and light
pollution.
Benefits
Solar-powered lights are inexpensive to run. Federal tax credits and some state tax
credits are offered for use of solar powered lighting. Powering outdoor lights with
renewable energy reduces fossil fuel consumption and air pollution, including carbon
dioxide production. Preventing light pollution by using full cut-off lights allows night
skies to be seen more clearly.
Strategies
Consider joining the U.S. EPA-sponsored Green Lights Program, in which corpora-
tions can sign a memorandum of understanding which commits them to upgrade to
energy-efcient lighting whenever it is protable while maintaining or improving
lighting quality. Solar powered outdoor lights are widely available. Investigate suppli-
ers as close to the development as possible. Outdoor solar lights can be motion-con-
trolled, which can help conserve energy when the lights are not needed.
Electric Power Research Institute website. 2003. URL: http://www.epri.com/,
Green Lights. US Environmental Protection Agency. Contact Information:
401 M St., SW, Washington DC 20460, tel. (202) 775-6650, fax (202) 775-
6680.
International Dark Sky Association website. URL: http://www.darksky.org/
links/energy.html, accessed September, 2003.
Solar Outdoor Lighting, Inc. URL: http://www.solarlighting.com, accessed
September, 2003.
balmori and benoit
63
D4. On-Site Energy: Lawn Areas and Shade Trees
Recommendation
Avoid or minimize lawn areas and maintain shade trees (see Ecology and
Micrometeorology sections).
Benefits
Fertilizer production and lawn maintenance are energy intensive.
Shade trees near buildings can reduce the need for air conditioning during
the summer.
Strategies
See Ecology and Micrometeorology sections.
Corbett J. and Corbett M. 2000. Designing Sustainable Communities.
Washington DC. Island Press.
Wilson A., Seal J., McManigal L., Lovins L., Cureton M., and Browning W. 1998.
Green Development: Integrating Ecology and Real Estate. Hoboken, NJ.
John Wiley & Sons.
64
D5. On-Site Transportation: Access to Public Transportation
Recommendation
Maximize access to public transportation.
Best: Site is within 1/4 mile of public transportation (bus stop, train or
subway station);
Next best: Site is within 1 mile of public transportation;
Good: Site within 5 miles of public transportation;
Good: Bike paths on-site and facilities for bikes around the site (bike
racks);
Bonus: Provision of renewable energy-powered transportation between

site and public transportation nodes.
Benefits
Proximity to public transportation has high marketing value. Also, cars have high
energy requirements, producing one fth of all carbon dioxide (CO
2
) in the U.S.
(Washington Post, July 31, 2002), and emissions from cars contribute to local air pol-
lution. Public transportation is considerably more efcient in terms of CO
2
produc-
tion per person transported, and in terms of locally produced pollution (Shapiro et
al. 2002). Locating developments close to public transportation nodes helps prevent
sprawl.
Strategies
Sites should be selected based on their proximity to existing public transportation
nodes. Lobby municipalities to add the site to public transportation routes (especial-
ly buses, trolleys), if nodes are not already close by. Solar powered vehicles or renew-
able energy powered buses and trolleys can be used to transport people to and from
public transportation nodes if they are farther than 1/4 mile from the site.
Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme. 1997. Passive solar estate layout.
General Information Report 27. URL: http://www.actionenergy.org.uk/
ActionEnergy/default. htm, accessed September, 2003.
Focus On Solar Energy. 2002. The future of transport. Energy & Environmental
Housing Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme, UK. 1998. Building a sus-
tainable future: homes for an autonomous community. General Information
Report 53. URL: http://www.est.org.uk/bestpractice/, accessed September,
2003.
balmori and benoit
65
Housing Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme, UK. 2002a. BedZED
Beddington Zero Energy Development, Sutton. General Information Report
89. URL: http://www.est.org.uk/bestpractice/, accessed September, 2003.
Lessee Michael M. and McCormick K., Eds. 1999. Charter of the New Urbanism.
New York. McGraw Hill.
Shapiro R., Hassett, K., and Arnold, F. 2002. Conserving Energy and Preserving
the Environment: The Role of Public Transportation. American Public
Transportation Association.
Smart Communities Network. URL: http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/greendev/
princpl.shtml, accessed September, 2003.
Steadman P. 1979. Energy and patterns of land use. In: Watson D., Ed. Energy
Conservation Through Building Design. New York. McGraw Hill.
Washington Post. July 31, 2002. Eric Pianin, Surge in carbon dioxide emissions,
cited report blames automakers for catering to demand for fuel-inefcient
vehicles: A02.
66
D6. On-Site Transportation: Locating Commonly Used Facilities
Recommendation
Locate commonly used facilities (e.g., shops, post-ofces, laundromats) within
walking distance of residences. Grocery stores are used as an indicator.
Best: Grocery store located within 1/4 mile of site;
Next Best: Grocery store within one mile;
Good: Grocery store within 5 miles.

Benefits
High marketing value (convenience for residents);
Reduction of car use;
On-site facilities help to create a sense of community.

Strategies
Create multi-use developments and/or partner with nearby developments to ensure
the accessibility of facilities.
Corbett J. and Corbett M. 2000. Designing sustainable communities. Washington
DC: Island Press.
Housing Energy Efciency Best Practice Programme, UK. 1998. Building a sus-
tainable future: Homes for an autonomous community. General
Information Report 53. URL: http://www.est.org.uk/bestpractice/, accessed
September, 2003.
Lessee M. and McCormick K., Eds. 1999. Charter of the New Urbanism. New
York, McGraw Hill.
Smart Communities Network. URL:
http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/greendev/princpl.shtml, accessed
September, 2003.
D7. On-Site Transportation: Walking and Biking
Recommendation
Encourage walking and biking on-site using a range of measures:
Roads as narrow as 22 feet (7m) (to discourage car use);
Bike paths;
Tree-planting strips (curb strip) at least ve feet (1.5m) wide alongside the
sidewalk;
Sidewalks wider than ve feet (1.5m) and bordered with trees to encourage
walking;
Sidewalks and bike paths made from permeable materials (see Hydrology
and Engineering sections).
Benefits
Residents biking and walking outdoors help to promote interaction and a

sense of community;
Walking and biking on-site reduces the energy consumption and local air
pollution produced by car use.
Strategies
Lobby municipalities to reduce road-width requirements if they are

greater than 22 feet (7m);
Keep/plant trees and vegetation in the curb strip to make walking a more
pleasant experience and to provide shade in the summer.
Washington DC.: Island Press.
Lessee, M. and McCormick, K., Eds. 1999. Charter of the New Urbanism. New
York.: McGraw Hill.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. An introduction to better site design. The
City, MD: 623-632.
balmori and benoit
67
D8. On-Site Transportation: Non-Motorized Recreation
Recommendation
Encourage non-motorized recreation on land and water through the following
measures:
Create footpaths providing access to local natural areas or connection to

local footpath networks if they exist;
Provide sports grounds within walking distance;
Provide non-motorized water recreation facilities if a local water source

such as a river or lake is present.
Benefits
Marketing value (appeal of recreational opportunities);
Reduction of energy use and air/water pollution from car/motorboat use.

Strategies
Provide information to residents regarding outdoor opportunities within

walking distance;
Provide recreational opportunities such as docks for canoeing, wood-

chipped footpaths through local natural areas, or blinds for bird watching
(especially near wetlands) within walking distance of the site;
Sports facilities such as playing elds could also be provided if attractive

natural areas are not within walking distance of the site;
Ban motorized recreation (e.g. snowmobile or motorboat use) use on-site.

Reference
Washington DC, Island Press.
68
*
Environmental Engineering
recommendations
Page
E1. Erosion Control 71
Branch Boxes 71
Coir Fiber 71
Live Stakes 72
Fiber Logs 73
Mats and Blankets 73
Mulches 73
Silt Fencing and Straw Bales 74
E2. Stormwater Management 75
Soil Aeration 75
Dry Well 76
Underground Vault 76
Harvest 77
Permeable Paving 78
Pervious Concrete 78
Grasspave 79
Grassroad Pavers 80
Gravelpave 81
Grasschannels 81
Dry Swales 81
Wet Swales 82
Inltration Basin 82
E3. Blackwater Management 84
AIRR Wastewater Recovery System 84
Orenco AdvanTex
TM
84
Clearwater Treatment System 85
Clivius Composting Toilet and Greywater System 86
Living Machine 86
E4. Photovoltaics 87
Building Integrated Photovoltaics 87
Residential Systems 88
Sunline Solar Electric Power Systems 88
Alternative Power Enterprises 88
balmori and benoit
69
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
E5. Further Resources: Models 91
Lighting 91
Advanced Daylighting and Electric Lighting Integrated New
Environment (ADELINE) 91
California Lighting Model (CLMS) 91
Conjunction of Multizone Inltration Specialists (COMIS) 91
Energy 91
DOE-2 91
EnergyPlus 92
Home Energy Saver 92
ProForm 92
THERM 92
Stormwater 93
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint
Sources (BASINS) 93
EPA Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) 93
HydroCAD 93
MIKE SWMM 93
MOUSE 94
PCSWMM 94
Transportation 96
TRANPLAN 96
Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS) 96
land code guidelines: environmental engineering
70
E1. Erosion Control
Recommendation
Erosion control prevents unnatural sedimentation of water bodies.
Benefits
Sedimentation smothers bottom-dwelling aquatic communities, increases turbidity
(cloudiness), raises water temperature, and changes the overall conditions of lakes,
streams, rivers, and oceans upon which aquatic life depends. A variety of strategies
exist to mitigate these effects and municipal development codes often require the pre-
vention of sediments running off site.
Strategies
The following is a list of preventative measures that are effective in stabilizing banks
and reducing sedimentation of nearby water bodies.
Branch Boxes
Branch boxes are used as offshore breakwaters. They can provide ve to ten years of
shoreline protection before biodegrading. Branch boxes are comprised of tied rolls of
dead branches anchored parallel to the shoreline. (Barrett 1998)
Coir Fiber
Coir ber stabilizes substrate and provides good conditions for plant growth. Coir is
a coconut ber with high tensile strength, moisture-retentive properties, and a
decomposition rate suitable for use as a temporary substrate stabilizer. It is commer-
cially fabricated into bioengineering modules, some of which contain pre-grown
plants. (Goldsmith 1992)
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71
Pre-grown plant carpets provide wide coverage for immediate habitat and
erosion protection.
Fiber rolls stabilize banks and permit the establishment of vegetation. The
Coir ber accumulates sediment and biogrades as plant roots develop and
become the stabilizing element. (Goldsmith 1992)
Live Stakes
Live stakes stabilize shoreline after rooting. They can be used to anchor other erosion-
control devices, such as fascines, log toes, brush mattress, and erosion control fabric.
Live stakes, which are often very inexpensive, are cut from hydrophilic plants whose
cuttings have good rooting abilities can be used as live stakes. (Simon and
Steinemann 2000)
72
Fiber Logs
Fiber logs can also be installed around the perimeter of exposed soils to prevent sed-
iment runoff. Coir ber (see above) can be used and is expected to be more durable
than a straw blanket (see below). Logs are typically more expensive than silt fences
but are much more attractive. However, they may require more maintenance and may
not perform as well as a properly installed and maintained silt fence.
Mats and Blankets
Mats and blanket are used to stabilize large areas of exposed soil where seed growth
or general erosion control is desired. They can be made of both woven synthetic
(plastic) and natural (coconut ber) materials and are useful on steep slopes or in
channels. Mats and blankets cover the soil and water should not be allowed to ow
freely beneath it. Metal stakes and/or staples are used keep mats and blankets in place
and proper installation to insure this condition is crucial. Recent innovations include
a spray on application made of interwoven bers. (Schueler 2000)
Mulches
Mulches are typically used in combination with seeding to prevent runoff during the
initial stage of vegetation establishment. Mulches are effective in preventing large sed-
iment runoff because they absorb the rains impact that typically suspends solids.
Mixes typically consist of cut up organic matter such as straw, ber, and wood chips.
balmori and benoit
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Fiber mulch includes chopped up paper and wood bers and should only be used in
combination with seeding (vegetation establishment desired) or as a tack, or glue,
to stick straw mulch to the surface. Straw mulch should be tacked down with a string
grid, tackier, or mechanically punched into the ground. Fiber and straw mulching is
not appropriate for slopes exceeding 1.5:1 and 3:1 respectively. (Schueler 2000)
Silt Fencing and Straw Bales
Silt fencing consists of a geotextile fabric that is staked to the ground at the base of an
area of exposed earth. It takes up little space, is easily installed, and is cheap. These
factors have made it perhaps the most widely employed strategy but it often fails due
to improper maintenance and installation. The fabric and stake method chosen lim-
its the strength and users must be sure that sediment loads will not overwhelm the
application. One method is to reinforce the fence with a chain link fence or use a
stronger woven material. Straw bales serve the same purpose and care must be taken
to insure that bales are well connected. (Schueler 2000)
Underlying Science
Barrett K. 1998. Ecological engineering with water resources: the benets of col-
laborating with nature. Submitted to Water International, the Journal of the
International Water Resources Association.
Carr W. Erosion and Sedimentation Before and After Residential Construction.
URL: http://www.forester.net/ecm_0203_innovation.html, accessed October,
2003.
Goldsmith W. 1992. An overview of bioengineering for shore protection.
Proceedings of Conference XXIII. International Erosion Control
Association. February 18-21, 1992. Reno, Nevada, USA.
Li M-H. and Eddleman K. 2002. Biotechnical engineering as an alternative to
traditional engineering methods: A biotechnical streambank stabilization
design approach. Landscape and Urban Planning 60 (2002): 225-242.
This study was conducted primarily via literature review and analyzed
biotechnical engineering as a viable alternative to traditional channelization
methods of streambank stabilization. Strengths and weaknesses of tradition-
al engineering, uvial geomorphological, ecological and biotechnical engi-
neering are presented and a cost-strength matrix of biotechnical techniques
is introduced.
Simon K. and Steinemann A. 2000. Soil bioengineering: challenges for planning
and engineering. Journal of Urban Planning and Development 126(2): 89-
102.
Stormwater Managers Resource Center. URL: www.stormwatercenter.net.
Accessed October, 2003.
74
E2. Stormwater Management
Recommendation
To prevent contamination from pollutants in stormwater runoff entering water
bodies, utilize applications for on-site treatment and/or attenuation of
stormwater.
Benefits
Stormwater runoff is an effective transporter of pollutants that accumulate on imper-
vious surfaces such as rooftops, parking lots, and roads. Typically, storm volumes are
directed into a municipal underground piping system that delivers it to a wastewater
treatment facility or outfall water body. During large storms treatment plants are
unable to accommodate heavy storm volumes and polluted runoff is rerouted to a
designated outfall water body without treatment. Pollutants typically found in
stormwater are comparable to raw sewage: hydrocarbons, BOD, COD, sediments,
temperature, and bacteria among others. In an effort to prevent these contaminants
from entering water bodies a number of applications exist that enable onsite treat-
ment and/or attenuation of stormwater. The following is a suite of options for achiev-
ing these worthy objectives.
Soil Permeability Water Table Application Comments
Impervious Low Dry Well Dont address water
Underground quality
Vault Do address water quality
Harvest Can supplement
(non)potable water uses by
Permeable Paving building
Groundwater recharge, no
space requirements, low-
trafc areas
Low High Wet Swale/Wet High rate of pollutant
Pond/Constructed removal, habitat, aesthetic
Wetland amenity
Harvest
Medium-High Low Inltration Basin Flood control, large
drainage areas, ground-
water recharge
Strategies
Soil Aeration
Soil aeration may be necessary in previously developed or other areas where soil com-
paction inhibits inltration. Designating selected areas where construction equip-
ment can travel and rest, covering soil with a thick layer of coarse aggregate rock to
absorb weight, or using equipment that is distinguished by its ability to disperse its
balmori and benoit
75
weight over a large surface area can prevent the need for soil aeration. Already com-
pacted soils can be aerated by technologies ranging from perforated pipe installation,
crushed rock, and pneumatic soil aerators (for example, see www.terrvant.com).
Benets of pneumatic aerators include the ability to inject fungi into the soil that are
benecial for root systems.
Dry Well
In a highly urbanized area, a dry well application should consider local development
codes, underlying utilities, and soil quality. Their function is dependent on high per-
meability, which can be created by augmenting existing soil conditions. Soil aeration
strategies can rectify inhibited inltration due to soil compaction. Pre-existing man-
holes can be retrotted to drain to a dry well for smaller drainage areas. Advantages
of this strategy are minimization of infrastructure, ground water recharge, and no
aboveground space requirements.
(www.seagrant.sunysb.edu)
Underground Vault
Underground vaults are manufactured to capture and treat on-site stormwater. They
are typically installed underneath parking lots that are graded to drain to the vault.
Inside the vault, the water undergoes a series of settling and ltration treatments
prior to discharge. Advantages include increased water quality and minimal above-
ground space requirements. Disadvantages include cost and routine maintenance.
76
(URL: http://www.stormwatermgt.com/pdfs/StormFilter.pdf, accessed October, 2003.)
Harvest
Capturing on-site rainwater from impervious surfaces for irrigation or other build-
ing needs reduces demand for potable water. Systems are typically designed to cap-
ture rooftop runoff and direct it via downspout to a rain washer (sand lter) that is
connected to a storage tank located inside or outside the building (above or below
ground). The water can then be used for irrigation or treated for building use.
Treatment technologies exist that are sized to t in a home or building including the
Homespring UF 100 Water Filtration System (www.zenonenv.com) and SafeRain
(www.saferain.com) among others. Harvesting reduces the need for municipal infra-
structure and elaborate piping systems. The effectiveness of this strategy is regional-
ly specic and maintenance is required. See also Texas Guide to Rainwater
Harvesting URL: http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/publications/reports/RainHarv.pdf,
accessed October, 2003.
(URL: http://users.easystreet.com/ersson/rainwatr.htm, accessed October, 2003.)
balmori and benoit
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Permeable Paving
Permeable paving can substantially reduce runoff and promote inltration in park-
ing lots, walkways, and other typically impervious areas. The following are some
examples of products that may be used in certain applications to replace traditional
impermeable paving materials.
Pervious concrete
(URL: http://www.tarmacamerica.com/tarmac/products/readymix/pervious.
html, accessed October, 2003.)
Structure
Pervious concrete has popcorn-like consistency. Specify y-ash (a
by-product of coal burning) for up to 40 percent of Portland
cement to increase the strength of the application.
Installation
Application requires roughly eight inches of compacted three-
quarter minus gravel as a subgrade upon which the pervious con-
crete can be laid. Pervious concrete should only be applied by a
certied contractor.
Maintenance
Maintenance needs include annual power washing to maintain porosity.
Performance
Microbes in the pore spaces have been proven to metabolize and
break down hydrocarbons from leaky cars. Spread enzymes over
the surface to increase biological activity in times of particularly
high trafc. In general, pervious concrete is best for low-trafc
areas and walkways although it can be designed to handle high
volumes of trafc.
78
Grasspave (Environmental Building News 1994)

Structure
A system of plastic rings made from 100-percent post-consumer recycled
HDPE plastic.
Installation
The system of rings is installed on top of a gravel substrate. The spaces are
lled with a soil/sand mix and planted with grass.
Maintenance
Established areas require essentially the same maintenance as lawns or ath-
letic elds. According to the manufacturer, maintenance requirements over
the life cycle of the product will be lower than those of conventional asphalt
pavement. Conventional equipment can be used for snow removal, as long
balmori and benoit
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Source: Investigation of Porous Pavements for Urban Runoff Control. Thelen et al (after Virginia State
Water Control Board, 1979. Urban Best Management Practices Handbook)
as skid plates are adjusted to keep plow blades one inch above the pavement
surface.
Performance
After the turf becomes fully established, even large trucks can drive over it
without risk of root compaction (although too much trafc will damage
grass leaves). Grasspave can handle concentrated loads in excess of 5,000
psi, greater than that of most tractor-trailers and re trucks. It has been
noted, however, that because the plastic cups are only an inch deep, estab-
lishing healthy grass is difcult.
Manufacturer
Invisible Structures, Inc.
1597 Cole Blvd., Suite 310
Golden, CO 80401
800-233-1510, 303-233-8383
800-233-1522, 303-233-8282 (fax)
URL: http://www.invisiblestructures.com, accessed October, 2003.
Grassroad Pavers (NDS, Inc.)

Structure
A system of plastic rings with plastic bases. The green pavers are made
from 50-percent recycled and 50 percent virgin resins; the black pavers are
made from 100-percent recycled resins.
Performance
Grassroad pavers pass a Gardner Impact Test of 200 inch/lbs of force. A
patented connecting system establishes a strong paver-to-paver connec-
tion, so when weight is applied to a section of pavers, all the adjacent
pavers support the weight of the vehicle. A system of cleats prevents lateral
movement, caused by vehicle braking and turning.
80
Manufacturer
NDS, Inc.
P.O. Box 339
Lindsay, CA 93247
800-726-1994, 559-562-9888
559-562-4488 (fax)
Gravelpave (ACF Environmental, Environmental Building News 1994)

Structure
Similar to Grasspave, but designed for gravel ll instead of sand and turf.
Gravelpave has a porous geotextile lter fabric backing to hold small
aggregate particles in place.
Installation
Units are placed with rings facing up, and small male/female connectors
provided along each edge are used to maintain proper spacing and
interlock the units. Cutting can be performed with pruning shears and
knife, or portable power saw. After the units are anchored, gravel is
dumped onto the rings to a minimum depth of six inches, then spread
laterally to ll the rings. A stiff bristled broom should be used for nal
nishing.
Performance
Gravelpave should be used where higher trafc use will injure grass. It
should compact less than conventional gravel paving.
Manufacturer
Invisible Structures, Inc.
(see Grasspave)
Grass Channels
Grass channels meet runoff velocity targets for water quality design storms and
two-year design storms. During the water quality storm, runoff velocity typically
cannot exceed 1.5 fps during the peak discharge associated with the six month rainfall
event, and the total length of the channel must provide at least 10 minutes residence
time (569). This type of channel generally has greater pollutant-removal capability
than unplanted drainage channels. Grass channels should have wider bottoms,
gentler slopes, and denser vegetation than most drainage channels. (Schueler 2000)
Dry Swales
Dry swales temporarily retain entire water quality volume during each storm event.
They prevent standing water and, like grass swales, have greater pollutant-removal
capability than drainage channels. The entire water quality treatment volume is
retained within a series of cells in the channel, formed by berms and checkdams
balmori and benoit
81
(569). Water lters through 30 inches of prepared soil and is collected by an under-
ground drainage pipe. (Schueler 2000)
Wet Swales
Wet swales occur in areas with shallow water tables. They are often fully saturated and
have long periods of standing water. They thus act as a very long and linear shallow
wetland treatment system (569). Like grass and dry swales, wet swales have greater
pollutant-removal capability than drainage channels. The entire water quality treat-
ment volume is retained within a series of cells in the channel, formed by berms and
checkdams (569). These cells may be planted with emergent wetland plants to
increase removal rates. (Schueler 2000)
Sediment Forebay Leading and Detention Facility
Infiltration Basin
Inltration basins are applicable in large drainage areas with well-drained soils.
Design basin so that a sediment forebay receives the rst 1/2" of polluted runoff.
Route ow the entire length of the basin in sheet ow form so as to disseminate
contaminants to the maximum extent possible. Avoid soil compaction during con-
struction and, as with any application, provide maintenance access to retain func-
tionality. Basins should drain between six hours and three days and an emergency
overow area should be designated in case of inltration failure. Routine mainte-
nance of forebay is crucial to ensure settling of larger sediments prior to ow's
entrance into basin. Basin performance is based on permeability and dredging of sed-
iments may be necessary if permeability noticeably decreases. (Milone and
MacBroom 1992)
82
ACF Environmental. Technical Specication Gravelpave2. URL: http://www.
acfenvironmental.com/pdf/GravelPave2%20Spec.pdf., accessed October,
2003.
NDS, Inc. Grassroad Pavers Plus. URL: http://www.grassroad.com, accessed
October, 2003.
Paving with grass. Jul/August 1994. Environmental Building News: 3(4). URL
http://www.buildinggreen.com/products/paving.cfm, accessed October 2003.
Schueler T. 2000. Ditches or biological lters? Classifying pollutant removal in
open channels. In: Schueler, T. R., ed. The Practice of Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection, Ellicott City, MD. Article 116: 569-572.
[Technical Note #79 from Watershed Protection Techniques 2(2): 379-383.]
Townsend K., Ham D., Miller A., and Chesnut T. 1997. Soil aeration systems Do
they really improve tree root zone conditions under fill and paving?
Department of Forestry, Clemson University. URL: http://www.clemson.
edu/hort/sctop/dsec/dsec-05.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Wigginton B., and Lenhart J. Using iron-infused media and stormlter technolo-
gy for the removal of dissolved phosphorus from stormwater discharges.
URL: http://www.stormwatermgt.com/pdfs/Dissolved_Phos_ Removal.pdf,
balmori and benoit
83
E3. Blackwater Management
Recommendation
Blackwater management systems are designed to provide secondary or tertiary
treatment for existing or new septic systems. Depending on the system, efuent
can be leached into a designated area or recirculated into double-plumbed homes
for black water use.
Benefits
These systems are particularly effective in areas that are closely approximated to sur-
face and subsurface water bodies and can reduce the amount of space required
between the system and a water body. However, local regulations should always be
regarded first. (URL: http://www.epa.gov/region1/assistance/ceit_iti/list.html,
accessed October, 2003.)
Strategies
AIRR Wastewater Recovery System
The Alternating Intermittent Recirculating Reactor (AIRR) uses biological activity
and oxygenation to treat domestic septic tank efuent. The process involves media l-
tration (gravel), a recirculation tank, spray nozzles for oxygenation, and bacterial
hyperactivity upon the surface of the media. Installations can specify odor-free to
allow leaching under patios or near buildings. The high quality of the efuent enables
it to be disposed to surface water bodies with a NPDES permit, in poorly drained
soils, and is clear in color. Units can be installed above or below ground and facilities
can be built on top of subsurface installations. There are no climatic constraints, the
average pump life is over eight years (some have lasted twenty), and media may need
to be replaced or washed on rare occasions. There have been no failures since the rst
1977 installation and this system can service single or multiple housing units. Costs
range from $6,000-$10,000.
Orenco AdvanTex, ISF & RSF Filters
Applications range from efuent lters that can be retrotted onto existing septic
tanks to complete turnkey applications. Treatment is based on biological activity,
recirculating sand ltration, and ultraviolet disinfection. The patented AdvanTex
Filter enables the system to treat a relatively high volume of waste in a small area. One
model boasts more than 20,000 square feet of surface area for wastewater treatment
in a footprint of only 10 square feet. The system requires a primary settling basin (i.e.,
a septic tank) and an area for efuent disposal. Capital costs (including installation)
range from $7,000-$15,000 and annual maintenance costs range from $8-$50 for a
three bedroom application. Options include a smart control panel that can diag-
nose system problems and troubleshoot solutions. Systems have been installed for
daily volumes ranging from 150-50,000 gpd. See U.S. EPA Product Description and
Specications. URL: http://www.epa.gov/region1/assistance/ceitts/wastewater/techs/
orenco.html, accessed October, 2003.
84
Advantex
TM
System
Clearwater Treatment System
The Clearwater System is distinguished by its ability to separate kitchen and
toilet wastewater and waste matter into two separate vessels. The matter is compost-
ed and safely reusable as a fertilizer for plants and trees and the water is triple treat-
ed (extended aeration, ltration UV disinfection, and reverse osmosis) to potable
standards. Water is then totally reusable within the home and no wastewater efuent
is produced. The system is expected to last more than one hundred years. Costs (inc.
installation) range from $10,000-13,000. See U.S. EPA Product Description and
clearwater.html , accessed October, 2003.
Clearwater Treatment System
balmori and benoit
85
Clivius Composting Toilet and Greywater System
The Clivius system is applicable to new stand-alone applications and existing systems.
A utility area or basement (60" ceiling) is required to locate composting container.
Composter can accommodate three foam ush toilets and compost is not recom-
mended as a fertilizer. It should instead be buried 6" below the soil. Capital costs (inc.
installation) are around $9,000 and annual O&M costs (energy, bacterial additives,
and inspection) are around $250. See U.S. EPA Product Description and
clivus.html , accessed October, 2003.
Living Machine
Living Machines are multi-faceted systems that can treat both black and gray water to
gray water reuse standards. Treatment steps may include clariers, anaerobic and aer-
obic reactors, constructed wetlands, ultraviolet disinfection, composting reed beds,
and ltration among others. The process is distinguished from traditional wastewater
treatment by its transparency, absence of chemicals, and open vegetated areas and
ponds. See Living Machine, Inc. website. URL: http://www.livingmachines.com/htm/
home.htm, accessed October, 2003.
These systems are traditionally used when wastewater treatment and demonstra-
tion/education are equally important objectives. One major advantage is that humans
have the ability to manipulate the various stages of the treatment process to meet
changing needs once it is installed. In addition, the volume of sludge produced is sig-
nicantly reduced and may be reused as fertilizer. Installed systems range in capacity
from 2,500-100,000 GPD. Living Machines can be purely solar powered as demon-
strated by an example in Washington D.C. See system description by Phil Bogdonoff.
URL: http://pbogdonoff.home.igc.org/LivingMachine/, accessed October, 2003.
Parameters Influent Design Effluent
Effluent
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD), mg/l 1,270 10 6
Total Suspended Solids
(TSS), mg/l 309 10 5
Fats, Oils and Grease, mg/l 200 5 1
86
E4. Photovoltaics
Strategies
Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)
BIPV systems have several benets, including the ability to be used in lieu of tradi-
tional roong materials and wall components, saving on material cost and waste pro-
duction. The high visibility of BIPVs provides an opportunity for building develop-
ers and occupants to demonstrate a commitment to a sustainable relationship
between the built and natural environments. They can also be aesthetically pleasing
features of the building.
See Building and Fire Research Laboratory website on Building Integrated Photovoltaic Research. URL:
http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/863/bipv/Building_Integrated_Photovoltaic_ Research/sld017.htm, accessed
October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
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Residential Systems
There are several manufacturers and distributors of photovoltaic power systems.
Below are some, with selected features of their specic systems. A good list of photo-
voltaic manufacturers and distributorssearchable by location, business type (e.g.,
manufacturers, retail sales businesses, wholesale suppliers, system installation, archi-
tectural services, non-prot organizations, and trade organizations), and namecan
be found at the website Photovoltaic System Businesses in the World at
URL: http://energy.sourceguides.com/businesses/byP/solar/pvS/pvS.shtml, accessed
October, 2003.
SunLine Solar Electric Power Systems
Photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into direct-current (DC) power.
Inverter to convert DC power into standard alternating-current (AC)

power for use in the home, synchronizing with utility power when the
electric grid is distributing electricity.
Existing electrical panel distributes solar and utility power to the

house.
Optional battery storage provides energy to the inverter during a

utility outage or at night.
AstroPower website. SunUPS Solar Electric Power Systems. URL:

http://www.astropower.com/sunups.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Alternative Power Enterprises, Inc.
The table below provides a sample of various photovoltaic models,

giving specications regarding power output, dimensions, and prices.
It should not be considered exhaustive, but rather be used as a basis
for comparison of residential PV models.
Alternative Power Enterprises website. URL: http://www.alternative-

power.com, accessed October, 2003.
88
Solarex SX Series
Model Watts Amps Output Volts Dimensions Price Each
SX120U 120 3.5 24 57.5 x 28.8 x 2 $695.00
SX85U 85 4.97 12 57.4 x 19.8 x 2 $529.00
SX80U 80 4.75 12 57.4 x 19.8 x 2 $495.00
SX60U 60 3.56 12 43.5 x 19.8 x 2 $375.00
SX50U 50 2.97 12 37 x 19.8 x 2 $350.00
SX40U 40 2.37 12 30.2 x 19.8 x 2 $335.00
SX30U 30 1.78 12 23.4 x 19.8 x 2 $290.00
SX20U 20 1.19 12 16.7 x 19.8 x 2 $220.00
SX10U 10 0.59 12 16.7 x 19.8 x 2 $130.00
Solarex Valueline Series
VLX 53 53 3.08 12 36.8 x 19.8 x 0.9 $325.00
VLX 32 32 1.86 12 23.2 x 19.8 x 0.9 $275.00
Solarex Mega-Lite Modules
ML30 30 1.75 12 24.4 x 19.6 x 0.6 $275.00
ML20 20 1.17 12 19.5 x 17.5 x 0.6 $225.00
ML10 10 0.58 12 17.5 x 10.5 x 0.6 $125.00
ML05 5 0.27 12 10.8 x 10.5 x 0.6 $99.00
BP Solar
Y 85 4.72 12 46.8 x 20.9 x 1.5 $525.00
BP575 74 4.45 12 46.8 x 20.9 x 1.5 $450.00
balmori and benoit
89
Siemens
SR50 50 2.95 6, 12 30.8 x 23.4 x 2.2 $295.00
SR100 100 5.6 6, 12 59 x 23.4 x 2.2 $595.00
SP75 75 4.4 6, 12 47.3 x 20.8 x 2.2 $425.00
Unisolar
US-32 32 1.94 12 53.8 x 15.1 x 1.25 $195.00
US-64 64 3.88 12 53.8 x 29.2 x 1.25 $375.00
90
E5. Further Resources: Models
These and other models can be invaluable tools in the design of environmental engi-
neering systems. The following is not an exhaustive list; be sure to use a model that
will address the needs of your particular project.
Lighting
Advanced Daylighting and Electric Lighting Integrated New Environment
(ADELINE)
Provides information about the behavior and performance of indoor

lighting systems, both natural and electrical.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. ADELINE web-

site. URL: http://radsite.lbl.gov/adeline/HOME.html, accessed October,
2003.
California Lighting Model (CLM)
Provides a means to quantify lighting energy use on the basis of building

type, space type, lighting application, xture type, lamp/ballast type, and
control type.
California Energy Commission. Lighting Efciency Techology Report.

URL: http://www.energy.ca.gov/efciency/lighting/lighting_reports.html,
Conjunction of Multizone Infiltration Specialists (COMIS)
Models the air ow and contaminant distributions in buildings.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Energy

Performance of Buildings Group. COMIS website. URL:
http://epb1.lbl.gov/comis, accessed October, 2003.
Energy
DOE-2
Calculates the hourly energy use and energy cost of a commercial or

residential building given information about the buildings climate,
construction, operation, utility rate schedule and heating, ventilating, and
air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Building Energy

Analysis, Simulation Research Group. DOE-2 website. URL: http://gun-
dog.lbl.gov/dirsoft/d2whatis.html, accessed October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
91
EnergyPlus
A building energy simulation program for modeling building heating,

cooling, lighting, ventilating, and other energy ows.
U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy.

Energy Plus website. URL: http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energy_
tools/energyplus/, accessed October, 2003.
Home Energy Saver
Internet-based tool for calculating energy use in residential buildings.

Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy and the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), as part of the national ENERGY STAR Program
for improving energy efciency in homes.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. Environmental

Energy Technologies Division. Home Energy Saver website. URL:
http://homeenergysaver.lbl.gov, accessed October, 2003.
ProForm
Supports a basic assessment of the environmental and nancial impacts of

renewable energy and energy efciency projects. Calculates basic nancial
indicators and avoided emissions of CO
2
and local air pollutants expected
from a project.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. ProForm website.

URL: http://poet.lbl.gov/Proform, accessed October, 2003.
THERM
Models two-dimensional heat-transfer effects in building components

such as windows, walls, foundations, roofs, and doors. Allows the evalua-
tion of a products energy efciency and local temperature patterns.
University of California. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. THERM 5.2 web-

site. URL: http://windows.lbl.gov/software/therm/therm.html, accessed
October, 2003.
Del Barrio E. 1998. Analysis of green roofs cooling potential in buildings. Energy
and Buildings 27: 179-193. This paper presents a mathematical model to rep-
resent the dynamic thermal behavior of actual green roofs. It states that green
roofs do not act as cooling devices during the summer. Rather, the model
nds that the cooling effect of green roofs is due to their insulative capacity
to reduce heat ux through the roof. Design parameters for roofs are offered
based on the models ndings.
Niachou A., Papakonstatinou K., Santamouris M., Tsangrassoulis A., and
Mihalakakou G. 2001. Analysis of the green roof thermal properties and inves-
92
tigation of its energy performance. Energy and Buildings 33: 719-729. Energy
performance and thermal properties were measured in two phases that
looked at indoor/outdoor air temperatures and the energy savings of a build-
ing. The study found that density and type of vegetation affects the surface
temperature of green roofs, heat transfer is reduced by green roofs, heating
and cooling loads were lower in the building with a green roof, and energy
savings were slightly less than 2%.
Stormwater
Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS)
Multipurpose environmental analysis system for use by regional, state, and

local agencies in performing watershed and water quality based studies.
Allows the quick assessment of large amounts of point source and non-
point source data.
U.S. EPA. BASINS website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/OST/BASINS,

Review: Baxter, R. Modeling tools for the stormwater manager.

Stormwater: The Journal for Surface Water Quality Professionals. URL:
http://www.forester.net/sw_0203_modeling.html, accessed October, 2003.
EPA Stormwater Management Model (SWMM)
Used for analysis of quantity and quality problems related to stormwater

runoff, combined sewers, sanitary sewers, and other drainage systems in
urban areas, with many applications in non-urban areas as well. Also used
for planning, design and area-wide control and impact assessment.
U.S. EPA. Urban Watershed Management Branch. SWMMModel website.

URL: http://www.epa.gov/ednnrmrl/swmm/index.htm, accessed October,
2003.
Review: Baxter, R. Modeling tools for the stormwater manager.

Stormwater: The Journal for Surface Water Quality Professionals. URL:
http://www.forester.net/sw_0203_modeling.html, accessed October, 2003.
HydroCAD
Stormwater modeling system used for the analysis, design, and documen-
tation of complete drainage systems using standard hydrograph tech-
niques.
HydroCAD website. URL: http://www.hydrocad.net, accessed October,

2003.
MIKE SWMM
Performs hydrology, hydraulic, and water quality analysis of stormwater

and wastewater drainage systems.
balmori and benoit
93
BOSS International. MIKE SWMM website. URL: http://www.bossintl.

com/products/special_offer/offer/mike_swmm_multitool/mike_ofr2go/for
m.html, accessed October, 2003.
MOUSE
Models surface runoff, open channel ow, pipe ow, water quality, and
sediment transport for urban drainage systems, storm water sewers, and
sanitary sewers.
DHI Software. Mouse website. URL: http://www.dhisoftware.com/mouse/

index.htm, accessed October, 2003.
PCSWMM
Utilizes the EPA SWMM core processes to provide a powerful Geographic

Information System (GIS) with optional links to existing GIS/AM/FM/
CAD databases. PCSWMM is used as a decision support system for EPA
SWMM.
Computational Hydraulics, Inc. PCSWMM website. URL: http://www.

computationalhydraulics.com/pcswmmoverview.html, accessed October,
2003.
Al-Jayyousi O. 2002. Focused environmental assessment of greywater reuse in
Jordan. Environmental Engineering & Policy 3: 67-73. A case study examined
25 greywater users in the arid country of Jordan to determine the feasibility of
greywater reuse for small-scale irrigation. The study included laboratory
analysis of plant, soil and greywater and concluded that, under specic con-
ditions, greywater use is a viable irrigation strategy.
Anderson B., Brown A., Watt W., and Marsalek J. 1998. Biological leaching of trace
metals from stormwater sediments: inuential variables and continuous reac-
tor operation. Water Science and Technology. 38(10): 73-81. Research was
conducted on a bioremediation process for the treatment of urban stormwa-
ter sediments contaminated with trace metals. Referred to as bioleaching, the
process relies on specic strains of naturally occurring, acid-producing bac-
teria to reduce the pH of sediment slurry, thereby solubizing adsorbed and
particulate metals into the liquid phase, for collection and processing. The
results indicate that bioleaching is a promising alternative for the remediation
of contaminated sediments.
Cheng S., Grosse W., Karrenbrock F., and Thoennessen M. 2002. Efciency of con-
structed wetlands in decontamination of water polluted by heavy metals.
Ecological Engineering 18: 317-325. A twin-shaped constructed wetland com-
prising a vertical ow (inow) chamber with Cyperus alternifolius followed
by a reverse-vertical ow (outow) chamber with Villarsia exaltata was
94
assessed for decontamination of articial wastewater polluted by heavy met-
als. A vertical ow constructed wetland with C. alternifolius is an effective tool
in phytoremediation for treatment of water polluted with heavy metals.
France R. 2002. Water Sensitive Design. New York: Lewis Publishers. This hand-
book presents the history of water in landscape architecture as a planning and
design component. It challenges the traditional management paradigm and
proposes innovative, water-sensitive development strategies.
Gibbons J. 1998. Addressing imperviousness in plans, site design and land use reg-
ulations. Nonpoint Education for Municipal Ofcials. URL: http://nemo.
uconn.edu/publications/tech_papers/tech_paper_1.pdf, accessed October,
2002. Suggestions are offered by NEMO for dealing with imperviousness and
related stormwater pollution at the site level. Measures include reviewing and
revision of the local plan of conservation and development, physical site
analysis, assessing potential build out scenarios, zoning regulation revision
and review, and other development-related considerations that impact
stormwater runoff quality and quantity.
Marsalek J., Rochfort Q., Grapentine L., and Brownlee B.. 2002. Assessment of
stormwater impacts on an urban stream with a detention pond. Water
Science and Technology 45(3): 255-263. Impacts of urban development on a
small creek with an on-stream stormwater pond, which was built to mitigate
the effects of a 13-ha commercial plaza on creek ows, were assessed by inves-
tigations of the creek-pond system hydrology, water and sediment chemistry
and toxicity, and benthic communities.
Schueler T., and Holland H. 2000. The importance of imperviousness. The
City, MD. URL: http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Library/Practice/1.pdf,
accessed October, 2003. Imperviousness is proposed as a unifying theme in
urban planning to aid the efforts of planners, engineers, landscape architects,
scientists, and local ofcials in achieving a consistent result. It is used as a key
indicator of the impact of land development on aquatic systems and named
as a common currency among development-related professionals.
Sundaravadivel M., and Vigneswaran S. 2001. Constructed wetlands for waste-
water treatment. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology
31(4): 351-409. Wetland technology can provide cheap and effective waste-
water treatment in both temperate and tropical climates, and are suitable for
adoption in both industrialized as well as developing nations. Currently, con-
structed treatment wetlands are being utilized for removal of a range of pol-
lutants and a broad variety of wastewaters worldwide. The objective of this
article is to provide a comprehensive review of the constructed treatment
wetland technology and to present the pollutant removal performance expe-
riences gathered through the application of this technology around the world.
Towards A Post-Engineering Perspective On Wastewater Treatment: Part of a nal
report to the Environmental Protection Agency and the Mass Foundation
about Ocean Arks Institute's activities at the South Burlington facility. URL:
http://www.oceanarks.org/ecodesign/postengineering, accessed October,
balmori and benoit
95
2003. A technical discussion calling for a more ecological approach to waste-
water treatment. The paper goes through the various abiotic and biotic com-
ponents in waste material breakdown. It demonstrates the potential for
Living Machines to reduce the volume of waste solids produced, and more
effectively manage ne suspended solids, colloids, metals, and other con-
stituents to elevate water quality to potable standards.
Wigginton B. and Lenhart J. Using Iron-infused Media andStormlterTM tech-
nology for the removal of dissolved phosphorus from stormwater discharges.
URL: http://www.stormwatermgt.com, accessed October, 2003. Iron-infused
resin was evaluated for the removal of dissolved phosphorus from stormwa-
ter through isotherm sorption studies and using both a horizontal ow col-
umn and a StormFilter cartridge. The study concludes that the iron-infused
medias ability to remove Dissolved-P from stormwater is very effective.
Transportation
TRANPLAN
Set of integrated programs that encompass the four-step travel demand

model of trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice, and trip assign-
ment for both highway and transit systems.
http://www.citilabs.com/tranplan
Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS)
System of analytical tools and methods developed by the Urban Mass

Transportation Administration of the United States Department of
Transportation in the 1970s. Composed of four basic models: trip genera-
tion (forecasts the number of trips), trip distribution (determines where the
trips will go), modal split (predicts how the trips will be divided among
available modes of travel), and trip assignment (predicts the routes that the
trips will take, resulting in trafc forecasts for the highway system and rid-
ership forecasts for the transit system).
UTPS website. URL: http://web.gc.cuny.edu/ees/osleeb/GEOG70351/

Lecture8.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Underlying Science
Van Bohemen H. 2002. Infrastructure, ecology and art. Landscape and Urban
Planning 59: 187-201. A new way of looking at roads and railways and the
meaning of ecology in relation to physical infrastructure is examined. A call
is made to regard these infrastructures as forming an ecosystem with their
surroundings. Examples are given regarding the practical implication of
linking ecological patterns and processes within the design process of civil
engineering.
96
*
Industrial Ecology
F1. Site Choice 99
F2. Site Planning and Design 101
Waste Separation 101
Reuse and Recycle 103
F3. Construction and Demolition Waste 105
Planning Packaging 105
Limited Use of Landlls 107
F4. Materials Transport 109
Limited Transportation Mileage 109
Increased Efciency of Transport 111
F5. Regional Context and Local Support 112
Local Stakeholders 112
Publicity 113
F6. Whole Life Cycle Impact Reduction 114
introduction
The discipline of industrial ecology
1
(IE) takes a holistic view of the material and
energy ows
2
associated with human activities and their connections with natural
systems. An examination of site development from an industrial ecologists
perspective requires a consideration of the IE concepts of closed loops
3
and material
cycling; materials ows
4
and balances; design for the environment
5
; embedded
utility,
6
industrial symbiosis;
7
and the encompassing concept of life cycle assessment
8
(LCA). The cradle-to-grave
9
life cycle approach typies the whole-system thinking
of industrial ecology, and assesses the impacts of all aspects of the lifetime of the
product as they are embedded in the natural environment.
It is comparatively easy to create a materials balance, identifying material ows, ener-
gy use, and air emissions for the operations of different facilities and buildings that
are already in existence, whether one studies an industrial facility, a commercial
venue, or a family residence. However, predicting the life-cycle impacts of a site devel-
opment that might be in existence for as long as 100 years in its intended use is sig-
nicantly more difcult. One cannot know whether the proposed project will suc-
ceed, or will be sold within two years and be derelict in ten more.
balmori and benoit
97
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
1
Industrial Ecology (IE): A
systems approach, looking at
the interaction of industrial
systems and natural systems,
and the flows of materials
and energy through those
systems. The aim is to increase
materials use efficiency and
reduce the impact of
materials use with the aim of
closing the loop of materials
cycling. Selected definitions of
industrial ecology can be
found at http://www.aag.org/
HDGC/www/industry/support
ing/supmat2_1.PDF. Indigo
Development Industrial
Ecology definitions:
http://www.indigodev.com/
DefineIE.html
If a site development lasts for a full century, at some point during that time an indus-
trial ecologist might consider whether it is environmentally preferable to deconstruct
a facility that has become outdated and start anew, or to retrot within the building
envelope and retain the embedded energy and materials within the existing structure.
Hence, undertaking a life cycle analysis for a site development incorporates major
uncertainties, much more so than undertaking a LCA for a specic commercial prod-
uct which has a short lifetime, such as a computer or a car.
The LAND Code is concerned with the treatment of a site during the planning and
construction stages of a development project, and it is focused on all aspects of the
site beyond the built structures themselves. (The choices and use of building materi-
als and energy systems for the built structures are comprehensively addressed by the
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating
System.) This makes it challenging to apply some IE concepts to the LAND code,
since many of the life cycle impacts of a development site relate to materials use dur-
ing building and site operations and site deconstruction. However, within these
parameters, the following pages summarize the major principles that have been iden-
tied for achieving an environmentally desirable cradle-to-grave LCA for the initial
life stages of site development. These recommendations were written to be both suc-
cinct and practical, and further details on each topic can be found by following up the
references cited in each section.
We strongly believe that this section of the LAND Code offers many opportunities to
improve the nancial dimensions and simultaneously reduce the environmental
impacts of a development project, as well as providing ideas for rethinking the way
we conceive of site development.
land code guidelines: industrial ecology
98
2
Energy Flows: A term for the
transfer of energy from one
state to another. With reference
to the IE of development proj-
ects, it is an assessment or
analysis of the amount of ener-
gy used to extract, process,
transport, and dispose of the
products and materials that
are used by the project.
3
Closed Loop Recycling: The
concept of reusing materials
after their original purpose is
fulfilled, and effectively end-
ing the need to dispose of dis-
carded materials in a landfill
where they are wasted the
concept models itself on nutri-
ent and other cycles in nature
where no material is wasted
and is continually recycled. A
list of ideas which will help to
close the loop can be found
at http://sustainable.
state.fl.us/fdi/edesign/news/9
607/loop.htm
4
Materials Flow: Pathways of
the different input materials
used to create any product,
from manufacturing a book
to developing a site. Materials
are tracked from their extrac-
tion or manufacture to their
use in the product through to
how they are disposed of
when the product is discard-
ed. (Refer to Industrial
Metabolism for further infor-
mation).
5
Design for Environment (DFE):
Uses industrial ecology con-
cepts and makes them func-
tional by designing products
with these concepts in mind,
such as considering how to
recover materials during the
dematerialization of a prod-
uct at the end of its life, with
aim of closing the loop on
materials waste. Indigo
Development: Industrial
Ecology Methods and Tools for
Analysis and Design.
http://www.indigodev.com/To
ols.html#DfE
recommendations
F1. Site Choice
Recommendation
Choose the site location to minimize the life-cycle impacts of the development
project.
Benefits
Choosing previously used sites generally reduces the environmental

impacts, as the property has already been impacted by infrastructure
development and other human activities;
Sites close to existing development reduce costs to the developer from

building new roads and creating connections to local water and elec-
tricity systems;
For retail and service businesses, central locations increase access to

customer trafc;
Locating development near or within already developed areas reduces

travel times to and from the site during both construction and long-
term operations;
Locating activity nodes within 1000 feet of other destinations encour-

ages walking and reduces short-hop vehicle congestion on all sites
involved;
Urban locations may reduce the need for the developer to provide
proprietary parking;
Locations close to other activities make waste-trading and industrial

symbiosis activities more achievable because of the concentration of
people for communication and exchanges.
Strategies
The optimum site choice is a browneld

10
site having been previously
developed;
An inll site amongst existing developed areas is preferable to a

greeneld
11
site by increasing density and reducing sprawl for new
development;
If a greeneld site is the only option, it should be located as close to

existing infrastructure as possible.
balmori and benoit
99
6
Embedded Utility: To create
and put any product to use
takes energy and material for
a range of different activities,
including manufacturing and
transportation. The total of all
the energy and material used
is the amount of utility
embedded the product. Hence,
if a material or product is
thrown away, so is all of the
energy used to make it. The
idea of preserving embedded
utility is central to individual
ecology.
7
Industrial Symbiosis:
Symbiosis is a biological rela-
tionship in which at least two
otherwise unrelated species
exchange materials, energy, or
information. Indus-trial sym-
biosis describes the relation-
ships between industrial facil-
ities where they benefit from
exchanging materials created
from other manufacturing
processes. For example, gyp-
sum can be created as a by-
product of power generation
and is a discard from this
activity but can be used as an
input for manufacturing plas-
terboard. The town of
Kalundborg in Denmark is the
most cited example of indus-
trial symbiosis in action
where the symbiosis is the
basis for creating an Eco-
Industrial Park.
http://www.symbiosis.dk/
Brooks R. 2003. Manager, Shaws Supermarket. Personal Interview, New Haven,
CT. 28 April 2003.
Liu D. 2001. Doubling of residential density in an area reduces vehicle miles
traveled by 15-25%. Testimony before the California Energy Commission,
Workshop on Reducing Petroleum Dependency in California. Natural
Resources Defence Council. September 18, 2001. URL: http://www.energy.
ca.gov/fuels/petroleum_dependence/documents/AB2076_workshop/Donna
%20Liu.doc, accessed October, 2003.
Newman P. and Kenworthy J. 1999. Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming
Automobile Dependence. Washington, D.C. Island Press.
Shoup D. 1999. The trouble with minimum parking requirements. The Victoria
Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, BC. URL: http://vtpi.org/shoup.pdf,
Smart Growth Recognition Program. Washington Smart Growth Alliance. URL:
http://washington.uli.org/sga/program.asp, accessed October, 2003.
100
8
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA):
LCA concentrates on
quantifying the environ
mental burdens of a product,
process, or activity, looking at
the whole cycle from
extraction of resources
through to recycling or
disposal. LCA looks at the
environmental impacts in the
manufacture of the materials
used in a product, the
manufacturing process of the
product, the impacts during
the products useful life, and
the impacts of the disposal of
the product and its
constituent parts. LCA
includes in the assessment
the flow of energy and water,
and discard streams of air,
water and solid emissions
resulting from the product
lifecycle. Indigo Development:
Industrial Ecology Methods
and Tools for Analysis and
Design. http://www.indigo
dev.com/Tools.html#LCA
9
Cradle-to-Grave: This is a
type of material or product
assessment that considers
impacts at each stage of a
products life-cycle, from the
time natural resources are
extracted from the ground
and processed through each
subsequent stage of manu-
facturing, transportation,
product use, and ultimately,
disposal. Some writers
describe cradle-to-grave sys-
tems in which the discarded
materials is sent back into the
production cycle.
10
Brownfield: The USEPA defines
a brownfield site as real
property, the expansion, rede-
velopment, or reuse of which
may be complicated by the
presence or potential presence
of a hazardous substance, pol-
lutant, or contaminant.
USEPA. Brownfields Glossary
of Terms. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Brownfields Cleanup and
Redevel-opment. Washington
D.C.: USEPA, 2002. http://
www.epa.gov/brownfields/
glossary.htm
F2. Site Planning and Design: Waste Separation
Recommendation
Design infrastructure and facilities to enable waste separation.
Benefits
Encourages waste separation and recycling by designating usable spaces in

the development project to support these activities;
Reduces the long-term costs to owner/operator of tipping mixed refuse in

landll;
Reduces the volume of waste going to landll.
Returns usable materials to secondary production in place of virgin

resources, yielding biggest impact on a high cycle basis.
Strategies
Many operators can turn costs into revenues by effectively separating types of waste,
and nding buyers for waste streams such as cardboard, organics, paper, glass,
metal, and others. However, this often requires dedicated handling space in a build-
ing and/or in loading dock areas adjacent to the building.
Provide adequate staging areas for separated waste streams during con-
struction and demolition activities (e.g. for cardboard, wood, concrete,
carpet, recyclable plastics, etc.);
Design loading docks to accommodate storage and handling of at least

four different waste streams from operations (e.g. for paper, plastics, card-
board, organic waste, metals, non-recyclable waste, etc.);
Ensure adequate space in hallways and doorways for the movement of

waste;
Provide space for waste containers to enable hygienic and safe separation
of waste streams within kitchen areas and other facility areas;
Install garbage can washer(s) and a minimum 25 square foot (2.5 m

2
) ded-
icated area of tiled ooring on loading docks to allow hygienic cleaning of
organic waste containers and collection of wash water before re-use for
commercial activities, such as hotels;
Drains from all loading areas must connect to sanitary sewer or graywater
systems;
Identify a local composting recipient within 20 miles (40 km), or create

space on site for composting 80% of organic waste for 3 years (29 months
volume);
11
Greenfield: A parcel of land
not previously developed
beyond agricultural or
forestry use; virgin land.
balmori and benoit
101
102
Include compost-handling pathways in site design (account for hygiene

issues in siting);
Include active compost facilities in site design as part of garden or land-

scape design, if size allows, or identify local composter.
Brooks R. 2003. Manager, Shaws Supermarket. Personal Interview, New Haven,
CT. 28 April 2003.
Norrie J., Lafortune P., Beauchamp C. 1997. Characterization of waste materials
originating from Quebec supermarkets and an assessment of recycling
potential. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 19: 256-277.
U.S. EPA. 1998. Shop Rite Supermarkets New Jersey: 80% recovery of food dis-
cards and other organics. Solid Waste and Emergency Response (5306W).
EPA-530-F-98-023i. September 1998. URL: www.epa.gov/osw, accessed
October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
103
F2. Site Planning and Design: Reuse and Recycle
Recommendation
A minimum of 40% of all infrastructure mass on site must originate from
reused/recycled sources (e.g., blast furnace slag, y ash, glass cullet, crumb rubber,
recycled concrete aggregate, recycled asphalt, or others). If recyclable material is
available on site, it should be reused on-site.
Benefits
Using recycled material can reduce contractor costs for virgin asphalt by
up to 80%;
Transportation impacts of removing waste offsite reduced if concrete and

asphalt demolition materials can be re-used on site;
Using recycled material in concrete aggregate reduces waste volume sent

to landll;
Recycled cold-in-place asphalt is less dusty than gravel and is suitable for
low-trafc areas;
Recycled concrete can be cheaper than virgin aggregate and is suitable for
similar applications;
Recycled crumb rubber surfaces improve comfort and safety in pedestrian

areas.
Strategies
Process and re-use demolition materials on site;
Source recycled concrete/asphalt with acceptable levels of recycled content;
View materials on site as inputs rather than wastes.

Construction activities consume approximately 40% of all virgin materials
extracted.
Powell Center for Construction & Environment. University of Florida. URL:
http://www.cce.u.edu/past/deconstruction/waste_impact.html, accessed
October, 2003.
104
Recycled cold-in-place asphalt is less dusty than gravel and is suitable for low-traf-
fic areas.
King County Environmental Purchasing Program. Washington State. URL:
http://www.metrokc.gov/procure/green/rdsasph.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Recycled hot-mix asphalt is a competitive substitute for traditional hot-mix
asphalt.
Kandhal P., Rao S., Watson D, and Young B. 1995. Performance of recycled
hot mix asphalt mixtures. NCAT Report No. 95-1. Georgia Department of
Transportation. URL: http://www.eng.auburn.edu/center/ncat/reports/
rep95-1_1.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Crumb rubber aggregate is a viable substitute for certain applications where tradi-
tional asphalt might be used.
Engle E., Mujeeb M., Gansen E., Prasetyo A., and Anderson C. 2002.
Evaluation of recycled rubber in asphalt cement concrete. Ames, IA. Iowa
Department of Transportation. URL: http://www.dot.state.ia.us/materials/
research/ reports/reports_pdf/hr_and_tr/abstracts/hr330.pdf, accessed
October, 2003.
Federal Highway Administration. Pavement Technology. URL: http://www.
fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/CrmbRubr.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Recycled concrete aggregate is a competitive substitute for natural crushed stone.
Oxford Recycling Inc. URL: http://www.oxfordrecycling.com/product.html,
Recycled glass aggregate is a competitive substitute for other aggregates in con-
crete and asphalt.
Clean Washington Center. Pacic Northwest Economic Region. Best prac-
tices in glass recycling. URL: http://www.cwc.org/gl_bp/4-01-03.pdf, accessed
October, 2003.
City of Burnaby. Management and Disposal of Construction Wastes. URL:
http://www.city.burnaby.bc.ca/cityhall/departments_building/bldng_
artcls_mngmnt.html, accessed October, 2003.
King County Environmental Purchasing Program. Washington State. URL:
http://www.metrokc.gov/procure/green/swpconag.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Pavement Technology. URL: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/recglass.
htm, accessed October, 2003.
Ramachadran V. 1981. Waste and by-products as concrete aggregates.
Canadian Building Digest No. 215, April 1981. URL:
http://irc.nrccnrc.gc.ca/cbd/cbd 215e.html, accessed October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
105
F3. Construction and Demolition Waste: Planning Packaging
Recommendation
Plan materials purchases and packaging considerations to ensure only 10% (by
weight arriving on the site) of total materials delivered to the site are discarded.
Benefits
Optimizing labor efciency in delivery activities by consolidating deliver-

ies and minimizing unnecessary delivery of non-product output;
Increasing the labor efciency of installation personnel;
Reducing tipping fees for non-product and packaging waste;
Increasing product use efciency and reduced material costs aim for 95%
of material inputs to end in the merchantable product versus waste streams.
Strategies
Design infrastructure and building to use pre-cut lumber; pre-cast con-

crete; re-usable concrete formwork; and/or modular components;
Track materials ow through the site by material type to monitor material

use efciency (e.g. wood, cardboard, drywall, concrete, steel, brick/stone,
plastics, etc.);
Contract with materials suppliers for packaging takeback (e.g. pallets, con-
tainers, shrink-wrap, etc.);
Packaging takeback arrangements should ensure that suppliers are not

landlling reclaimed packaging;
Using prefabricated and/or modular components make disassembly,

recovery, and recycling at end-of-life of the current project easier and
more cost-effective.
Packaging constitutes a significant proportion of the waste stream in the United
States. There is much room to improve the recyclability, or reduce the quantity, of
existing packaging. One of the most efficient ways to reduce packaging overall is to
place responsibility squarely with the firms that design and apply packaging to
products.
106
Greenberg E. 1999. Solid waste rushes in. Packaging Digest. URL: http:/www.
packagingdigest.com/Legal/0199legal.html, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Packaging website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-
hw/reduce/epr/products/packaging.html, accessed October, 2003.
Lindqvist T. 1998. What is extended producer responsibility?, in K. Jnsson
and T. Lindhqvist, eds., Proceedings of the International Seminar on
Extended Producer Responsibility as a Policy Instrument. May 8-9, 1998.
balmori and benoit
107
F3. Construction and Demolition Waste: Limited Use of Landfills
Recommendation
Divert 90% of total construction waste and 70% of demolition waste (by weight)
from landll. Of the following materials, divert at least 60% of each material (by
volume) from landll: concrete; asphalt; glass; wood; gypsum; carpet; steel; cop-
per; plastics; PVC.
Benefits
Tipping fees and volume of waste going to landll will be reduced;
Certain materials may generate revenue streams for the contractor;
Recycling existing materials preserves embedded energy and reduces the

need for extraction of virgin materials;
Tracking waste streams will help the developer identify efciency-creating

activities.
Possible Strategies
Identify a materials exchange in the local area to advertise waste;
Locate separated re-usable materials (e.g. lumber) on site, advertising

availability with signs on the site borders and (where legal) at nearest
major intersection;
Provide contractual incentives for waste haulers to return material for

architectural salvage.
Contact local municipality for information sharing and for identifying

other construction in the local area for materials exchanges;
Grind rubble, shingles, and wood waste on site for use as a base for hard
surface. Use wood chips as a temporary insulator of soil to prevent ground
from freezing pre-development, or for nal-phase landscaping mulch;
Separate waste streams for salvage and recycling separate wood, con-
crete, drywall and plastics at a minimum. Other streams to be identied
depending on local contractors and the availability of reuse/recycling
facilities for those other materials in the region;
Make sure the waste dumpsters are very clearly marked and are easy to
access;
Publicize materials availability and materials needs locally;
Identify salvage companies in local area.

108
Underlying Science and Citations
Construction and demolition waste composes approximately 40% of all material
that is sent to landfills in the U.S. every year.
Powell Center for Construction & Environment, University of Florida. URL:
October, 2003.
The city of Oakland, CA and King County in Washington State have developed sam-
ple specifications to require waste reduction and recycling on construction sites.
City of Oakland, CA. Construction and Demolition Debris Recycling
Program. Sample Specications. URL: http://www.oaklandpw.com/oakrecy-
cles/construction/pdf/sample_specs.doc, accessed October, 2003.
King County Construction Recycling Program. URL: http://dnr.metrokc.
gov/swd/bizprog/sus_build/specs.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Several studies have shown that diversion rates above 90% can be achieved with
some basic attention to details and can even generate cost savings. Some materials
can even be re-used without ever leaving the site.
Johnson J. 2003. Builders generate, recycle loads of wood. Waste News.
March 31, 2003.
Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality. Construction Waste
Minimization Methods. New Construction. URL: http://www.state.ne.us/
home/NEO/home_const/factsheets/const_waste_min.htm, accessed
October, 2003.
OIKOS, Green Building Source. URL: http://oikos.com/library/waste/index.
html, accessed October, 2003.
Powell Center for Construction & Environment, University of Florida. URL:
October, 2003.
Triangle J Council of Governments. Construction and Demolition Waste
Programs. URL: http://www.tjcog.dst.nc.us/cdwaste.htm#cddocs, accessed
October, 2003.
Youngblood D. 2003. The Daily Grind. Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune.
March 23, 2003.
Yost P. and Lund E. 2003. Residential construction waste management: A
builders eld guide. National Association of Homebuilders Research
Center.
balmori and benoit
109
F4. Materials Transport: Limited Transportation Mileage
Recommendation
Source 80% of all construction materials by weight within 100 miles of the site if
transported by truck, and within 300 miles if transported by rail.
Do not accept airfreight delivery for more than 100 kg of construction materials.
Send 50% of discards and recycling to nal destinations within 50 miles of the site.
Benefits
Reducing the negative air quality and greenhouse gas impacts of trans-
porting construction materials over long distances;
Reducing congestion on local and regional roads by choosing rail transport;
Avoiding or eliminating the disproportionate greenhouse effects of air

transport;
Generating goodwill among local community by sourcing supplies from

known producers and reducing adverse impacts of construction activities,
e.g. truck noise;
Generating goodwill by offering discard materials for free, saving trans-

portation costs and adverse environmental impacts from transportation.
Strategies
Source local suppliers for materials available close to site to reduce trans-
portation requirements;
Distribute a list of supply needs to interested parties at local government

meetings and publicize materials availability to facilitate possible exchanges;
Investigate materials exchange websites for locations of environmentally

preferable suppliers and information sharing on suppliers;
Locate separated re-usable materials (e.g. lumber) on site, advertising

availability with signs on the site borders and (where legal) at nearest
major intersection;
Distribute a list of expected discards to interested parties at local govern-

ment meetings;
Contact local municipalities to nd out if they are aware of local materials

exchanges or regional information networks for building materials transfer;
Contract for rail delivery of goods from distant sources.

110
Truck transport emits approximately three times the volume of greenhouse gases
as does rail transport, per ton of goods transported per mile.
World Resources Institute. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Protocol Initiative. URL:
http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standard/mobile.doc, accessed October, 2003.
The special mixture of emissions and the altitude at which those emissions are
released make airplane transport a disproportionately large contributor to green-
house gas emissions.
European Union. Air Transport and the Environment website. URL:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/air/environment/index_en.htm,
Friends of the Earth Europe & Milieu Defensie. Transport website. URL:
http://www.choosefoodchoosefarming.org/environment/trans.htm, accessed
October, 2003.
Rocky Mountain Institute. Climate, Air Travel Emissions website. URL:
http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid600.php, accessed October, 2003.
Several successful models of materials exchanges exist in the United States and
elsewhere in the world, which allow actors to trade outputs and inputs, reducing
demand for virgin materials and reducing loads on local landfills.
California Integrated Waste Management Board. Reuse Links and Resources,
Material Exchanges. URL: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/reuse/links/exchange.
Recycling Markets Inc. URL: http://www.recyclingmarkets.net, accessed
October, 2003.
Washington State Department of Ecology. Reusable Building Materials
Exchange. URL: http://www.rbme.com, accessed October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
111
F4. Materials Transport: Increased Efficiency of Transport
Recommendation
Ensure that disposal and delivery vehicles use, on average, at least 80% of capacity
when serving the site and consolidate journeys.
Benefits
Reducing costs of unnecessary disposal trips;
Reducing trafc and safety hazards on work site;
Reducing impacts from transportation of half-empty loads;
Increasing efciency of loading/unloading activities;
Reducing materials handling interruptions to primary project work.

Strategies
Draw up contracts with waste haulers so waste is removed from site when
the waste containers are full, as opposed to regular weekly or daily service;
Consolidate supply orders to minimize the number of trips and increase

efciency of delivery vehicle use;
Record total used volume and capacity of vehicle upon arrival (for deliv-
ery) or departure (for waste). Keep a running total of utilization levels and
quantify vehicle miles traveled (VMT) for truck transport to have an idea
of the contribution of truck transport to the environmental impacts of
site development.
The tare (empty or unloaded) weight of the vehicle makes up 29% of a fully loaded
tractors mass. Because of the inherent inefficiency of this mode of transport, it is
doubly important to use as much capacity as possible on each trip.
World Resources Institute. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Protocol Initiative. URL:
http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standard/mobile.doc, accessed October, 2003.
Jacobsen Easyloader Tiltbed Trailer Specications. URL: http://www.jacob-
sentrailers.com/easyloaderspecs.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Liberty Kenworth Truck Information. URL: http://www.libertykenworth.
com/t2000.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Central European University. Environment and Regional Transport
Planning Document. URL: http://www.ceu.hu/envsci/sun/SUN_
EnvImpacts.ppt, accessed October, 2003.
112
F5. Regional Context and Local Support: Local Stakeholders
Recommendation
Collaborate with local stakeholders in nalizing some or all elements of site
design to build local support for the project.
Benefits
Fostering support and a feeling of ownership among neighboring busi-

nesses, political leaders, and residents;
Creating social capital that can improve relations, and increase the desir-
ability of the development;
Increasing the social license to operate in the immediate community;
Speeding up the permitting, approvals, and planning processes at the

municipal and possibly at the state level.
Strategies
Attend meetings of local Rotary Club or other social organizations;
Hold group-design meetings (charrettes) involving local citizens in

some design elements.
The use of charrette events to engage communities is a valuable learning experi-
ence for both developers and local residents.
Charrette Center. Design Consulting and Information Services for New
Urbanism. URL: http://www.charrettecenter.com/, accessed October, 2003.
Many municipal and state governments have formal and informal arrangements
for fast-tracking projects and activities that have broad-based community support.
New Jerseys Silver and Gold Track Program is an example.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Silver and Gold Track
Program for Environmental Performance. URL: http://www.state.nj.us/dep/
special/silver/index.html, accessed October 2003.
balmori and benoit
113
F5. Regional Context and Local Support: Publicity
Recommendation
Publicize the projects pursuit of the LAND Code to local and regional audiences.
Benefits
Earning support and building relationships with environmental and plan-

ning advocacy groups;
Reducing potential litigation costs during the approval process;
Speeding up permitting, approvals, and planning processes at the munici-

pal and possibly at the state level;
Creating positive publicity surrounding the project, adding value for both
the developer and future tenant.
Strategies
Distribute copies of the LAND Code requirements at public hearings and

presentations regarding the project;
Distribute press releases publicizing efforts to meet LAND Code specica-

tions;
Use non-prot relationships to build public awareness and acceptance.

Well-publicized efforts to reduce environmental impacts of a project can generate
positive publicity locally, regionally, or even at a national level. These efforts may
also smooth the permitting and approvals process, in addition to the community
support element mentioned above.
Holt S. 2002. Slouching toward sustainability. Northwest Builder. March
2002.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Silver and Gold Track
Program for Environmental Performance. URL: http://www.state.nj.us/dep/
special/silver/index.html, accessed October 2003.
Mauer L. 2002. Hayward plant applies for LEED certication, Structural
Building Components Magazine, August 2002. URL: http://www.sbcmag.
info/past/2002/02aug/haywardplant.htm, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. Green Business Council. Making the Business Case for High
Performance Green Buildings, URL: http://www.lighting.philips.com/nam/
events/lightfair/pdf/makingthebusinesscase.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
114
F6. Whole Life Cycle Impact Reduction
Recommendation
Pending the development of a LAND Code Covenant for Ongoing Site
Management, obtain third-party recognition for management practices that will
reduce overall impacts of site operations during the lifetime of the project, in
addition to LEED certication.
Benefits
Increased motivation of employees working on an environmentally posi-

tive site;
Attract attention from multiple audiences for environmental leadership;
Improve wildlife habitat on the property;
Recognition as a best in class environmentally embedded developer.

Strategies
Certify buildings through the LEED program for 90% of structures on site;
Reduce operations costs associated with energy and fuel use;
Enroll in one or more recognized national programs that address the fol-
lowing management areas: wildlife habitat; energy consumption; solid
waste recycling; organic waste composting; employee/customer transit use;
Provide positive motivation for employees and owners to continually

improve environmental management on-site;
Reduce impacts to ecosystems associated with fertilizers and pesticides;
Reduce tipping costs for waste sent to landlls;
Reduce impacts to ecosystems from noise and light pollution;
Reduce impacts to ecosystems from air pollution and road fatalities.

The U.S. EPA runs an Energy Star program, which recognizes ongoing improvement
in energy conservation by homeowners and businesses.
U.S. EPA Energy Star Program. URL: http://www.energystar.gov/, accessed
October, 2003.
The Wildlife Habitat Council and Audubon International recognize ongoing land-
scape management activities that create, protect, or maintain habitat.
Audubon International. URL: http://www.audubonintl.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
115
Wildlife Habitat Council. URL: http://www.wildlifehc.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
Many individual states certify composting operations through their legal system. If
organics are exported to a local operator, that operator should be certified in the
applicable state. If organics are handled on site, compost management should
meet one of the following:
NRCS Code 317 standards for a composting facility. URL: http://h2o.enr.
state.nc.us/nps/317.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
USDA standards for compost under the auspices of the National Organic
Program. URL: http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/standards.html,
The U.S. EPAs National Waste Minimization Program recognizes participants for
ongoing efforts to reduce hazardous and other waste from operations.
U.S. EPA. Waste Minimization Program. URL: http://www.epa.gov/
epaoswer/hazwaste/minimize/, accessed October, 2003.
The U.S. EPAs Commuter Choice Leadership Initiative recognizes organizations for
ongoing efforts to improve employee options in getting to and from work. The pro-
gram also provides technical assistance to member organizations.
U.S. EPA Commuter Choice Leadership Initiative. URL: http://www.commuter
choice.gov/, accessed October, 2003.
The LEED Building Certification Program is the leading internationally recognized
certification program for reduced-impact buildings. The program provides recogni-
tion of achievements in building design and construction.
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. URL: http://www.usgbc.
org/LEED/LEED_main.asp, accessed October, 2003.
Additional Resources
BuildingGreen.com is a website listing a variety of information on environ-
mentally responsible building construction and design, including a
subscription page listing environmentally sound building materials, such as
certied wood or post-consumer waste products. URL:
http://www.buildinggreen.com/index.cfm, accessed October, 2003.
Environmental Literacy Council has links to articles on industrial ecology and a
variety of topics from green roofs to renewable energy. URL: http://www.
enviroliteracy.org/article.php/202.html, accessed October, 2003.
Graedel T. 1999. Environmentally superior buildings from birth to death, in
Kilbert C., ed., Reshaping the Built Environment: Ecology, Ethics and
Economics. Washington, D.C. Island Press.
Lowe E. 1999. Sustainable New Towns and Industrial Ecology in Kilbert C., ed.,
Reshaping the Built Environment: Ecology, Ethics, and Economics.
Washington, D.C. Island Press.
116
Rockefeller Universitys Program for Human Environment has a variety of articles
under publications which relate to Industrial Ecology. URL: http://phe.
rockefeller.edu/biblio.html, accessed October, 2003.
Triangle J Council of Governments has produced guideline specications to reduce
construction waste by building it into the bidding process for use by develop-
ers. URL: http://www.tjcog.dst.nc.us/cdwaste.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Wiley J. 1997. American Institute of Architects. 1997. Environmental Resource
Guide, 2nd Edition, New York.
Materials Exchange Websites by State Where Available
U.S. EPA State-Specic Materials Exchange Information. URL: http://www.epa.
gov/epaoswer/non-hw/recycle/jtr/comm/exchstat.htm#az, accessed October,
2003.
Alaska Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.state.ak.us/local/akpages/ENV.
CONSERV/dsps/compasst/ptnrshp.htm#anchor800489, accessed October,
2003.
California Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/calmax/, accessed
October, 2003.
Los Angeles County Materials Exchange. URL: http://ladpw.org/epd/laco-
max/ index.cfm, accessed October, 2003.
NapaMax Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.napamax.org/Aboutus.asp,
Sonomax Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.recyclenow.org/sonomax/,
Ventura County Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.vcmax.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
Colorado Materials Exchange. URL: http://www-ucsu.colorado.edu/comex/,
Florida Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.building99.com/main.php,
Southern Waste Information Exchange. URL: http://wastexchange.org/,
Georgia Enviroshare. URL: http://www.enviroshare.org/, accessed October, 2003.
Hawaii Materials Exchange. Maui Aloha Shares. URL: http://www.aloha
shares.org/, accessed October, 2003.
Illinois Industrial Material Exchange Service. URL: http://www.epa.state.il.us/
land/imes/, accessed October, 2003.
Indiana Materials Xchange. URL: http://www.in.gov/idem/imx/, accessed
October, 2003.
Indiana Commerce Scrap Metal. URL: http://www.in.gov/doc/commerce recy-
cles/available/, accessed October, 2003.
Iowa Waste Exchange. URL: http://www.iwrc.org/exchange/index.cfm, accessed
October, 2003.
Recycle Iowa. URL: http://www.recycleiowa.org/, accessed October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
117
Kentucky Industrial Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.kppc.org/KIME/
index.cfm, accessed October, 2003.
Maine Materials Exchange. URL: http://home.gwi.net/~m2x/, accessed October,
2003.
Maryland Building Materials Reuse Center. URL: http://www.loadingdock.
org/tld/directions.html, accessed October, 2003.
Massachusetts Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.materialsexchange.org/,
Michigan Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.michigan.gov/deq/1,1607,7-135-
6132_6828-12382--00.html, accessed October, 2003.
Washtenaw County Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.co.washtenaw.
mi.us/depts/eis/eisex.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Minnesota Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.mnexchange.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
West Central Minnesota MATCH. URL: http://www.gis.co.clay.mn.us/
match.html, accessed October, 2003.
Montana Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.montana.edu/mme/, accessed
October, 2003.
Nebraska Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.knb.org/exchange.html, accessed
October, 2003.
Nevada Materials Exchange. Washoe County Materials Exchange Network. URL:
http://www.environleader.org/intro.html, accessed October, 2003.
New Hampshire Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.wastecapnh.org/nhme/,
New Jersey. Trenton Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.tmex.org/index.htm,
New York Waste Match. URL: http://www.wastematch.org/, accessed October, 2003.
Hudson Valley Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.hvmaterialsexchange.
com/, accessed October, 2003.
Long Island INWRAP. URL: http://www.licbdc.org/services/inwrap.htm,
Ohios Material Exchange. URL: http://www.epa.state.oh.us/opp/omex/omex.
Hamilton County Interchange. URL: http://www.hcdoes.org/sw/interchange.
South Carolina Waste Exchange. URL: http://sc.wastexchange.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
Tennessee Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.cis.utk.edu/TME/, accessed
October, 2003.
Texas Resource Exchange Network for Eliminating Waste (RENEW). URL:
http://www.tnrcc.state.tx.us/exec/oppr/renew/renew.html, accessed October,
2003.Vermont Business Materials Exchange. URL:
http://www.vbmex.net/otherexchanges.html, accessed October, 2003.
Washington Reusable Building Materials Exchange. URL: http://dnr.metrokc.
gov/swd/rbme/index.htm, accessed October, 2003.
118
Washington, Oregon and Idaho IMEX. URL: http://www.metrokc.gov/
hazwaste/imex/, accessed October, 2003.
Northwest Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.nwmaterialsmart.com/
index.html, accessed October, 2003.
West Virginia Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.state.wv.us/swmb/
exchange/Index.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Wisconsin Business Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.bmex.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
University of Wisconsin. URL: http://www.bussvc.wisc.edu/swap/, accessed
October, 2003.
The LAND Code:
*
Legal Strategies for Municipalities
and Developers
Audit of Current Conditions 121
Build-Out Analysis 122
Comprehensive Plan for Development and Conservation 124
Environmentally Friendly Zoning Code 126
Environmental Impact Statements for Development Projects 129
Ordinances to Protect Natural Resources 130
Floating Zones 131
Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) 132
Incentives for Developers 133
Relationships with Community Members 135
Be Prepared to Educate 136
Municipal Codes During Initial Planning Stages 138
introduction
Land developers, concerned citizens, and creative designers interested in developing
land without altering natural ecosystem functioning can use the LAND Code as a set
of guidelines capturing the state of the art in environmentally responsible land devel-
opment. Rather than a rigid mandate, or additional hurdle, the LAND Code is
designed to be a developer-friendly certication program of the best practices of site
development. The LAND Code picks up where LEED certication leaves off, outside
of the building, with comprehensive guidelines for selecting and developing sites.
The complicated web of local, state and federal legislation remains a barrier to inno-
vation in design. Major point sources of environmental degradation, such as smoke
stacks causing air pollution and wastewater outlets causing water pollution, are reg-
ulated at the federal level. States have additional control over environmental stan-
dards and regulations, especially regarding problems of non-point source pollution,
sprawl, and overcrowding. It is at the local level that land use planning and regulation
is typically conducted, for example, through zoning and subdivision regulations.
Developers must go through an extensive permitting and environmental impact
assessment process to comply with current laws. As a result, developers tend to stick
to cooker-cutter designs replicating existing developments to avoid unanticipated
delays or expenses.
balmori and benoit
119
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
the land code: legal strategies
120
1
For example, see City of
Beacon, NY Town Code,
Chapter 195, Subdivision of
Land.
2
Towns can require more
stringent environmental
impact studies than those
required by state and federal
laws: In Euclid v. Ambler
Realty (1926), the U.S.
Supreme Court decided that
local comprehensive zoning is
constitutional. The City of
Beacon, NY requires an
Environmental Quality
Review of actions which may
have a significant effect on
the environment. See City of
Beacon, NY Town Code,
Chapter 107, Environmental
Quality Review. In the case of
Aaron v. Town of Redding
(1981), The Supreme Court of
Connecticut upheld local
environmental regulations
that are more stringent than
the state regulations.
In this chapter, we look at the application of the LAND Code within the framework
of local law. Local regulations and zoning codes are major determinants of land use
(Nolon 2002). Many existing local regulations inhibit natural ecosystem functioning,
for example, encouraging impervious surfaces by dictating the width of paved streets
and requiring curbs and storm drains.
1
These regulations are often in direct conict
with the recommendations of the LAND Code. However, there is tremendous poten-
tial for the inclusion of environmentally benecial stipulations in local regulations
(Barnett 2001).Unfortunately, many municipalities are unaware of their own powers
or have not realized this potential for other reasons.
2
The recommendations in this chapter are meant to guide local lawmakers in chang-
ing local codes to encourage more environmentally responsible land use. These range
from quick xes which would allow the application of the LAND Code in special
oating zones to the adoption of natural resources ordinances similar to LAND Code
guidelines.
This chapter also includes specic recommendations to assist developers who, in the
absence of local regulations, want to protect the environment through conservation
subdivisions and green design (Arendt 1999). Proposing developments in conict
with local regulations is not an easy process, but by identifying common goals and
investing time and effort into educating citizens and policy-makers, local law can be
adapted or exibly interpreted to allow for progressive developments in line with the
LAND Code. A nal audience for these recommendations includes concerned citi-
zens and local environmental groups that are looking for models of better, natural
development.
It is our hope that municipalities and developers will work together to protect ecosys-
tem function, using the LAND Code to guide land use decisions. When this occurs,
law will no longer be a barrier to progressive design, but rather an incentive for inno-
vation and environmental protection.
Arendt R. 1999. Growing greener: Putting conservation into local plans and
ordinances. Island Press. Washington, DC. Chapter 5 gives step by step
guidelines for designing conservation subdivisions. In addition, appendix 3
includes model ordinance language for conservation subdivisions.
Barnett J. 2001. Regional design: Local codes as cause and cure of sprawl.
Planning for a New Century. Island Press. Washington, DC.: 73-74.
Nolon J. 2002. In praise of parochialism: The advent of local environmental law
26. Harvard Environmental Law Review: 363.
Nolon J. 2001. Preserving Natural Resources Through Local Environmental
Laws: A Guidebook for Local Governments. Land Use Law Center. Pace
University School of Law. White Plains, NY: 78-337. Describes several differ-
ent natural resource ordinances.
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121
Current Conditions
Recommendation
Make a complete audit of current conditions.
Benefits
In order to begin the local law revision process, it is necessary to survey existing land
use and local ordinances. By understanding the laws currently on the books and what
they mean for natural development in the area, municipal ofcials can make better
informed decisions about what laws should be changed and how.
Strategies
Most local governments have an agency dedicated to town planning, sometimes
called the planning and zoning commission, or the planning board. If they havent
already done so, these agencies should undertake a comprehensive study of current
zoning, subdivision, and other local laws that may affect natural development prac-
tices or natural resources. Then, they can map out the existing land use in the area
and identify potential problems or issues. An ofcial town map, which normally
shows existing and planned facilities and land reserved to build them, could be used
to protect undeveloped land and designate potential growth areas.
Arendt R. 1999. Growing greener: Putting conservation into local plans and
ordinances. Island Press. Washington, DC. Includes a section on developing
a community resource inventory.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD. Codes and Ordinances
Worksheet. URL: http://www.cwp.org/COW_worksheet.htm, accessed
October, 2003. The site also contains a list of 22 model development prac-
tices that can be included in existing local laws. These principles can be used
to guide the assessment process. URL: http://www.cwp.org/22_principles.
Murphy M. 1996. The ofcial map as a municipal land use tool. Pace University
School of Law, Land Use Law Center. Planing website. URL: http://www.law.
pace.edu/landuse/offmap.html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Planning website. URL:
http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/tocplan.html, accessed October, 2003.
122
Analysis
Recommendation
Conduct a build-out analysis for the municipality.
Rationale
A build-out analysis allows municipalities to see what their town would look like if all
of its land were to be developed as it is currently zoned. This often results in a worst-
case scenario so that municipal ofcials can recognize potential problem spots and
determine where zoning codes need to be revised.
Strategy
Use GIS to create maps of different development scenarios depending on how the
land is zoned. See below for several tools to assist in this process.
Giannotti L. and Prisloe S. 1998. Do it yourself! Impervious surface buildout
analysis. Technical Paper Number 4. Nonpoint Education for Municipal
Ofcials (NEMO) Project. University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension
System. Haddam, CT. URL:
http://nemo.uconn.edu/publications/tech_papers/tech_paper_4.pdf,
Lacy J. 1990. Center for Rural Massachusetts. Manual of build-out analysis. URL:
http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~ruralma/CRM.pub.html, accessed
October, 2003. A step-by-step how-to guide on the methodology and appli-
cability of this planning tool.
Massachusetts Geographic Information System (GIS) website. URL:
http://www.state.ma.us/mgis/buildout.htm, accessed October, 2003.
MassGIS website includes information on the scope of services for a build-
out analysis. Includes specic information on using GIS to complete a
build-out analysis.
University of Vermont. Center for Rural Studies. Community Build-Out
Analysis Software webpage. URL: http://crs.uvm.edu/cpdp/buildout/,
accessed October, 2003
U.S. EPA. Green Communities website. How to do a build-out analysis. URL:
http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/build_out.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Examples of Build-Out Analyses
Brazer E., Cohen I., and Wallace, K. 2002. A build-out analysis: Coventry, Rhode
Island. Brown University Center for Environmental Studies. URL:
http://envstudies.brown.edu/Classes/Es192/2002/WebReports/Pawtuxet2.pdf,
balmori and benoit
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Build-out analysis. Department of Planning and Community Development,
Franklin, MA. URL: http://www.franklin.ma.us/town/planning/
buildout.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Lathrop R., and Conway T. 2001. A build-out analysis of the Barnegat Bay
Watershed. Grant F. Walton Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis.
Technical Report 2001-02. Cook College. Rutgers University. New
Brunswick, NJ. URL: http://crssa.rutgers.edu/projects/runj/buildout_
report.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Shaping future development: The role of current zoning. A build-out study of
central and western Montgomery County, PA. Montgomery County
Planning Commission. URL: http://www.epa.gov/greenkit/pdfs/futgrow0.
pdf, accessed October, 2003.
124
Planning
Recommendation
Construct a comprehensive plan for development and conservation.
Rationale
The comprehensive plan creates a blueprint for the future development and preser-
vation of a community. Any zoning, subdivision, or other laws based on this plan are
more defensible if challenged in court. (See the Comprehensive Planning page on the
Pace University School of Law, Land Use Law Center website for more information.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/comppl.html, accessed October, 2003.)
Strategies
A comprehensive plan can be uniquely adapted to each community. Although there
are no required elements of the plan, the following suggested components from the
Pace Land Use Law Center website (URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/comp-
pl.html, accessed October, 2003) may be useful:
A general statement of goals, objectives and standards upon which pro-

posals for the immediate and long-range growth and development of the
municipality are based;
Consideration of regional needs and ofcial plans of other government

units within the region;
Existing and proposed location and intensity of land uses;
Consideration of agricultural uses, historic and cultural resources, coastal

and natural resources and sensitive environmental areas;
Consideration of population, demographics and socio-economic trends

and future projections;
The location and types of transportation facilities;
Existing and proposed location of public and private utilities and infra-
structure;
Existing housing and future housing needs, including affordable housing;
Present and future location of historic sites, educational, cultural, health

and emergency services;
Existing and proposed recreational facilities and parkland;
Present and future locations of commercial and industrial facilities;
Specic policies and strategies for improving the local economy in coordi-
nation with other plan topics;
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125
Proposed measures, programs, devices and instruments to implement the

goals of the comprehensive plan;
All or part of the plan of another public agency;
Any and all other items which are consistent with the orderly growth and
development of the municipality.
Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. Planning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/comppl.html.\, accessed October,
2003.
Nolon J. 1993. Comprehensive land use planning: Learning how and where to
grow. Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. URL:
http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/nolona.html., accessed October, 2003.
New York Planning Federation. 1996. The practical guide to comprehensive plan-
ning. Address: 488 Broadway, Albany, New York 12207. Phone: (518) 432-
4094.
Examples of Model Plans
Woodbury, CT. 1999. Plan of Conservation and Development. URL:
http://www.woodburyct.org/conservation.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Chatham County, NC. Land Use Development Plan. URL:
http://www.co.chatham.nc.us/PlanningBoardItems/Land%20Use%20
Development%20Plan.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Bethany, CT. Plan of Conservation and Development. 1999. URL:
http://www.munic.state.ct.us/BETHANY/townplan.htm, accessed October,
2003.
Town of Canton, CT. Plan of Conservation and Development. URL:
http://www.townofcantonct.org/2002%20Draft%20POCD.PDF, accessed
October, 2003.
126
Zoning
Recommendation
Make zoning code more environmentally friendly. For example, towns might
include incentive zoning, performance zoning, mixed-use development, cluster
development, and designated growth zones.
Rationale
Zoning laws were originally intended to ensure the most appropriate use of the land
within a municipalitys jurisdiction. However, traditional zoning is often inadequate
for the increasing need for suburban development, city revitalization, and natural
resource protection. Several strategies can be used to update and modernize zoning
laws to allow for controlled development in designated growth areas and resource
protection in environmentally sensitive areas.
Strategies
Incentive Zoning. Incentive zoning allows for more intensive development of land
in a particular zone in exchange for community services, such as natural resource
protection, to be provided by the developers. Some of the incentives that may be
offered to developers include increased development densities, changes to building
height or set back requirements, or adjustments of other requirements specied in
the underlying zoning ordinance.
Performance Zoning. Performance zoning bases land use in a zone on the impact
the development will have on the surrounding environment. Instead of banning or
requiring certain types of land use performance zoning gives developers and munic-
ipalities more exibility to allow any type of development that meets specied per-
formance requirements. It is similar in spirit to performance based water quality
standards (as opposed to technology based standards).
Overlay Zoning. An Overlay Zone can be used to protect a natural resource or devel-
opment area by specifying provisions that apply in that area in addition to the origi-
nal zoning ordinance. These provisions may be more stringent than those contained
in the underlying zoning district.
Cluster Development. Cluster development can be used to allow developers to
group buildings in one location on a site, while leaving other portions available for
open space, wetlands protection, stormwater management, communal land, or some
other purpose. In this way, smaller lot sizes and increased density may be used in
areas previously zoned for larger lot sizes.
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Planned Unit Development (PUD). A PUD zone allows for some exibility when
developing large lots. For example, a development within a PUD zone might include
mixed uses, cluster development, or another innovative type of development. This
type of development requires close partnerships with the local community, as devel-
opers are often required to compensate for the impacts of their projects by setting
aside public open space or providing necessary infrastructure or other community
services.
Incentive Zoning
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Incentive Zoning. Pace University School of
Law. Land Use Law Center. Incentive Zoning website. URL: http://www.law.
pace.edu/landuse/incent.html, accessed October, 2003.
Examples
Arlington County, VA. Available from U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=789, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Incentive Zoning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bincent.html, accessed October, 2003.
Performance Zoning
Abalos R. Investing in Land. URL: http://www.investinginland.com/perform-
ance_zoning.htm, accessed October, 2003. Discussion of the pros and cons
of performance zoning.
Exner M., and Sawchuk R. 1996. Performance-Based Zoning Model.
Steppingstones Partnership, Inc. Edmonten, Alberta, Canada. URL:
http://www.steppingstones.ca/library/pbzoning.doc, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Shaping land development patterns: The case for performance
zoning. New York Law Journal. October 16, 2002.
Examples
Bucks County, PA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.
epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=174, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Breckenridge, CO. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
Town of Cary, NC. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=383, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Havana, FL. Freiden S. and Winters R. 1997. Performance zoning helps
key citys comeback. American City & County, June 1, 1997. URL:
http://www.americancityandcounty.com/ar/government_performance_
zoning_helps/, accessed October, 2003.
Town of Largo, FL. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
128
Overlay Zoning
Bavoso M. and Jones T. 1996. Overlay zoning: Application and implementation
in New York State. Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/overla.html , accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Overlay Zoning website.
URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/boverlay.html, accessed October, 2003.
Example
Annapolis, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.
epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=167, accessed October, 2003.
Cluster Development
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Cluster Development. Pace University School of
Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/cluste.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Cluster Development web-
site. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bcluster.html, accessed October,
2003.
Example
Burnett County, WI. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
Planned Unit Development
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Planned Unit Development. Pace University
School of Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/
landuse/pud.html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. Planned Unit
Development website. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/bpud.html,
Examples
East Greenwich, RI. Planned Development and Mixed Use Planned
Development Ordinance. URL: http://www.riedc.com/mcds/rimcdrame.
Town of Bellevue, WA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
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Environmental Impact Statements
Recommendation
Require environmental impact statements for all development projects.
Rationale
When potential environmental impacts are readily identied, they can more easily be
avoided or mitigated. Also, when developers are required to perform an environmen-
tal impact study, they might be more conscious of the projects intended and unin-
tended effects on natural ecosystem functions.
Strategies
Include a requirement for environmental impact statements in the municipal code.
This regulation can be more stringent than state and federal laws and, therefore, can
reduce the time and money needed to produce several different reports. Some munic-
ipalities require fees for adverse environmental impacts.
Information on preparing an Environmental Impact Statement. The Concord
Consortium. Concord, MA. URL: http://www.concord.org/~barbara/guide/impact/,
Examples
Barnstable County, MA. Environmental Impact Fee Regulations. U.S. EPA.
Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.
cfm?policyid=139, accessed October, 2003.
City of Beacon, NY. Environmental Impact Statement requirement. URL: http://
www.cityofbeacon.org/Beacon/BeaconCharter.htm, accessed October, 2003.
130
Natural Resources
Recommendation
Adopt individual ordinances to protect natural resources.
Rationale
When a town has identied and highlighted signicant local natural resources, it can
employ specic ordinances to protect these areas.
Strategies
Use overlay zones or separate ordinances to protect natural resources such as aquifers,
wetlands, ridgelines, scenic areas, trees, beaches, mountains, etc.
Examples/Tools
Nolon J. 2001. Preserving Natural Resources Through Local Environmental
Laws: A Guidebook for Local Governments. Land Use Law Center. Pace
University School of Law. White Plains, NY: 78-337. Contains a collection of
sample natural resource protection ordinances.
Examples of Open Space and Natural Resource Protection Ordinances
Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission. Municipal Natural Resource
Protection Tools. URL: http://www.dvrpc.org/planning/Protection%20
Tools/ordinances.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Newton, MA. Tree preservation. URL: http://www.ci.newton.ma.us/trees/
052003.htm,accessed October, 2003.
Mashpee, MA. Wetlands protection. URL: http://www.ci.mashpee.ma.us/
departments/conservation/wetinfo.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Gloucester, MA. Watershed Protection Overlay Zone. URL: http://www.ci.
gloucester.ma.us/comdev/zord-part5.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Fitchburg, MA. Stormwater and Erosion Control. URL: http://www.ci.
tchburg.ma.us/dstreb/conservationord.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
Newport, RI. Open Space District. URL: http://www.riedc.com/mcds/
rimcdrame.html, accessed October, 2003.
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Quick Fixes: Floating Zones
Recommendation
Use Floating Zones to promote a particular land use.
Rationale
Floating zones can be used on any parcel of land that meets specied requirements,
and they act as separate small zoning districts. Therefore, they can be used to promote
a particular type of land use, such as the type of natural development specied in the
LAND Code.
Strategies
Floating zones can be added to a towns zoning code and they apply to special types
of land use, such as mixed-use development, waterfront development, or green devel-
opment projects. For example, a oating zone could be established for any develop-
ment project that contains the principles specied in the LAND Code. These zones
can override existing zoning and subdivision regulations.
Examples/Tools
Pace University School of Law. Local Land Use Law Center. Floating Zones web-
site. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/boatin.html, accessed October,
2003.
Murphy M. and Stinson J. 1996. Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law
Center. URL: http://www.law.pace.edu/landuse/zone.html, accessed
October, 2003.
Examples of Floating Zones
City of Beacon, NY. Waterfront Development Zone. URL: http://www.cityof
beacon.org/Beacon/BeaconCharter.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Encourages the natural development practices suggested in the LAND Code.
Town of Ames, IA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
Montgomery County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
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Development Rights
Recommendation
Allow for Transfer of Development Rights (TDR).
Rationale
Sensitive environmental areas can be protected by transferring development rights
from those locations to areas more suitable for growth.
Strategies
Municipalities can adopt an ordinance that allows for the transfer of development
rights from one zoning district to another. This legislation establishes the sending
areas (areas to be protected) and receiving areas (areas that can accommodate higher
development density). Property owners in sending areas can sell their development
rights, and then developers who purchase those rights can increase development den-
sities in designated receiving areas.
Examples of Development Right Transfers
Boulder County, CO. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
Calvert County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
Central Pine Barrens, Long Island, NY. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database.
URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=292, accessed
October, 2003.
Chester County, PA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
Montgomery County, MD. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
San Luis Obispo County, CA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?policyid=266, accessed October, 2003
South Burlington, VT. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
Thurston County, WA. U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://
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Incentives
Recommendation
Provide incentives for developers to undertake natural development projects
within the municipality.
Rationale
Towns that reduce the amount of time and money it takes for developers to go
through the permitting process in exchange for meeting certain environmental
requirements will benet from increased natural development.
Strategies
Develop a fast-tracking program to reduce the time and money needed from devel-
opers to go through the local permitting process. In exchange, developers would have
to prove that their developments meet certain specied criteria, such as those pre-
sented in the LAND Code.
NJ Department of Environmental Protection. Silver and Gold Track Program for
Environmental Performance. Guidance Document. URL: http://www.
state.nj.us/dep/special/silver/fulldoc.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Project Excellence and Leadership (XL). U.S. EPA. Ofce of Policy, Economics,
and Innovation. URL: http://www.epa.gov/ProjectXL/, accessed October,
2003. Allows state and local governments, businesses and federal facilities to
develop innovative strategies to test methods of environmental and public
health protection. In exchange, EPA allows regulatory, program, policy, or
procedural exibilities to conduct the experiment.
Redevelopment of Atlanta Steel property in Atlanta, GA. U.S. EPA. Smart
Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/policy.cfm?poli-
cyid=623, accessed October, 2003.
References for Municipalities
Barnett J. 2001. Regional design: Local codes as cause and cure of sprawl.
Planning for a New Century. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicot City, MD. URL: http://www.cwp.org,
Municipal Code Corporation. Municipal Ordinance Retrieval Site. URL: http://
www.municode.com/Resources/online_codes.asp, accessed October, 2003.
National Association of Counties. County Code and Ordinance Search. URL:
http://www.naco.org/Content/NavigationMenu/About_Counties/Codes_and
_Ordinances/Codes_and_Ordinances.htm, accessed October, 2003.
134
New York State Legislative Commission on Rural Resources. 1995. Local Planning
and Zoning Zurvey: New York State Cities, Cowns and Villages. Second
Edition. Legislative Ofce Building, Albany, N.Y. 12247; (518) 426-6960.
Nolon J., Ed. 2002. New Ground: The Advent of Local Environmental Law.
Environmental Law Institute, 2002. URL: http://www.pace.edu/lawschool/
landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Open Ground: Effective Local Strategies for Protecting Natural
Resources. Environmental Law Institute. URL: http://www.pace.edu/
lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2001. Well Grounded: Using Local and Land Use Authority to Achieve
Smart Growth. Environmental Law Institute. URL: http://www.pace.edu/
lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. In Praise of Parochialism: The Advent of Local Environmental
Law. Harvard Environmental Law Review. Available at http://www.pace.
edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 2002. Discovering Local Environmental Law. Zoning and Planning Law
Report. URL: http://www.pace.edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Nolon J. 1998. Flexibility in the Law: The Re-engineering of Zoning to Prevent
Fragmented Landscapes. New York Law Journal. URL: http://www.law.pace.
edu/landuse/reengine.html, accessed October, 2003.
Pace University School of Law. Land Use Law Center. URL: http://www.pace.
edu/lawschool/landuse/, accessed October, 2003.
Smart Growth America. URL: http://www.smartgrowthamerica.com/links_
states.html, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Browneld Cleanup and Redevelopment Program. URL: http://www.
epa.gov/brownelds, accessed October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Smart Growth Policy Database. URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/sgpdb/
browse.cfm, accessed October, 2003.
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Community Relations
Recommendation
Build personal relationships with community members.
Rationale
The face of local law is made up of individual citizens and policy-makers. Therefore,
personal relationships and effective communication can encourage more exible
interpretation or adaptation of local regulations if common goals are identied.
Strategies
At the beginning of the planning stage, prepare a sketch of the potential development,
a brief statement of principles, and a list of environmental and economic benets.
This is also an excellent time to seek out partnerships with environmental organiza-
tions and other community groups (as recommended in the economics section).
Another strategy for both building community support and exploring how the devel-
opment can more closely meet the needs of the community is through a charrette, an
intense multi-disciplinary workshop designed to facilitate discussions between stake-
holders of a development project.
Arendt R. 1999. Growing Greener: Putting Conservation into Local Plans and
Ordinances. Island Press. Washington, D.C. Includes guidelines for design-
ing and promoting conservation subdivsions.
Charrette Center, Inc. Design Consulting and Information Services for New
Urbanism. URL: http://www.charrettecenter.com/, accessed October, 2003.
A detailed list of the stages and roles of the charrette process.
National Charrette Institute. URL: http://www.nationalcharretteinstitute.org/,
accessed October, 2003. Training materials, case studies and resources.
University of Louisville, KY. Sustainable Urban Neighborhoods Program. The
Neighborhood Charrette Handbook. URL: http://www.louisville.edu/
org/sun/planning/char.html, October, 2003.
136
Education
Recommendation
Be prepared to educate.
Rationale
Green development practices are often perceived as risky and untested, and are thus
avoided. The rst step of an innovative project involves educating town ofcials and
community members.
Strategies
Educational strategies range from advertising through the mass media, to meeting
with schools and community groups, or screening anti-sprawl documentaries at the
local independent movie theater. The LAND Code can also serve as an excellent edu-
cational tool, as each recommendation includes citations of the latest academic
research and professional experience supporting the claim. In addition, a one-page
fact sheet on natural development with a list of the developers experience in green
design should be circulated in the community. The ultimate educational strategy cho-
sen should be based on the resources and time available for education and the resist-
ance to the project you perceive in the community.
There are numerous sources for information on environmentally responsible land
development. Many of the following have detailed examples and case studies of suc-
cessful projects.
Documentaries
Paving the American Dream: Southern Cities, Shores and Sprawl. URL:
http://www.uncwil.edu/smartgrowth/, accessed October, 2003.
Save Our Land, Save Our Towns, URL: http://www.saveourlandsaveourtowns.
org/, accessed October, 2003.
Subdivide and Conquer: A Modern Western. URL: http://www.subdividelm.
com/, accessed October, 2003.
The Sprawling of America: Inner City Blues. URL: http://www.gltv.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
Books
Duany A., Speck J., and Plater-Zyberk E. 2002. Smart Growth Manual. McGraw-
Hill Professional Publishing.
Duany A., Speck J., and Plater-Zyberk E. 2000. Suburban Nation: The Rise of
Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. North Point Press.
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137
Hall K. and Portereld G. 2001. Community by Design: New Urbanism for
Suburbs and Small Communities. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.
Kay J. 1998. Asphalt Nation: How the Automobile Took Over America, and How
We Can Take It Back. University of California Press.
Kunstler J. 1994. The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of Americas
Man-Made Landscape. Touchstone Books.
Websites
Congress for New Urbanism. URL: http://www.cnu.org/index.cfm, accessed
October, 2003. An organization founded by architects promoting livable
communities and participatory design.
Smart Growth America. URL: http://smartgrowthamerica.org/, accessed
October, 2003.
U.S. EPA. Smart Growth website. URL: http://www.epa.gov/livability/, accessed
October, 2003.
United States Green Building Council (USGBC). Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System. URL:
http://www.usgbc.org/LEED/LEED_main.asp, accessed October, 2003.
Municipal Codes
Recommendation
Take a close look at municipal codes during the initial planning stages.
Rationale
Undertaking a comprehensive study of the municipalitys code will save time and
money in the long run by enabling developers to anticipate potential problem areas
and come up with solutions.
Strategies
Thoroughly read all of the towns laws and locate all areas that would potentially
affect the green development project. Pay careful attention to things like minimum
road widths, wetland and watercourse buffers, road curb and pavement require-
ments, storm-water treatment requirements, parking lot specications, etc. If vari-
ances are needed, try to bundle them together and apply for all at the same time to
expedite the permitting process.
Examples/Tools
See the rst assessment recommendation for municipalities for more information on
auditing local laws. Particularly useful may be the Codes and Ordinances work-
sheet on the Center for Watershed Protections website, available at URL:
http://www.cwp.org/COW_worksheet.htm, accessed October, 2003.
138
The LAND Code:
*
Approaches to
Green Development Saving
Time and Money
Partnerships 141
Beacon Landing Partnership, Beacon, New York 142
The Civano Project, Tucson, Arizona 144
Builders for the Bay, Maryland 145
Fast Track Approvals 146
Tax Credits, State and Corporate Grants 147
Site Selection 149
Brownelds Development 149
Inll Development 150
Greeneld Development 151
Site Assessment 153
Site Planning and Design 154
Materials Selection 154
Permeable Surfacing Materials 154
Drainage System 155
Sustainable Drainage System (SUDS) 155
Landscape Design 155
Natural Landscape Design 155
Engineered Landscape Design 156
Site Construction 158
Construction Waste and Recycling 158
Site Promotion and Education 159
Future Considerations 160
Non-Point Source Pollution Trading 160
balmori and benoit
139
which to achieve
land of many types,
details.
introduction
It is a general misconception that investing in the environment is a nancial drain and
that the impetus for doing so is to simply fulll regulations. To the contrary, investing
in environmental technology has numerous benets including increasing real estate
asset values. (Trevisani 1998) Innovest Strategic Value Advisors, a research rm based
in New York, Toronto, and London created a ranking system EcoValue 21 which
ranks companies based on 62 variables within each industrial sector for relative eco-
efciency. The concept is that companies with superior management of environ-
mental issues often outperform their competitors in general and are rewarded by the
market.
For example, in an analysis by Innovest of 12 companies in the real-estate sector
between June 2000 June 2002, companies in the real-estate sector with above aver-
age energy management performance outperformed the below average companies by
over 3,400 basis points in the stock market. In addition, stock market performance of
companies participating in EPAs Energy Star program outperformed non-partici-
pants by over 1,200 basis points during the same period (June 2000-June 2002).
Blank H. and Carty C. 2002. The Eco-Efciency Anomaly. Quantitative
Evaluation and Development International Associates, Inc. New York, NY.
URL: www.QedInternational.com, accessed October, 2003.
Innovest Strategic Value Advisors. October 2002. Energy Management &
Investor Returns: The Real Estate Sector.
Trevisani C. 1998. The Effects of Environmental Technology on Real Estate
Development How to Increase Asset Value Through the Implementation
of Environmental Technology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
the land code: approaches to green development
140
balmori and benoit
141
Partnerships
The formation of public-private partnerships is a potential mechanism that can be
used to nance green development projects. Public dollars can be obtained for devel-
opment projects that provide public benets. Partnerships between environmentally
conscious non-prot organizations can also aid in the nancing of green development
through tax avoidance vehicles, donations, and infrastructure development. (Rocky
Mountain Institute (RMI) 1998) Additional advantages include benets in the form of
preferred nancing by lending institutions, expertise related to local and/or environ-
mental matters, and increased public support of the development. See examples in
following pages.
Example
Beacon Landing
A partnership between Scenic Hudson Inc. (nonprot environmental organiza-
tion), Ned Foss of CGI & Partners (a for-prot development group) and the City
of Beacon, New York, enables 23 acres of waterfront land to be developed into an
ecologically sound yet economically feasible green hotel, marina and waterfront
park. Scenic Hudson Inc.s mission to protect and enhance the scenic, natural, his-
toric, agricultural and recreational treasures of the Hudson River and its valley has
attracted Ned Fosss for-prot development group to satisfy their overlapping
goals. Scenic Hudson Inc. owns the 23-acre site and is nalizing a 99-year land lease
with the development group. In addition to stimulating Beacons economic devel-
opment, the partnership will yield city tax revenue and provide waterfront open
space and river access to Beacon residents.
Major Partners
Scenic Hudson Inc. and Ned Foss, CGI & Partners
Project Cost
Approximately $30 million for land acquisition, environmental resource assess-
ments, community planning, and construction of a 90-room hotel and incidental
facilities (160,000 square feet of building on several levels with built space covering
two acres) (Linder 2003). The majority of site area will be parkland (Wolf 2002).
Economic Benefits of the Partnership
Beacon Landing site plans are coordinated and endorsed by Scenic Hudson
Inc., which reduces the City of Beacons fear of greenwashing by the devel-
oper. Enhanced local public support and reduced opposition for the green
developer as Scenic Hudsons involvement has set the table for a ground
breaking environmentally responsive project.
Scenic Hudson invested signicantly on the front end of the process before
the developer was selected. They assembled the site, held it, and voluntar-
ily left the property on the tax rolls. The developers purchase and holding
costs were eliminated.
Waterfront development of Beacon Landing as a former industrial site

next to the town center and an adjacent New York City commuter rail sta-
tion have created a domino redevelopment effect which has attracted the
Dia Center for the Arts and the Rivers and Estuaries Center on the
Hudson. Beacon was also selected in Spring 03 to be the site of the Rivers
and Estuaries Center on the Hudson, a world-class scientic research and
education institution expected eventually to have a $50 million annual
operating budget. These attractions are expected to draw thousands of vis-
itors annually (Polgreen 2003). Beacon Landing stimulates the City of
Beacons economic development, attracting downtown housing revitaliza-
tion and raising property values. This steadily improving regional eco-
142
balmori and benoit
143
nomic climate further enhances the potential economic benets for the
town and Beacon Landing.
Scenic Hudson retains the land and the prestige to seek public funds for
environmental projects as solar energy systems and waterfront redevel-
opment proposals for Beacon Landing receive hundreds of thousands of
dollars from New York State energy and environmental protection grants
(Ofce of the Governor of NY 2003). Developer benets from cost sav-
ings from grant money, which further enhances the green projects like-
lihood of nancial success.
Some initial site planning and all site remediation have been paid for by
Scenic Hudson Inc. All subsequent community based review will be paid
by the developer. Developer accrues cost savings and time savings as less
capital is used by the developer for site study.
Economic Hurdles faced by the Partnership
If Scenic Hudson wants a must be green clause in the lease in order to

ensure that the project will be operated in a green manner, a mortgage
will be difcult to obtain as there are no objective standards of green
operation.
The developer must proceed in consultation with the local community,

which can slow the process.
The developer lost some prot from the imposition of a lower density
project by Scenic Hudson compared to what was allowable by zoning.
However, the protability of the hotel market for the region could cover
the lower density prot trade-off. Green development has long-term prof-
itability and as a result the payback of the green investment is sometimes
slower than other types of investment under current market conditions.
Berger C. and Johnstone Q. 1993. Land Transfer and Finance: Cases and
Materials, 4th ed., Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Linder L. 2003. American Institute of Architects (AIA) Development Partner
of Longdock at Beacon. Personal Communication. April 23, 2003.
Ofce of the Governor of New York. Press Release. March 26, 2001. Governor:
$1.8 million for Mid-Hudson parks, preservation
Polgreen L. April 22, 2003. City on Hudson adds a jewel: River research. New
York Times. Sect. B p.9.
Rocky Mountain Institute.1998. Green Development: Integrating Ecology and
Real Estate. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
Scenic Hudson. URL: www.scenichudson.org/, accessed October, 2003.
Wolf, C. August 18, 2002. Vistas to circle green hotel. Poughkeepsie Journal.
144
Example
The Civano Project
The Civano Project, a 916-acre sustainable urban village in Tucson, Arizona, was
initially a partnership between Case Enterprises and the Trust for Sustainable
Development based in British Columbia. Ultimately, Case Enterprises bought out
the Trusts shares of the project and formed a partnership with the City of Tucson
for risk sharing and some nancial support. This partnership alleviated some of the
developers concerns, primarily, that building conservation-oriented structures
would price themselves out of Tucsons sprawling suburban market by directing
growth to specic locations (RMI 1998).
Major Partners
Case Enterprises, Trust for Sustainable Development (initial partner), and the City
of Tucson, Arizona.
Project Cost
Approximately $2.3 million for land, $30 million for site development, $400 mil-
lion for construction costs of which $38 million will be nanced through munici-
pal bonds issued by the City for infrastructure. The City will also spend $4 million
in future general obligation bonds for parks and recreation and an additional $3
million for other infrastructure improvements (RMI 1998).
The City of Tucson, as a nancial and political partner of the project, is able
to reduce high future infrastructure costs of sprawling development, saving
$500,000 annually, while proactively direct[ing] growth into high-density,
clustered development in areas where growth is already occurring. (RMI
1998) The developer does not need to spend time convincing lending institu-
tions of the benets of compact development, as the City is a major lending
partner. The project also benets from a low interest rate on tax-exempt
nancing. Additionally, up to 10 percent of the Civano projects prots will be
placed into a fund for sustainability research on Tucson and the region (RMI
1998). This research could enhance the regions efcient use of resources, pro-
viding additional infrastructure and energy savings for the city.
Economic Hurdles Faced by the Partnership
The Citys $7 million infrastructure and community center investments

require political and nancial support from taxpayers, but are expected to
be repaid within eight years. Civano homes are expected to sell for a
$10,000 premium which tenants will partially recover through special tax
assessments spread over 25 years as well as lifecycle operation savings.
Civano Community. URL: http://www.civano.com/, accessed October, 2003.
Rocky Mountain Institute.1998. Green Development: Integrating Ecology and
balmori and benoit
145
Example
Builders for the Bay
A partnership of the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), the Center for
Watershed Protection (CWP) and the Chesapeake Bay Alliance (CBA) that promotes
environmentally responsible residential and commercial site development for the
rapidly growing population of the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Builders for the Bay
brings local homebuilders together with environmentalists to ensure environmentally
responsible site development at the local level. It enables development and environ-
ment interests to create jointly supported development code reforms for a local
municipality. This consensus provides communities with the support needed to enact
local level changes to promote sound environmental and economic development.
Major Partners
National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), Center for Watershed
Protection (CWP) and the Chesapeake Bay Alliance (CBA)
Project Cost
Nominal administrative costs of convening partners and producing model devel-
opment principles for local municipalities.
This common ground approach signicantly reduces the costs of lobby and
litigation for both environment and development groups and enables com-
munity needs to become more of a focus of the development process. Jointly
supported recommendations provide signicant time savings for the devel-
oper due to minimal environmental and community opposition. The up-
front participation of the NAHB has made local building associations more
willing to participate. Ultimately, this consensus-development with commu-
nity support will minimize the longer-term environmental damages to the
Chesapeake Bay shery, water quality, and recreation opportunities.
Economic Hurdles faced by the Partnership
Consensus-building requires more up-front time spent by developers

and environmental groups. Nominal costs of partnership roundtables
and document preparations.
Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. Developing a better watershed: Program
aims to build better relations between developers, environmentalists. The
Bay Journal. vol. 11, no. 10.
Builders for the Bay Program. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
URL: http://www.cwp.org/builders_for_bay.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Frederick County (MD) Consensus Agreement. 1999. Consensus Recommen-
dations for Fredrick County, MD. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott
City, MD. URL: http://www.cwp.org/Frederick.pdf, accessed October, 2003.
146
Fast Track Approvals
Time is money. Land development often requires a myriad of approvals issued by a
maze of ofcials and commissions across municipal and state levels. This complex
regulatory web can yield countless delays and processing costs for developers and reg-
ulators alike, discouraging green development. The approval processes could promote
green development through mutually agreed upon environmental performance goals
established between developers and regulators that reduce up-front time spent on
approvals. Structural incentives which could elicit more green development projects
include fast-tracked permitting for projects which satisfy LAND Code guidelines,
sequential permit scheduling, consolidated reporting and smart permits which pro-
vide exibility for developers and regulators to modify permits for specic cases.
Example
New Jersey Silver and Gold Track Program for Environmental Performance
This performance-based program developed by the New Jersey Department of
Environmental Protection (NJDEP) provides time saving incentives for qualied
companies such as a single point of contact and an expedited permit process.
Under the program, a single case manager would be assigned by the NJDEP to
coordinate all permit processing for the company. A mutually agreed upon permit
schedule would be established upfront, to reect sequential permitting and review
processes. In exchange for these enhanced levels of regulatory exibility, a partici-
pating company would cooperatively develop enforceable covenants for environ-
mental performance with the NJDEP.
Benefits
The reduction of upfront time spent by companies on the approvals process will
enable more time-efcient scheduling of production with less regulatory uncer-
tainty. Environmental benets will be achieved through mutually agreed upon
performance goals, promoting cost-effective exibility for companies amidst
cooperative regulatory oversight.
Costs
Front-loaded costs for the company incurred during the programs application
and eligibility review process as well as joint discussions to create an enforceable
covenant.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP). Silver and Gold
Track Program for Environmental Performance. URL: http://www.nj.gov/dep/
opppc/silver.html, accessed October, 2003.
Tax Credits, State and Corporate Grants
Municipalities and states with tax authority can promote green development by offer-
ing nancial incentives such as tax credits to developers, landowners and tenants. Tax
credits and grants that incentivize green development can help to stimulate a market
response through increased demand for green technologies.
A project manager for The Solaire, a green building in New York City which has
received a green building tax credit, has already seen construction material suppliers
respond to the green demand observing, First theres resistance to new things, then
acceptance, then competition kicks in, and you get innovation [and] efciency.
(Johnson 2002)
Examples
New York State Green Building Tax Credit
This tax credit program administered by the New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation (DEC) was granted $25 million to promote green build-
ing standards. Projects receiving the credits utilize a range of strategies which enhance
energy efciency, improve indoor air quality and conserve water. Owners and tenants
of buildings (banks, insurance companies, utilities, etc.) are eligible for the credit.
Benefits
Five buildings throughout New York State have been awarded more than $18 mil-
lion in tax credits for use over ve years. The tax credits for The Solaire in New York
City will cover approximately 7% of the construction costs. The tax credits enable
developers to use energy efcient, yet less widely used technologies which will like-
ly yield substantial energy savings over the longer term. The Solaire has become a
symbol of leadership in green urban design, attracting publicity and providing
leverage for cost saving deals with manufacturers eager to showcase their products.
Costs
Application procedures and certication documentation both require up-front time.
State Grant Programs for Greenroofs
The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), a
public benet corporation, awarded a grant for innovative building products to
Long Island City, NY for the installation and monitoring of a green roof by Balmori
Associates. NYSERDA funds research and development of energy-efciency related
technologies, programs and products for a range of public, private and non-prot
efforts. Grant awards can average up to $200,000 total. This fund costs about $.70
per New York resident per year. (URL: www.nyserda.org, accessed October, 2003.)
Corporate Grants
The Earth Pledge Viridian Project in New York City provides technical and nan-
cial support for the construction of green roofs on buildings that support low to
balmori and benoit
147
moderate-income individuals. Citigroup Foundation contributed $25,000 to co-
sponsor this project. (URL: www.earthpledge.org, accessed October, 2003.)
Balmori Associates. URL: www.balmori.com, accessed October, 2003.
Johnson K. October 15, 2002. A green foothold in downtown concrete; apartment
high-rise will set an environmental benchmark near ground zero. The New
York Times. Section B; p. 1; col. 1; Metropolitan Desk.
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Green Building Tax
Credit Program. URL: http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/ppu/grnbldg/index.
148
Site Selection
Brownfields Development
Redeveloping a browneld site is ecologically preferable and creates overall efciency,
as infrastructure is generally in place and the site, if urban, is likely accessible to pub-
lic transportation, retail centers, and employment opportunities. Further, certain
types of development may be allowed on a browneld site that is not permitted on
other sites. The EPAs Brownelds Cleanup and Redevelopment program provides
assistance in assessing properties, preventing additional contamination, cleaning up
contaminated properties, and developing re-use designs. (U.S. EPA. Brownelds web-
site. URL: http://www.epa.gov/brownelds/, accessed October, 2003.)
Benefits
Tax incentives, such as a tax credit; capital attraction incentives, such as loans to make
nancial resources directly available to the borrower; and initiatives to support
nancing, such as federal policies that ensure process certainty, can provide the devel-
oper with signicant nancial benets for redeveloping a brownelds site. (Bartsch
2003) There is no single approach, as nancing needs of browneld projects vary by
project type, developer (i.e., non-prot development corporation or private investor),
level and type of contamination, and nancial position and desired return of the site
owner or developer.
Costs
While there is an initial outlay of time a developer will spend educating his or her self
about federal, state, and local brownelds programs, the benets are signicant. As the
developer becomes more familiar with the process, economies of scale will effectively
lower this initial investment of time. Other potential costs include increased loan
transaction costs (Bartsch 2003).
Example
Public Law 107-118: Brownelds Revitalization and Environmental Restoration Act of
2001 was signed into law on January 11, 2002 as part of the Small Business Liability
Relief and Brownelds Revitalization Act. This Act provides money for assessment of
the site and cleanup. It also has a tax credit incentive that allows developers to expense
all money spent on cleanup in one year.
Bartsch C. 2003. Financing browneld cleanup and redevelopment. Northeast-
Midwest Institute. URL: http://www.nemw.org/brownn.htm, accessed
October, 2003.
Public Law 107-118: Brownelds Revitalization and Environmental Restoration
Act of 2001.
U.S. EPA. Brownelds Cleanup and Redevelopment website. URL: http://www.
epa.gov/brownelds/, accessed October, 2003.
balmori and benoit
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Infill Development
Inll development may consist of redeveloping a deteriorating non-browneld site,
redeveloping a browneld site, or even developing a greeneld site that is surrounded
by development. Inll development is ecologically preferable to development of a
freestanding greeneld site as it directs development toward areas that already have
infrastructure that can accommodate density. The Northeast-Midwest Institute pro-
vides a helpful guide Strategies for Successful Inll Development.
Benefits
There are often tax incentives and other subsidies available to the inll developer.
Some communities offer density bonuses. There are also federal incentives available
such as tax credits for affordable housing as well as for historic rehabilitation. In addi-
tion, inll developers can gain market share in new consumer preferences for housing
close to town centers, shops, and parks.
Costs
In order to take advantage of inll development, proper planning is necessary includ-
ing understanding the communitys long-term vision, whether the community is will-
ing to invest in inll development, and whether local zoning permits mixed uses.
Some communities may be apprehensive about increased density, trafc concerns, etc.
and may require community consensus-building measures.
Example
Since 1950, Detroit, Michigan has lost half its population. This has resulted in vacant
and deteriorating property and land throughout the city. To combat the problem, in
1994 the Detroit Land Use Task Force, under the direction of Mayor Dennis Archer,
made recommendations to revitalize downtown neighborhoods and promote inll
development and re-use of buildings. As a result, General Motors moved thousands of
employees into formerly vacant downtown ofce buildings. Additionally, land values
have increased as demand for housing in the area has also risen.
Northeast-Midwest Institute. Strategies for Successful Inll Development. URL:
http://www.nemw.org/inllbook.htm, accessed October, 2003.
150
Greenfield Development
In general, greeneld development is least preferential as it tends to promote sprawl
and negatively impact both ecosystems and a broader sense of place. However,
through clustering techniques implemented in conservation subdivisions, greeneld
projects can be designed to minimize ecological harm while maximizing the commu-
nity character and quality of life for residents and save the developer money in
reduced infrastructure and construction costs. Clustering techniques can also be used
in non-residential scenarios.
Benefits
Conservation subdivisions have at least ve economic advantages over conventional
subdivisions: 1) reduced infrastructure and construction costs, e.g. smaller lot sizes or
clustering and incorporating multi-unit dwellings require less street and utilities; 2)
marketing and sales advantages, e.g. based on conserved environmental amenities
such as wetlands or upland forests; 3) value appreciation, e.g. studies indicate homes
in conservation subdivisions appreciate faster; 4) reduced demand for new public
parkland, e.g. advantage to local governments that may be passed on, in part, to devel-
opers; and 5) smoother review process, e.g. less conict as project may meet many
local needs and objectives (Arendt 1999).
As a result of their economic advantages, developers across the country are beginning
to look to conservation subdivisions as a balanced solution to multiple obstacles. If
available through zoning or through variance, developers are nding that consumer
preference and local objectives can be served through it use. For example, Atlantas
conservation subdivision creates communities with forests, some a big as public
parks (Frankston 2002).
Additionally, clustering techniques in non-residential settings can similarly save the
developer infrastructure costs.
Costs
It could take extra time to obtain a variance if conservation subdivisions or clustering
techniques are not permitted in local zoning.
Example
Prairie Crossing in Grayslake, Illinois is well known example of a conservation subdi-
visions. (Gilroy 2002) Approximately half of the subdivision is preserved in its natu-
ral state, including lakes, farmland, forest, and prairie as the land . . . was purchased
to safeguard its open spaces, which differentiates this project from most develop-
ments. (Prairie Crossing Guiding Principles. URL: http://www.prairiecrossing.com/
pc/site/guiding-principles.html, accessed October, 2003.) Additionally, the subdivi-
sion borders the 2,500-acre Liberty Prairie Reserve, so the open spaces preserved in
Prairie Crossing add to the wildlife corridor.
balmori and benoit
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Photo Credit: URL: http://www.prairiecrossing.com/pc/site/index.html, accessed October, 2003.
Arendt R. 1999. Growing Greener: Putting Conservation into Local Plans and
Ordinances. ISW Press, Washington D.C.
Frankston J. July 29, 2002. With the Rise of conservation subdivisions,
Developers Find Green Spaces Make Economic Sense. Atlanta Journal-
Constitution.
Gilroy L. 2002. Conservation subdivision design: A market-friendly approach to
local environmental protection. Reason Public Policy Institute. URL:
http://www.rppi.org/conservationsubdivision.html, accessed October, 2003.
Prairie Crossing Conservation Communitiy. URL: http://www.prairiecrossing.
com/pc/site/index.html, accessed October, 2003.
Prairie Crossing Guiding Principles. URL: http://www.prairiecrossing.com/pc/
site/ guiding-principles.html, accessed October, 2003.
152
Site Assessment
Solar access, vegetative shading, natural drainage, and cooling from prevailing winds
are landscape resources that can be incorporated into site planning, building layout,
and landscape design to reduce energy and infrastructure costs. These resources can be
identied through comprehensive and thorough site assessments. Natural resources
inventories and site assessments can prevent costly siting mistakes such as the
Portuguese Bend, California development in which 156 homes slid down the hillside
due to unabsorbed septic tank efuent. The site assessment team failed to identify the
underlying shale as an ineffective layer for absorbing sewage efuent (RMI 1998).
The aesthetic value of the United Parcel Service corporate ofce park in Atlanta,
Georgia is signicantly enhanced by the buildings layout within a heavily wooded,
native, multiple-acre forest. The site assessment identied the forest as native, south-
ern forest growth. UPS landscape design rm recognized the potential for capitaliz-
ing on the sites forest assets with an integrated building and site design (RMI 1998).
Benefits
Site assessment can help developers to capitalize on the lands potential through
assessment and protection of natural services to enable vegetative shading, solar gain,
natural cooling from prevailing winds, and undisturbed hydrologic cycles. Site assess-
ments can enhance the aesthetic value of buildings and site through integrated land-
scape and building design. Worker productivity increases can result from energy ef-
cient building design (RMI 1994).
Costs
Site assessments may increase up-front time. However, federal, state and local land use
regulations usually require protection of wetland features, a process which already
includes a site assessment.
Rocky Mountain Institute. URL: http://www.rmi.org, accessed October, 2003.
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Site Planning and Design
Materials Selection
Permeable Surfacing Materials
Permeable surfacing materials are made to allow water to pass freely through when it
rains. They can be made of specially engineered permeable asphalt, or lattice-shaped
pavers constructed with combinations of gravel, glass, plastic, concrete, or grass (see
Engineering section for more detail and sources).
Benefits
The use of permeable surfacing materials will promote groundwater recharge and
ood control through inltration and deep seepage and may enhance the natural sys-
tem in areas where there are naturally shallow or clay soils. By using such material,
developers can save costs on more expensive drainage systems. Additionally, the use of
permeable surfaces will save the municipality tax dollars by conserving the existing
storm water drain system and a lower volume of water routed to treatment facilities.
(City of Victoria 2003) Municipalities may offer incentives for this type of surfacing
based on municipal savings. The aesthetic benets of using permeable surfacing mate-
rials may afford the developer higher sales or rental prices as well as marketing oppor-
tunities and a unique market position.
Costs
Porous materials may cost more than bulk materials such as asphalt and may require
skilled labor and take more time to install. However, these costs may be signicantly
offset by benets incurred.
Examples
Permeable surfacing materials include Grasscrete, Grass Pave, SF-RIMA,

and Brick Pavers (see Engineering section).
Caption: Grass Pave with sub-surface structure in the foreground.
Photo Credit: City of Victoria, British Columbia
The expansion of the Westfarms Mall in West Hartford, CT by 300,000 sq.

ft, made stormwater management an obstacle. The developer was faced with
two choices: expand existing detention ponds at a cost of $1 million or pave
154
the four acre overow parking area with a permeable surface similar to
grass pave at a cost of only $500,000. The developer chose to use permeable
surfacing. In addition to saving money, the project also received support
from neighboring property owners as well as the local planning commis-
sion and wetland commission (RMI 1998).
City of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. 2003. URL: http://www.city. victoria.
bc.ca/common/index.shtml, accessed October, 2003.
Rocky Mountain Institute. 1998. Green Development: Integrating Ecology and
Drainage System
Sustainable Drainage Systems or SUDS
SUDS include waddis, swales, canals and other water retention systems designed to
mimic natural wetlands.
Benefits
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SUDS) satisfy the developers requirements of ood
management and surface water drainage as well as promote ground water recharge
through inltration and deep seepage, the conservation or enhancement of natural
resources and habitat, and reduce non-point source pollution.
The use of SUDS can save the developer infrastructure costs, may provide the devel-
oper fast tracking through the local permitting process, could allow the developer to
take advantage of special loans (ie: Urban Growth and New Communities
Development Act of 1970), may provide the developer marketing opportunities and a
unique market position and may afford the developer higher sales or rental prices as
it has been found that the size and proximity to wetlands increases property values
(Mahan et al. 2000).
Costs
Without the cooperation of the local municipality, the developer may incur costs dur-
ing the permitting process. However, municipalities have an incentive to approve sys-
tems that reduce storm water runoff. Initially, developers may incur design costs that
could be minimized over time through economies of scale.
Landscape Design
Natural Landscape Design
Natural landscape design is design that incorporates and preserves natural features
such as woodlands, prairies, and wetlands on the site and utilizes water-conservative
vegetation.
balmori and benoit
155
Benefits
With proper site planning, the developer can reduce grading and other construction
costs by leaving as much natural vegetation as possible intact. Additionally, the preser-
vation of natural vegetation adds stability to the site and reduces soil erosion during
and after construction. Furthermore, native vegetation that is purchased through
greenhouses stimulates a new market for related services. Most importantly, native
vegetation is often more water efcient and requires less maintenance than non-native
plantings. However, non-invasive non-native species can be used if they are water ef-
cient. Additionally, the use or preservation of vegetation generally can aid in the heat-
ing and cooling efciency of the building.
Costs
The developer may incur added site evaluation and planning costs and may have dif-
culty nding native vegetation readily available for purchase.
Example
Native vegetation can be obtained creatively and inexpensively by working with the
local Department of Transportation.
Engineered Landscape Design
An urban landscape is predominantly devoid of natural features and, as a result, many
of the benets of natural features such as ground water recharge and natural
stormwater management are lost. Engineered landscape designs that mimic nature,
such as the use of a greenroof system, can help mitigate the negative effects of the
urban environment.
Caption: Greenroofs can be used as community space in the form of a rooftop garden.
Photo Credit: URL: http://www.greengridroofs.com/Pages/benets.htm, accessed October, 2003.
156
Benefits
Greenroofs have numerous benets, including reduced energy costs and stormwater
management. In addition, greenroofs extend the life of the roof, resulting in mainte-
nance savings.
Costs
While greenroofs are added costs, they can result in signicant savings. Costs vary
depending on materials, whether the greenroof is custom or pre-fabricated and other
factors. Costs may be defrayed by local, state, or federal programs that promote eco-
logical design.
Example
A pre-vegetated moss and sedum roong system was installed on top of a parking lot at
the Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam by Strodhoff & Behrens Begruennungs GmbH of
Gross Ippener, Germany. The vegetated mats do not require soil and the substrate below
is designed to enhance drainage (Erosion Control Magazine, November-December 1998).
Caption: Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam parking lot greenroof.
Photo Credit: Erosion Control Magazine, November/December 1998.
Erosion Control Magazine. November/December 1998.
Greengrid Roofs. URL: http://www.greengridroofs.com/, accessed October, 2003.
Greenroofs.Com. URL: http://www.greenroofs.com/, accessed October, 2003.
Green Roof Case Studies. Greenroofs.com. URL: http://www.greenroofs.com/
world_extensive_cases.htm, accessed October, 2003.
Greenroofs for Healthy Cities. URL: http://peck.ca/grhcc/, accessed October, 2003.
Mahan B., Polasky S., and Adams R. 2000. Valuing urban wetlands: A property
price approach. Land Economics. 76(1): 100-113.
balmori and benoit
157
Site Construction
Construction Waste and Recycling
Benefits
Managing construction waste can result in huge savings, e.g. reduced tipping fees for
materials that are normally landlled. Additionally, there are non-prot materials
exchange redistribution centers where excess materials can be donated for tax deduc-
tions and inexpensive materials can be obtained for members. For example, see the
Hudson Valley Materials Exchange.
Costs
Efforts to plan waste management requires some additional time, but not signicantly.
Example
The Solaire, a green building in Battery Park City, is able to recycle about 85% of its
construction waste. The highly dense connes of Battery Park City do not easily allow
for cost-effective on-site waste separation. All of The Solaires construction waste is
loaded into a dumpster and removed on a daily basis by a North Bergen, New Jersey
waste management rm. The waste management trucks board a nearby ferry, cross
the Hudson River and sort the construction waste in a New Jersey facility.
Hudson Valley Materials Exchange. URL: http://www.hvmaterialsexchange.com/,
The Solaire website. URL: http://www.thesolaire.com/, accessed October, 2003.
158
Site Promotion and Education
Visible demonstration of LAND Code site strategies can educate site users and visi-
tors about the numerous benets of ecologically sensitive site design. Rain gardens,
natural drainage channels, rain water collection features and green roofs can all visi-
bly demonstrate ecological functions and educate site users. Furthermore, these site
features can promote and propagate the LAND Code model by implementing unique
site features adjacent to building entrances, walkways and parking lots.
Example
The Solaire, a green building in Battery Park City, New York utilizes green technolo-
gies for energy savings and enhanced indoor air quality. In addition to energy cost sav-
ings for building tenants, the photo voltaic cells lining the buildings faade have
attracted attention, drawn visitors inside, and likely generated additional apartment
rentals. Additionally, The Solaire has beneted from its high prole location within
the heart of Lower Manhattans rebuilding efforts and its cach as the largest green
residential building in New York City. It has leveraged these factors with suppliers, for
example, to secure high-priced, Energy Star rated appliances at a reduced cost from
the manufacturer. The buildings graywater recycling system will be spotlighted
through glass windows from the lobby while a model green apartment will be open
to public viewing. An accessible green roof will provide residents the opportunity to
experience the cooling and shading effects of urban, rooftop vegetation.
These visible green features educate building users and promote The Solaire as a tan-
gible example of applied green strategies which will further increase this niche mar-
kets economies of scale.
balmori and benoit
159
Future Considerations
Non-Point Source Pollution Trading
Quantiable non-point source pollution (nutrients, sediments, other pollution) pre-
vention or on-site treatment through a variety of management practices that go
beyond local requirements could potentially be used in a trading scheme if one were
created by a state, interstate agency or tribe. (U.S. EPA 2003) The U.S. EPA believes
that market-based approaches provide greater exibility and have potential to
achieve water quality and environmental benets greater than would otherwise be
achieved under more traditional regulatory approaches and that market-based pro-
grams can achieve water quality goals at a substantial economic savings (Chartier
2003).
Benefits
Planning ahead for the potential use of a water quality trading system will provide
competitive market positioning. If a trading system is in place, benets of the trades
could serve as an investment opportunity and provide income or the benets could
be assigned.
Costs
Assuming a trading system were in place, there may still be transaction costs associat-
ed with trades as well as other uncertainty and risk.
Examples
Nitrogen trading among publicly-owned treatment works in Connecticut

that discharge into Long Island Sound is expected to achieve the required
reductions under a TMDL while saving over $200 million dollars in con-
trol costs (U.S. EPA 2003).
In response to new watershed regulations in North Carolina, 12 publicly

owned treatment works and an industrial polluter within the 5,400 square
mile Tar Pamlico Watershed basin set up a water quality trading system as
an alternative to the states technological mandates (Grewell 2003).
Chartier T. April 17, 2003. Albanese Development Corportation. Personal
Communication.
Grewell J.B. 2003. Unpublished Paper. TMDLs and Water Quality Trading:
Friends or Foes?, Yale University, School of Forestry and Environmental
Studies.
U.S. EPA. 2003. Final Water Quality Trading Policy. Ofce of Water. URL:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/trading/tradingpolicy.html, accessed
October, 2003.
160
Editors
ui.x. n.ixovi founded Balmori Associates, Inc., a landscape and urban design rm,
in 1990. The intent of the ofce in its landscape practice has been to concentrate on public
space, and on the aesthetic resolution of ecology and sustainable infrastructure in land-
scape architecture. Dr. Balmori currently teaches at the Yale School of Architecture and the
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. She has published extensively on issues
of landscape form and on contemporary landscapes.
c.nouvs nvxoi1 is Professor of Environmental Chemistry and Environmental
Engineering, Director of the Center for Coastal and Watershed Systems, and Co-Director
of the Hixon Center for Urban Ecology at the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental
Studies. Dr. Benoits research and teaching focus on the behavior, transport, and fate of
chemicals in natural waters, soils, sediments, and biota. Current special areas of interest are
non-point source pollutants, toxic contaminants, and human-environment interactions in
urban areas.
Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies
publication series
To capture exciting environmental projects at Yale of interest to a broad professional
audience, the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies Publication Series issues
selected work by Yale faculty, students and colleagues each year in the form of books,
bulletins, working papers, and reports. All publications since 1995 are available for
order as bound copies, or as free downloadable pdfs, at our online bookstore at
www.yale.edu/environment/publications. Email address for Series Editor: jane.coppock@
yale.edu
Yale University 2004
Yale School of Forestry
& Environmental Studies
publication series
205 Prospect Street
New Haven, Connecticut 06511
USA
www.yale.edu/environment/publications

Land Code

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yale school of forestry & environmental studies

The LAND Code: Guidelines for

Flood protection, reduction or elimination of destructive high velocity

Protection of riparian, stream, or vernal pool ecology through mainte-

Reduction of material and energy inputs into installation and mainte-

Maintenance and restoration of aesthetically appealing surface water fea-

Use bioengineered structures,

For urban sites with subterranean drainage, capture all stormwater up to a

Lower costs associated with minimizing paved surface areas;

Ability to develop sites upstream from sensitive aquatic systems;

Stormwater ltration through soils and vegetation;

Removes pollutants, maintaining water quality;

Reduces volume and velocity of stormwater

Reduces watercourse erosion, sediment suspension,

Filtration also cools stormwater heated by impervious surfaces that would

Buildings or residences can be developed in clusters of small individual

Street alignment can be designed to connect as many structures as possible

National, regional, or local parking space assessment studies can be con-

Parking areas can be located below living spaces to reduce impervious

Single family homes 2 spaces or fewer per home

Retail 4 to 4.5 spaces or fewer per 1000 sq. ft. (93 m

Soil compacting activities (such as heavy equipment moving, grading,

Bioengineered structures can be used to store stormwater and serve to

To limit stormwater volumes to less than a 10% impervious site for up to a

0-10% impervious cover is generally associated with sensitive streams

11-25% impervious cover is associated with impacted streams, in which

above 25% impervious cover, streams are classied as non-supporting,

80-90% pollutant and sediment removal;

A minimum of 24-hour onsite stormwater residence time

Green roofs and/or rooftop collection systems should be designed to

Water quality benets facilitate successful National Pollutant Discharge

Removes pollutants, maintaining on-site water quality and improving off-

Reduces volume and velocity of storm ow, decreasing likelihood of com-

Reduces watercourse erosion, sediment suspension, and loss of aquatic

Inltration cools stormwater heated by impervious surfaces that would

Converting stormwater to evapotranspiration

Sites with high percentages of impervious cover (60% or greater) and

Saves money on utility bills, lowering operating costs of site;

Reduces domestic, commercial, and industrial consumption of treated,

Creates pleasing aesthetic experience for users of sites incorporating these

Reduces withdrawals from water supply reservoirs or watershed for main-

Use climate-appropriate native, non-invasive vegetation for landscaping;

Use passive techniques to collect and direct rainwater through landscaped

Keeps sediments out of watercourses, maintaining aquatic habitat depend-

Reduces suspended sediments in surface waters that can block sunlight

Do not clear vegetation along streams and waterways; or, if stream is to be

Phase clearing and grading activities: areas should be cleared only as it

Schedule construction to take advantage of good growing conditions.

Install appropriate erosion control devices prior to clearing;

Manage drainage through site by installing erosion control and settling

Monitor drainage for turbidity

carbon monoxide (CO)

sulfur dioxide (SO

nitrous dioxide (NO

Particulate Matter: (PM10 (PMno larger than 10 microns in diameter);

What air pollutants are of particular concern in this area?

How will heating and cooling systems be powered?

What persons or developments are downwind of the site?

How will this development t into the larger picture of development in

What elements of the existing site are likely to be important to local

Cooling: Trees provide shade for natural cooling of buildings, people,

Wind break or noise barriers: Appropriately-placed trees can screen

Carbon sequestration/transformation of air pollutants: Through the