INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT ON PTA(power plant maintenance & utility) AT INDIAN OIL CORPORATION LIMITED,PANIPAT From:4th july 2011

to 12th august 2011

Submitted By: Gaurav Varshney 287084 B.tech(3RD Year) Faculty of engg. & tech.(MRIU),faridabad

INDEX ACKOWLEDGEMENT BRIEF INFO PETROCHEMICALS PRODUCTS TRANSFORMER UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY COAXIAL CABLES CIRCUIT BREAKER RELAYS CAPTIVE POWER PALNTS

ACKOWLEDGEMENT In every step of achiving any concept,there is need of guidance, inspiration & help for better result. I am hereby thankful to following persons for not only their valuable instructions that they given me to prepare this project report but also for their cooperation during the training period. 1.Mr.Y.G.Rao(Sr. Training Officer) 2.Mr.M.D.Sahola 3.Mr.Sanjay kumar 4.Mr.Pawan Rawat I am equally thankful to all other workers who tried their best to help me & provided me informations required for training and my friends who directly or indirectly helped me for completion of this project report.

BRIEF INFO Panipat Refinery (Near Delhi)

Panipat Refinery has doubled its refining capacity from 6 MMT/yr to 12 MMT/yr with the commissioning of its Expansion Project. Panipat Refinery is the seventh refinery of IndianOil. It is located in the historic district of Panipat in the state of Haryana and is about 23 km from Panipat City. The original refinery with 6 MMTPA capacity was built and commissioned in 1998 at a cost of Rs. 3868 crore (which includes Marketing&Pipelines installations). The major secondary processing units of the Refinery include Catalytic Reforming Unit, Once Through Hydrocracker unit, Resid Fluidised Catalytic Cracking unit, Visbreaker unit, Bitumen blowing unit, Sulphur block and associated Auxiliary facilities. In order to improve diesel quality,a Diesel Hydro Desulphurisation Unit (DHDS) was subsequently commissioned in1999. Referred as one of Indias most modern refineries, Panipat Refinery was built using global technologies from IFP France; Haldor-Topsoe, Denmark; UNOCAL/UOP, USA; and Stone &Webster, USA. It processes a wide range of both indigenous and imported grades of crude oil. It receives crude from Vadinar through the 1370 km long Salaya-Mathura Pipeline which also supplies crude to Koyali and Mathura Refineries of IndianOil. Petroleum products are transported through various modes like rail, road as well as environment-friendly pipelines. The Refinery caters to the high-consumption demand centres in North-Western India including the

States of Haryana, Punjab, J &K, Himachal, Chandigarh, Uttaranchal, as well as parts of Rajasthan and Delhi. The LPG produced from the refinery is pumped through a dedicated pipeline to IndianOils Kohand Bottling plant where bottling and bulk despatches are done. Panipat Refinery has also developed new products like 96 RON petrol, and sub-Zero diesel for the Indian army. It is already operating above 100% capacity for the last four years.

Petrochemicals

India is amongst the fastest growing petrochemicals markets in the world. Taking this into consideration and to enhance its downstream integration, IndianOil is focusing on increasing its presence in the domestic petrochemicals sector besides the overseas markets through systematic expansion of customer base and innovative supply logistics. Petrochemicals have been identified as a prime driver of future growth by IndianOil. The Corporation is envisaging an investment of Rs 30,000 crore in the petrochemicals business in the next few years. These projects will utilise product streams from the existing refineries of IndianOil, thereby achieving better exploitation of the hydrocarbon value chain. Beginning with a low-investment, high-value projects such as Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) and Butene-1 at Gujarat Refinery, Vadodara, IndianOil has set up a world-scale Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) plant at Gujarat Refinery and an integrated Paraxylene/Purified Terephthalic Acid (PX/PTA) plant at Panipat. A Naphtha Cracker complex with downstream polymer units is also in operation at Panipat.

These initiatives are designed to catapult IndianOil among the top three petrochemicals players in Southeast Asia in the long term. In order to penetrate the petrochemicals market effectively, a separate Strategic Business Unit (SBU) has been created in IndianOil for marketing of petrochemicals. This SBU has five exclusive sub-groups, classified product wise (LAB, PTA, Polymers) and function wise (Logistics & Exports), in addition to regional/field set-ups to offer reliable customer service. This SBU has already established IndianOil's LAB business both in India and abroad. Today, IndianOil is a major supplier to the key players in the detergent industry, both national

and international. Similarly, in PTA business, all major domestic customers are catered to by IndianOil. A robust logistics model has been the key to IndianOil's success story and facilities have been put in place for seamless product dispatches to customers by rail, road and sea. Paraxylene/Purified Terephthalic Acid (PX/PTA), Panipat:

The most technologically advanced plant in the country, the PX/PTA plant marks IndianOils major step towards forward integration in the hydrocarbon value chain by manufacturing Paraxylene (PX) from captive Naphtha and thereafter, converting it into Purified Terephthalic Acid (PTA). The integrated Paraxylene/Purified Terephthallic Acid (PX/PTA) complex was built at a cost of Rs. 5,104 crore within the Panipat Refinery in Haryana. The PTA Plant is the single largest unit in India with a world-scale capacity of 5,53,000 MTPA, achieving economy of scale. The process package for the PTA plant was prepared by erstwhile M/s Dupont, UK (now M/s. Invista) and that of the Paraxylene Unit was prepared by M/s UOP, USA. M/s EIL and M/s Toyo Engineering were the Project Management Consultants (PMC) for executing the PTA and PX respectively. The Paraxylene plant is designed to process 5,00,000 MTPA of heart-cut Naphtha to produce about 3,60,000 MTPA of PX. Naphtha is sourced from IndianOils Panipat and Mathura refineries, for which Naphtha splitter units are set up at the respective refineries. The PTA unit produces 5,53,000 MTPA of Purified Terephthalic Acid from Paraxylene. Naphtha Cracker Plant, Panipat:

The world-class Naphtha Cracker at Panipat, built at a cost of Rs 14,400 crore, is the largest operating cracker capacity in India. The feed for the unit is sourced internally from IndianOil's Koyali, Panipat and Mathura refineries. The Naphtha Cracker comprises of the following downstream units - Polypropylene (capacity: 600,000 tonnes), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) (dedicated capacity: 300,000 tonnes) and Linear Low Density Poly Ethylene (LLDPE) (350,000 tonnes Swing unit with HDPE), Mono Ethylene Glycol(MEG) plant (capacity: 325,000 tonnes). The cracker will produce over 800,000 tonnes per annum of ethylene, 600,000 tonnes per annum of Propylene, 125,000 tonnes per annum of Benzene, and other products viz., LPG, Pyrolysis Fuel Oil, components of Gasoline and Diesel. The Polypropylene (PP) unit is designed to produce high quality and high value niche grades including high speed Bi-axially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP) (used for food packaging and laminations), high clarity random co-polymers (used for food containers and thin walled products) and super impact co-polymer grades (used for batteries, automobile parts, luggage and heavy duty transport containers). Polyethylene is used for making injection moulded caps, heavy duty crates, containers, bins, textile bobbins, luggage ware, thermoware, storage bins, pressure pipes (for gas and water), small blow-moulded bottles, jerry cans, etc.

Products
IndianOil is not only the largest commercial enterprise in the country it is the flagship corporate of the Indian Nation. Besides having a dominant market share, IndianOil is widely recognized as Indias dominant energy brand and customers perceive IndianOil as a reliable symbol for high quality products and services. Benchmarking Quality, Quantity and Service to world-class standards is a philosophy that IndianOil adheres to so as to ensure that customers get a truly global experience in India. Our continued emphasis is on providing fuel management solutions to customers who can then benefit from our expertise in efficient sourcing and least cost supplies keeping in mind their usage patterns and inventory management. IndianOil is a heritage and iconic brand at one level and a contemporary, global brand at another level. While quality, reliability and service remains the core benefits to our customers, our stringent checks are built into operating systems, at every level ensuring the trust of over a billion Indians over the last four decades. Our Retail Brand template of XtraCare(Urban), Swagat(Highway) and Kisan Seva Kendras(Rural) are widely recognized as pioneering brands in the petroleum retail segment. IndianOils leadership extends to its energy brands - Indane LPG, SERVO Lubricants, Autogas LPG, XtraPremium Branded Petrol, XtraMile Branded Diesel, XtraPower Fleet Card, IndianOil Aviation and XtraRewards cash customer loyalty programme.

Diesel/Gas oil
Petroleum derived diesel (called as petrodiesel) is a mixture of straight run product (150 C and 350 C) with varying amount of selected cracked distillates and is composed of saturated hydrocarbons (primarily paraffins including n , iso , and cycloparaffins), and aromatic hydrocarbons (including napthalenes and alkylbenzenes). Diesel is used in diesel engines, a type of internal combustion engine. Rudolf Diesel originally designed the diesel engine to use coal dust as a fuel, but oil proved more effective. Diesel engines are used in cars, motorcycles, boats and locomotives. Automotive diesel fuel serves to power trains, buses, trucks, and automobiles, to run construction, petroleum drilling and other off-road equipment and to be the prime mover in a wide range of power generation & pumping applications. The diesel engine is high compression, self-ignition engine. Fuel is ignited by the heat of high compression and no spark plug is used. The Indian Standard governing the properties of diesel fuels is IS 1460:2005 (5th Rev). Important characteristics are ignition characteristics, handling at low temperature, flash point. Diesel fuel often contains higher quantities of sulphur. In India , emission standards (equivalent to Euro II, Euro III, Euro IV) have necessitated oil refineries to dramatically reduce the level of sulphur in diesel in view of the auto fuel policy brought in force by Govt of India. BIS has brought out specification for "Diesel with 5% Biodiesel" that may be marketed in near future.

Natural Gas
Over the years, Natural Gas has emerged as the 'fuel of choice' across the world. It is steadily replacing traditional fossil fuels due to its environment friendly characteristics which help in meeting the stipulated automobile emission norms. When compared with coal and oil, natural gas has a low carbon footprint due to its clean combustion features. Natural Gas has significant cost advantages too over crude oil and fuels such as Naphtha and commercial LPG. Demand for Natural Gas in India is primarily driven by the fertiliser and power sectors, which account for almost two-third of the countrys gas consumption. Gas-based power plants are quicker to build and incur lesser initial capital expenditure and are better suited to meet peak power demand. Drawing on its vast experience and carefully nurtured skill sets, IndianOil has made successful forays in diverse areas such as Natural Gas, Petrochemicals, Exploration & Production, Renewable Energy, etc. With 12.5% equity in Petronet LNG Limited (PLL), IndianOil has marketing rights for 30% quantity of the LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) procured by PLL from RasGas, Qatar under the long term agreement. Demand for Natural gas in India is growing and cannot be met by the current indigenous production. Hence, IndianOil is in the process of sourcing more quantities of LNG to meet the increasing requirements. The Corporation entered the Natural Gas business in March 2004. Since then, by leveraging its inherent strengths and countrywide reach, IndianOil has significantly enhanced its customer base. In the year 2009-10, it clocked sales of 1.683 MMTPA (million metric tonnes per annum). Within the gas business, City Gas Distribution is a rapidly growing segment. Green Gas Ltd., IndianOil's joint venture with GAIL (India) Ltd., is already operational in Agra and Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh and is further expanding to cater to the increased demand in various sectors. The consortium of IndianOil and Adani Energy has been successful in securing licenses to build city gas distribution networks in several cities. IndianOil is in the process of forming more strategic alliances for City Gas Distribution in other parts of the country.

IndianOil has the capabilities to supply regassified LNG to customers presently located in the Northern and Western regions of India. With the expansion of the pipeline network in Southern region as well as other parts of the country, IndianOil can supply gas to customers located near those pipelines. As a committed supplier, IndianOil is completely responsible for delivery of gas to the customers premises. The transportation services of the company engaged in transportation of gas are hired to ensure deliveries. This model is used the world over wherein multiple gas suppliers operate through one transportation system. The LNG at Doorstep initiative involves making LNG available to the customers not connected by gas pipeline. Gas is transported through a cryogenic system, stored in a cryogenic holding tank at the target location and re-gassified on-site through vaporizers for use as a fuel. The entire operation is concealed, which eliminates the possibility of adulteration and pilferage. Introduced in August 2007, this initiative has been well received and is attracting more customers located away from the pipelines.

Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows:

Induction coils

Faraday's ring transformer The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researchers to realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger is the increase in EMF. Induction

coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce direct current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC), induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers. By the 1870s, efficient generators that produced alternating current (alternators) were available, and it was found that alternating current could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter. In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of alternating current and the secondary windings could be connected to several "electric candles" (arc lamps) of his own design.The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers. In 1878, the Ganz Company in Hungary began manufacturing equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in AustriaHungary. Their systems used alternating current exclusively and included those comprising both arc and incandescent lamps, along with generators and other equipment. Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a "secondary generator" in London in 1882, then sold the idea to theWestinghouse company in the United States.They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. However, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar apparatus remained very low. Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient for transfer of power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil.[11]

Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade the transformer would be instrumental in the "War of Currents", and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since. Basic principles The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil. Current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. Induction law The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or stepping down the voltage

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic
of any transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

Detailed operation The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance.When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around themagnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VSmeasured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF".This is due toLenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field..

Energy losses An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%. Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily-loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and running cost of the superconducting design. Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply and a running cost; designing transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel, for the core, and thicker wire, increasing initial cost, so that there is a tradeoff between initial cost and running cost. (Also see energy efficient transformer). Equivalent circuit The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an equivalent circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer. Power loss in the windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances Rp and Rs. Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to the mutual coupling, and thus can be modeled as reactances of each leakage inductance Xp and Xs in series with the perfectly coupled region.

Autotransformer In an autotransformer portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary. The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made. An autotransformer can be smaller, lighter and cheaper

than a standard dual-winding transformer however the autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation. Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input, allowing equipment from a 100 or 120V region to be used in a 230V region. A variable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns ratio.Such a device is often referred to by the trademark name Variac. Polyphase transformers. Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility poles.For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three-phase flow of flux.A number of winding configurations are possible, giving rise to different attributes a phase shifts Leakage transformers A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all load conditions even if the secondary is shorted. Applications A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.

Uninterrupted Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system orstandby generator in that it will provide instantaneous or nearinstantaneous protection from input power interruptions by means of one or more attachedbatteries and associated electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel generators and flywheels for high power users. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short 515 minutes being typical for smaller unitsbut sufficient to allow time to bring an auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected equipment.While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunicationequipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data centers, buildings, or even cities. Applications

N+1
In large business environments where reliability is of great importance, a single huge UPS can also be a single point of failure that can disrupt many other systems. To provide greater reliability, multiple smaller UPS modules and batteries can be integrated together to provide redundant power protection equivalent to one very large UPS. "N+1" means that if the load can be supplied by N modules, the installation will contain N+1 modules. In this way, failure of one module will not impact system operation. Multiple redundancy Many computer servers offer the option of redundant power supplies, so that in the event of one power supply failing, one or more other power supplies are able to power the load. This is a critical point each power supply must be able to power the entire server by itself. Redundancy is further enhanced by plugging each power supply into a different circuit (i.e. to a different circuit breaker).

Redundant protection can be extended further yet by connecting each power supply to its own UPS. This provides double protection from both a power supply failure and a UPS failure, so that continued operation is assured. This configuration is also referred to as 2N redundancy. If the budget does not allow for two identical UPS units then it is common practice to plug one power supply into mains power and the other into the UPS. Outdoor use When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have some specific features that guarantee that it can tolerate weather with a 'minimal to none' effect on performance. Factors such as temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should be considered by the manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around 40 C to +55 C. Outdoor UPS systems can be pole, ground (pedestal), or host mounted. Outdoor environment could mean extreme cold, in which case the outdoor UPS system should include a battery heater mat, or extreme heat, in which case the outdoor UPS system should include a fan system or an air conditioning system. Internal systems UPS systems can be designed to be placed inside a computer chassis. There are two types of internal UPS. The first type is a miniaturized regular UPS that is made small enough to fit into a 5.25-inch CD-ROM slot bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type are re-engineered switching power supplies that utilize dual power sources of AC and/or DC as power inputs and have an AC/DC built-in switching management control units.

Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, is an electrical cable with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible, tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters andreceivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television signals. One advantage of coax over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from externalelectromagnetic interference. Coaxial cable differs from other shielded cable used for carrying lower frequency signals, such as audio signals, in that the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a radio frequencytransmission line.

General Description
Coaxial cable conducts electrical power using an inner conductor (usually a flexible solid or stranded copper wire) surrounded by an insulating layer and all enclosed by a shield layer, typically a woven metallic braid; the cable is often protected by an outer insulating jacket. Normally, the shield is kept at ground potential and a voltage is applied to the center conductor to carry electrical power. The advantage of coaxial design is that the electric and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. Conversely, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from causing interference to signals inside the cable. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for higher power signals that must not be allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits. Common applications of coaxial cable include video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, and computer and instrumentation data connections.

The characteristic impedance of the cable (Z0) is determined by the dielectric constant of the inner insulator and the radiuses of the inner and outer conductors. A controlled cable characteristic impedance is important because the source and load impedance should be matched to ensure maximum power transfer and minimum Standing Wave Ratio. Other important properties of coaxial cable include attenuation as a function of frequency, power and voltage handling capability, and shield quality.

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage

Operation
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other highly conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including: Lengthening / deflection of the arc Intensive cooling (in jet chambers) Division into partial arcs Zero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform, effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50Hz and 120 times per second for 60Hz AC) Arc interruption Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnetsdeflect the arc into the arc chute. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc.Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<23 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts. Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc. Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction of the device.

Standard current ratings Type Instantaneous tripping current

above 3 In up to and including 5 In

above 5 In up to and including 10 In

above 10 In up to and including 20 In

above 8 In up to and including 12 In K For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration (approximately 400 ms to 2 s) current peaks in normal operation. above 2 In up to and including 3 In for periods in the order of tens of Z seconds. For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring circuits using current transformers. High-voltage circit breakers Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by highvoltage breakers. The definition of high voltagevaries but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by theInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault.

High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

Bulk oil Minimum oil Air blast Vacuum SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , Tavrida Electric, Alstom, Mitsubishi Electric, Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens, Toshiba, Konar HVS, BHEL, CGL, Square D (Schneider Electric). Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to quench the arc.Circuit breakers can be classified as live

tank, where the enclosure that contains the breaking mechanism is at line potential, ordead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage AC
circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765 kV. 1200KV breakers are likely to come into market very soonHigh-voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a threephase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and availability. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breakers A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmissionlevel voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.

Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a lowpower signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays". Simple electromechanical relay

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable ironarmature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the

moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB. When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that attracts the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was deenergized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small outof-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (alight-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits. Applications Relays are used to and for:

Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio amplifiers, Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an automobile, Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, adashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

Captive power plants

Captive power plants are those power plants which operate independent of wheeling to grid ! They are mostly meant by in-house power generation for industry and not selling the power to grid of electricty boards ! for example a DG set for a small industry is a captive power plantor a large thermal plant for a cement industry or smelter is also a captive power plant ! Captive power plants are associated with specific industrial complexes, and their output is almost entirely consumed by that industrial plant. Another term that may sometimes be synonymous is 'cogeneration' in which the power plant produces multiple forms of energy (e.g., electric power and steam), and where both are raw-materials for a related industrial process. Probably the most classic example is that of a paper mill. Boilers produce steam. The steam passes through a turbine that spins a generator to produce electricity. Exhaust steam from the turbine is then used as a source of heat to dry freshly-made paper before is is finally condensed into water and returned to the boiler. The boiler itself burns the bark that itself cannot be used to make paper and would otherwise be a waste material. In addition, the process of making pulp produces a chemical waste called "black liquor' that can also be burned as a fuel in a boiler. Captive power plants don't necessarily have to be islands that are disconnected from 'the grid'. In fact, it is often the case that the demand of the industrial process exceeds the capacity of the captive plant, and power must be taken from the grid to make up the difference. Also, there must be some provision to 'bootstrap' the integrated process into operation - often this means relying on grid power to start-up the plant following an outage. And it is possible that there are times when the captive plant will produce more power than can be consumed in the industrial process, and rather than throttle back the excess is sold to the grid. Captive Cogeneration Power Plant Project at IOCL Panipat Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T) has won a large scale turnkey contract valued at Rs. 1150 crore from Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) for setting up a captive cogeneration power plant in Panipat, Haryana. The contract involves project management, engineering, procurement and construction of the power plant for IOCL's naphtha cracker project at its petrochemical complex in Panipat.

The power plant comprises five gas turbines, five heat recovery steam generators, three steam turbines, two utility boilers and sophisticated control systems to ensure uninterrupted supply of power and steam to the naphtha cracker complex. To be commissioned within 32 months, the plant will have an installed capacity of 227 MW of power and over 800 tph of process steam. L&T bagged this prestigious order against keen competition from reputed EPC contractors on the strength of its track record in executing similar projects meeting stringent quality requirements. Engineers India Limited, who is the Project Management Consultant to IOCL, had invited offers under the International Competitive Bidding route. This is the second major contract won by L&T for IOCL's Panipat Naphtha Cracker Project. L&T and the Toyo consortium had earlier bagged the turnkey contract for naphtha cracker and associated units. L&T has participated in the setting up of several major power generations projects in India and abroad.