Social Security and Labour Welfare in India Social security is one of the pillars on which the structure of a welfare

state rests, and itconstitutes the hard core of social policy in most countries. It is through social securitymeasures that the state attempts to maintain every citizen at a certain prescribed level below which no one is allowed to fall. It is the security that society furnishes throughappropriate organization, against certain risks to which its members are exposed (ILO,1942). Social security system comprises health and unemployment insurance, familyallowances, provident funds, pensions and gratuity schemes, and widows andsurvivors allowances. The essential characteristics of social insurance schemes includetheir compulsory and contributory nature; the members must first subscribe to a fundfrom which benefits could be drawn later. On the other hand, social assistance is amethod according to which benefits are given to the needy persons, fulfilling the prescribed conditions, by the government out of its own resources.The present section reviews labour welfare activities in India with particular emphasis on the unorganized sector. Although provisions for workmenscompensation in case of industrial accidents and maternity benefits for womenworkforce had existed for long, a major breakthrough in the field of social securitycame only after independence. The Constitution of India (Article 41) laid down that theState shall make effective provision for securing the right to public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and in other cases of underservedwant. The Government took several steps in compliance of the constitutionalrequirements. The Workmens Compensation Act (1926) was suitably revised and socialinsurance programmes were developed for industrial workers. Provident

funds andgratuity schemes were introduced in most industries, and maternity legislation wasoverhauled. Subsequently, State governments instituted their own social assistance programmes. The provisions for old age comprise pension, provident fund, and gratuityschemes. All the three provisions are different forms of retirement benefits. Gratuity is alump sum payment made to a worker or to his/her heirs by the company on terminationof his/her service due to retirement, invalidity, retrenchment or death (Vajpayee andShanker, 1950). Welfare Welfare is the provision and maintenance of the conditions of life for individuals by the community.Welfare has a positive and negative aspect. Negative welfare is the provision by thestate or other institutions of a safety net or the distribution of benefits according to some criteria; so-called positive welfare is the provision of opportunities for people to help themselves. This contrast lies behind foreign-aid strategies whichconcentrate on providing skills or seed capital rather than food parcels, for example. The concept of positive and negative welfare is related to the concepts of positive and negative freedom.Marxists support both positive and negative

welfare, but recognise that the marketinevitably generates inequality and a class of people inevitably the recipients of welfare, who have nothing to sell but their labour power, alongside a class of people who live off the proceeds of exploitation, invariably the providers of welfare. Only by bringing the means of production under thorough going proletarian democracy can the very need for welfare be abolished. Concept of labour welfare The concept of labour welfare is flexible and elastic and differs widely withtime, region, industry, social values and customs, degree of industrialization, thegeneral socio-economic development of the people and the political ideologies prevailing at a particular time. It is also moulded according to the agegroups,socio-cultural background, marital and economic status and educational level of the workers in various industriesIn its broad connotation, the term welfare refers to a state of living of anindividual or group in a desirable relationship with total environment ecological,economic, and social. Conceptually as well as operationally, labour welfare is a part of social welfare which, in turn, is closely linked to the concept and the role of the State. The concept of social welfare, in its narrow contours, has been equatedwith economic welfare. As these goals are not always be realised by individualsthrough their efforts alone, the government came into the picture and gradually began to take over the responsibility for the free and full development of human personality of its population.Labour welfare is an extension of the term Welfare and its applicationto labour. During the industrialisation process, the stress on labour

productivityincreased; and brought about changes in the thinking on labour welfare. An earlystudy under the UN observed as follows in our opinion most underdeveloped countries are in the situation that investment in people is likely to prove as productive, in the purely material sense, as any investment in material resourcesand in many cases, investment in people would lead to a greater increase of theflow of goods and services than would follow upon any comparable investment inmaterial capital (UN, 1951). The theory that welfare expenditure, especiallyexpenditure on health and education, is productive investment has led to the viewthat workers could work more productively if they were given a fair deal both atthe work place and in the community.The concept of labour welfare has received inspiration from theconcepts of democracy and welfare state. Democracy does not simply denote aform of government; it is rather a way of life based on certain values such as equalrights and privileges for all. The operation of welfare services, in actual practice, brings to bear on it different reflections representing the broad cultural and socialconditions. In short, labour welfare is the voluntary efforts of the employers toestablish, within the existing industrial system, working and sometimes living andcultural conditions of the employees beyond what is required by law, the custom of the industry and the conditions of the market (A. J. Todd, 1933).The constituents of labour welfare included working hours, workingconditions, safety, industrial health insurance, workmens compensation, providentfunds, gratuity, pensions, protection against indebtedness, industrial housing, restrooms, canteens, crches, wash places, toilet facilities, lunches, cinemas, theatres,music,

reading rooms, holiday rooms, workers education, co-operative stores,excursions, playgrounds, and scholarships and other help for education of employees children.However, labour welfare has both positive and negative sidesassociated to it. On the positive side, it deals with the provision of opportunitieswhich enable the worker and his family to lead a good life, socially and personally,as well as help him to adjust social transition in his work life, family life and sociallife. On the negative side it functions in order to nutralise the baneful effects of large scale industrialization and provide acounterbalance to the undesirable social consequences and labour problems whichhave evolved in the process of this transition.The word labour means any productive activity. In a broader sense,therefore, the phrase labour welfare means the adoption of measures to promote the physical, social, psychological and general well-being of the working population.Welfare work in any industry aims, or should aim, at improving the working andliving conditions of workers and their families. Definitions : Labour welfare has been defined in various ways, though unfortunately nosingle definition has found universal acceptance. The Oxford Dictionary defineslabour welfare as efforts to make life worth living for worker Chambers Dictionary defines welfare as a state of faring or doing well; freedom from calamity, enjoyment of health, prosperity. The ILO report refers to labour welfare as such services, facilities, and amenities, which may be established in, or in the vicinity of undertakings toenable

persons employed therein to perform their work in healthy and congenial surroundings and provided with amenities conducive to good health and highmorale. Features : On the basis of the various definitions, the basic characteristics of labour welfare work may be noted thus:1. It is the work which is usually undertaken within the premises or in the vicinityof the undertakings for the benefit of the benefit of the employees and the membersof their families.2. The work generally includes those items of welfare which are over and abovewhat the employees expect as a result of the contract of service from theemployers.3. The purpose of providing welfare amenities is to bring about development of thewhole personality of the worker -his social, psychological, economic, moral,

cultural and intellectual development to make him a good worker, a good citizenand a good member of the family.4. These facilities may be provided voluntarily by progressive and enlightenedentrepreneurs at their own accord out of their realization of social responsibilitytowards labour, or statutory provisions may compel them to make these facilitiesavailable; or these may be undertaken by the government or trade unions, if theyhave the necessary funds for the purpose.5. Labour welfare is a very broad term, covering social security and suchotheractivities as medical aid, crches, canteens, recreation, housing, adulteducation, arrangements for the

transport of labour to and from the work place.6. It may be noted that not only intra-mural but also extra-mural, statutory as wellas non-statutory activities, undertaken by any of the three agencies- the employers,trade unions or the governmentfor the physical and mental development of theworker, both as a compensation for wear and tear that he undergoes as a part of the production process and also to enable him to sustain and improve upon the basiccapacity of contribution to the processes of production, which are all the speciesof the longer family encompassed by the term labour welfare. Concept of labour welfare In its broad connotation, the term welfare refers to a state of living of an individualor group in a desirable relationship with total environment ecological, economic,and social.Conceptually as well as operationally, labour welfare is a part of social welfarewhich, in turn, is closely linked to the concept and the role of the State. Theconcept of social welfare, in its narrow contours, has been equated with economicwelfare . Pigou defined it as that part of general welfare which can be brought directly or indirectly into relations with the measuring rod of money (Pigou,1962). According toWillensky and Labeaux, social welfare alludes to those formally organised and socially sponsored institutions, agencies and programmes which function tomaintain or improve the economic conditions, health or interpersonal competence of some parts or all of a population (Willensky and Labeaux, 1918) .As these goals may not always be realised by individuals

through their effortsalone, the government came into the picture and gradually began to take over theresponsibility for the free and full development of human personality of its population.Labour welfare is an extension of the term Welfare and its applicationto labour. During the industrialisation process, the stress on labour productivityincreased; and brought about changes in the thinking on labour welfare. An earlystudy under the UN observed as follows in our opinion most underdevelopedcountries are in the situation that investment in people is likely to prove as productive, in the purely material sense, as any investment in material resourcesand in many cases, investment in people would lead to a greater increase of theflow of goods and services than would follow upon any comparable investment inmaterial capital (UN, 1951). The theory that welfare expenditure, especiallyexpenditure on health and education, is productive investment has led to the viewthat workers could work more productively if they were given a fair deal both atthe work place and in the community.The concept of labour welfare has received inspiration from theconcepts of democracy and welfare state. Democracy does not simply denote aform of government; it is rather a way of life based on certain values such as equalrights and privileges for all. The operation of welfare services, in

actual practice, brings to bear on it different reflections representing the broad cultural and socialconditions. In short, labour welfare is the voluntary efforts of the employers toestablish, within the existing industrial system, working and sometimes living andcultural conditions of the employees beyond what is required by law, the custom of the industry and the conditions of the market (A. J. Todd, 1933).The constituents of labour welfare included working hours, workingconditions, safety, industrial health insurance, workmens compensation, providentfunds, gratuity, pensions, protection against indebtedness, industrial housing, rest rooms, canteens, crches, wash places, toilet facilities, lunches, cinemas, theatres,music, reading rooms, holiday rooms, workers education, co-operative stores,excursions, playgrounds, and scholarships and other help for education of employees children. Labour and Labour Welfare Labour sector addresses multidimensional socio-economic aspects affecting labour welfare, productivity, raising living standard of labour force and social security. Toraise earnings of work force and achieve higher productivity, skill upgradationthrough suitable training is of utmost importance. Manpower development to provide adequate labour force of appropriate skills and quality to different sectorsessential for rapid socio-economic development and elimination of the mismatch between skills required and skills available has been a major focus of humanresource development activities during

the last fifty years. Employment generationin all the productive sectors is one of the basic objectives. In this context, providing enabling environment for self employment has received special attention both in urban and rural areas. Objective is also to eliminate bonded labour,employment of children and women in hazardous industries, and minimizeoccupational health hazards. During the Ninth Plan period, elimination of suchundesirable practices as child labour, bonded labour, ensuring workers safety andsocial security, looking after labour welfare and providing of the necessary supportmeasures for sorting out problem relating to employment of both men and womenworkers in different sectors will receive priority attention. It is also envisaged thatthe employment exchanges will be reoriented so that they become the source of labour related information, employment opportunities and provide counseling andguidance to employment seekers.All labour welfare measures have the following objectives:1. Enabling workers to live richer and more satisfactory lives;2. Contributing to the productivity of labour and efficiency of the enterprise;3. Enhancing the standard of living of workers by indirectly reducing the burdenon their purse;

4. Enabling workers to live in tune and harmony with services for workersobtaining in the neighbourhood community where similar enterprises are situated;5. Based on an intelligent

prediction of the future needs of the industrial workers,designing policies to cushion off and absorb the shocks of industrialisation andurbanisation to workers;6. Fostering administratively viable and essentially developmental outlook amongthe workforce; and7. Discharging social responsibilities. Principles of labour welfare Certain fundamental considerations are involved in the concept of labour welfare.The following are the more important among them. Social responsibility of industry This principle is based on the social conception of industry and its role in thesociety that is, the understanding that social responsibility of the state is manifestedthrough industry. It is assumed that labour welfare is an expression of industrysduty towards its employees.Social responsibility means that the obligation of the industry to pursue those policies, to take such decisions, and to follow those lines of actions which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values currently obtaining in the society.The values of the Indian community are enshrined in the constitution of thecountry. Labour welfare is not embroidery on capitalism nor the external dressingof an exploitative management; rather, it is an expression of the assumption byindustry of its responsibility for its employees (Maurioce Bruce, 1961). Industry isexpected to win the co-operation of the workers, provide them security of employment, fair wage, and equal opportunity

for personal growth andadvancement, and make welfare facilities available to them. Democratic values The principle of democratic values of labour welfare concedes that workers mayhave certain unmet needs for no fault of their own, that industry has an obligationto render them help in gratifying those needs, and that workers have a right of determining the manner in which these needs can be met and of participating in theadministration of the mechanism of need gratification. The underlying assumptionto this approach is that the worker is a mature and rational individual who iscapable of taking decisions for himself/herself. Adequacy of wages The third principle of labour welfare is adequacy of wages; it implies that labour welfare measures are not a substitute for wages. It will be wrong to argue that sinceworkers are given a variety of labour welfare services, they need be paid only lowwages. Right to adequate wage is beyond dispute. Efficiency The fourth principle of labour welfare lays stress on the dictum that to cultivatewelfare is to cultivate efficiency. Even those who deny any social responsibility for industry do accept that an enterprise must introduce all such labour welfaremeasures which promote efficiency (Marshall, 1950). It has been often mentioned

that workers education and training, housing, and diet are the three most importantaspects of labour welfare, which always accentuate labour efficiency. Re-personalization Since industrial organisation is rigid and impersonal, the goal of welfare inindustry is the enrichment and growth of human personality. The labour welfaremovement seeks to bring cheer, comfort, and warmth in the human relationship bytreating man as an individual, with quiet distinct needs and aspirations. Social andcultural programmes, recreation and other measures designed after taking intoconsideration the workers interests go a long way in counteracting the effects of monotony, boredom, and cheerlessness. Co-responsibility The sixth principle of labour welfare recognises that the responsibility for labourwelfare lies on both employers and workers and not on employers alone(Moorthy, 1958). Labour welfare measures are likely to be of little success unlessmutuality of interest and responsibilities are accepted and understood by both the parties, in particular the quality of responsibility at the attitudinal andorganisational level. Totality of welfare The final principle of labour welfare is that the concept of labour welfare must permeate throughout the hierarchy of an organisation, and accepted by all levels of functionaries in the enterprise. Approaches The issue of labour welfare may be studied from different angles, such as:

 The location, where these amenities are provided, within and outside theindustrial undertakings ; The nature of amenities such as those concerned conditions of employmentand The welfare activities termed as statutory, voluntary and mutual. The agencies which provide living conditions of work people; theseamenities. On the basis of location of welfare activities, labour welfare work has beenclassified by Broughton in two specific categories, namely,(a)intramural(b)extra-mural(a)Intra-mural activities: consist of such welfare schemes provided within thefactories as medical facilities, provision of crches, and canteens, supply of drinking water, washing and bathing facilities, provision of safety measures suchas fencing and covering of machines, good lay-out of machinery and plant,sufficient lighting, first-aid appliances; activities relating to improving conditionsof employment, recruitment and discipline and provision of provident fund andgratuity, maternity benefits,etc.(b)Extramural activities: cover the services and facilities provided outside thefactory such as, housing accommodation, indoor and outdoor recreation facilities,amusement and sports, educational facilities for adults and children, provision of libraries and

reading rooms.In the welfare activities concerned with conditions of employment areincluded activities for the management of problems arising out of hours of work,wages, holidays with pay, rest intervals, sanitation, continuity of employment,control over the recruitment of female and juvenile labour, while all such schemesof benefits as co-operative societies, legal and medical aid, and housing areincluded in the category of activities concerned with conditions of workers.Labourwelfare work may be statutory, voluntary or mutual. It isstatutory when such activities have to be undertaken in furtherance of thelegislation adopted by the government. It is voluntary when the activities areundertaken at their own accord by the employers or some philanthropic bodies or when a labour organisation undertakes such activities for the welfare of their members. It is mutual, when all parties join hands to bring about the social andeconomic uplift of the workers. The National Commission on labour has classified various labour welfaremeasures under two distinct classes:(1)those which have to be provided, irrespective of the size of the establishment or the number of the persons employed therein such as facilities relating to washing,storing, drying the clothing, first-aid, drinking water, latrines and urinals(2)those which are to be provided subject to the employment of a specified number of persons, such as canteen, rest shelter, crche, ambulance,etc.According to the Encyclopedia of social sciences, industrial welfare work has taken numerous forms such as:(a)those dealing with immediate working conditions are

special provisions for adequate light, heat, ventilation, toilet facilities, accident and occupational disease prevention, lunch room, rest room, maximum hours, minimum wages,etc.;(b)those concerned with less immediate working conditions and group interests,are gymnasiums ,club rooms, play grounds, gardens, dancing, music, house organs,mutual aid societies, vacation with pay, profit-sharing, stockownership, disabilityand unemployment funds, pensions, savings banks, provisions for conciliation andarbitration, shop committees and workers councils;(c)those designed to improve community conditions, such as housing, retail stores,schools, libraries, kinder gardens, lectures on domestic sciences, day nurseries,dispensary and dental service screening of motion pictures, arranging athleticcontests and picnics and summer camps. Scope of labour welfare work It is somewhat difficult to accurately lay down the scope of labour welfare work,especially because of the fact that labour class is composed of dynamic individualswith complex needs.In a world of changing values, where ideologies are rapidly undergoingtransformation, rigid statements about the field of labour welfare need to berevised. Labour welfare work is increasing with the growing knowledge andexperience of techniques. An able welfare officer would , therefore, include in his welfare programme the activities that would be conducive to the well-being of theworker and his family. The test of the

welfare activity is that it removes, directly or indirectly, any hindrance, physical or mental of the worker and restores to him the peace and joy of living the welfare work embraces the worker and his familyThe following list, which is by no means exhaustive, gives the items under which welfare work should be conducted inside and outside the work place: (1)Conditions of work environment: The workshop sanitation and cleanliness, humidity, ventilation, lighting,elimination of dust, smoke, fumes and gases, convenience and comfort duringwork, operative postures, sitting arrangements etc; distribution of work hours and provision for rest times, breaks and workmens safety measures. (2)Workers health services. These should include factory health centre; medical examination of workers,factory dispensary and clinic for general treatment; infant welfare; womensgeneral education; workers recreation facilities; education, etc; (3)Labourwelfareprogramme: These should cover factory council consisting of representatives of labour andemployers; social welfare departments; interview and vocational testing;employment, follow-up, research bureau; workmens arbitration council. (4)Labours Economic welfare programme : These should include co-operatives or fair price shops for consumer necessities;co-operative credit society, thrift schemes and savings bank; health insurance;employment bureau; etc. (5)General welfare work

This should relate to housing and family care. Central Sector There are Four types of initiatives through the Plan for the Labour and Labour Welfare Sector. They are:i.Training for skills developmentii.Services to job seekers iii. Welfare of Labour iv. Administration of Labour regulationsMany initiatives are taken for the benefit of workers through the plans of a number of Labour Intensive Sectors. These are not discussed here because they fall under the purview of respective sectoral programmes of the plan.Vocational Training/Skill Development TrainingThe primary purpose of vocational training is to prepare individuals, especially theyouth in the age group of 15-25 years, for the world of work and make thememployable for a broad group of occupations. The main vocational trainingschemes comprise of Craftsmen Training scheme, Apprenticeship Training scheme,Training of Skilled Workers, Training of Women as a special target group, Trainingof Craft Instructors, Training of Supervisors and Foremen. Applied research onvocational training problems is carried out. Preparation and development of instructional material is another area where appropriate attention is being paid.Craftsmen Training scheme and Apprenticeship Training scheme, which areadequately dovetailed and meant to bring maximum benefit to the youth in their formative years, form the core of the vocational training schemes. Other vocationaltraining schemes, though smaller in

magnitude, also serve a very useful andessential purpose in the overall sphere of vocational training. In spite of difficultiesand shortcomings, the vocational training schemes have continued to make progress specially in term of being the primary source of manpower for industry.The schemes being well standardized and having national coverage, enjoy a fairlyhigh crediability The Central Government mainly concentrates on laying down the policies, procedures and training standards while the administrative aspect of the IndustrialTraining Institutes (ITIs) is taken care of by the concerned State Governments/UTs.In this process, the Central Government is advised by two advisory tripartite bodiesnamely, National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) and the CentralApprenticeship Council (CAC). Both the councils have the Union Labour Minister as the Chairman. Craftsmen Training Scheme Craftsmen Training Scheme(CTS)under the National Vocational Training Systemwas introduced in 1950 for imparting skill training.Training is imparted mainly in engineering trades. A few trades out side theengineering field are also covered but the bulk of the services sector and other needs of industries other than manufacturing, are not handled by DGE&T.Two major resources for such training are the Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs)and the 25000 industrial establishments that take part in Apprentice Training. Therehas been a significant growth and expansion in the network of ITIs which havegrown to 4086 in the public and private sector with a seating capacity of 6.41 lakhas on 31.12.1998 (State-wise details presented in Annexure 5.7.3) and another 2.59lakh under the Trade Apprentice Scheme.

Apprenticeship training scheme provides practical training in 135 designated trades to train apprentices in 97 subject fieldsin engineering and technology for graduates and diploma holders and 94 subjectfields for technicians.The National Vocational Training Institute at NOIDA (UP) and the Regionalvocational Training Institutes for Women in different parts of India impart basicand advance levels of vocational training to women. A women's cell under theoffice of DGE&T is also coordinating with the states in the matter of vocationaltraining for women. In the Ninth Plan, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme"Establishment of new ITIs in the North Eastern States and in Jammu andKashmir" is proposed.The existing training institutions have, no doubt, been meeting a significant part of the requirements of the skilled manpower of the organised industry. It, however,seems necessary that the processes of restructuring and reorientation of their courses are made more dynamic with a view to quickly respond to the labour market. A greater involvement of industry in planning and running the trainingsystem would also be necessary for this purpose. For skill upgradation of the workers in the unorganised sector, flexibility in the duration, timing and location of training courses would need to be introduced. Since a sizeable proportion of employment would have to be self-employment the in the tiny and small units invarious sectors, the training system should also gear up not only for providing hardskills for suitable trades, but also the soft skills of entrepreneurship, managementand marketing, as part of the training courses.In the changed economic scenario, where

displacement of labour is inevitable andexisting labour force is expected to get retrenched, a special training scheme is also being implemented by the Ministry of labour, so that, the workers thus retrenchedare not affected adversely. This scheme is funded out of the National Revival fund(NRF). Under this scheme, payment are made to the workers who are voluntarilyretiring and also for retraining and redeployment of retrenched workers. Services to job seekers To provide services to job seekers is another important initiative taken by theLabour and Labour Welfare Plan. To achieve this objective, the NationalEmployment Service has been established. National Employment Service It consists of a network of 942 (as on 30.6.98) Employment Exchanges spreadthroughout the country. These Employment Exchanges continue to provide placement vocational guidance services to job seekers registered with them. Duringthe period January - June,1998, the Employment Exchanges effected 1.18 lakh placements (statewise details are in annexure 4). Special emphasis was laid on promotion of self employment by suitably motivating and guiding job seekers.Twenty three special cells have been set up for this purpose in selected DistrictEmployment exchanges. Out of 165.8 thousand applicants on the live registers of these 23 cells about 61.1 thousand have been placed in self employment up toDecember 1997, by these cell. Besides placement, Employment Exchanges alsohandle Employment Market Information. The function of identifying job seekershas been assumed now primarily by the organisations where jobs arise. Thegovernments now reach

the job seekers directly when a sizable job demandarises.The number of jobs in public sector has reduced sharply with thereorientation of the role of economic planning.The National Employment Service in the context of the newly emerging marketscenario has to be reoriented. The Employment Services has now accepted itsenhanced role and is paying greater attention to compilation and dissemination of comprehensive labour market information. The important reports generated byEMI are "The Quarterly Employment Review", "Occupational and EducationalPattern in India" etc.The Employment Service continued to pay special attention to the needs of theweaker section of society. A comprehensive package of services to the handicappedis provided by 17 Vocational Rehaibilitation Centres for the Handicapped. Thecentre at Vadodara caters exclusively to the needs of handicapped women.Vocational guidance and training in confidence building is provided to job seekers belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes at 22 coaching cumguidance centres. Besides, the scheme to provide facilities to SC/ST job seekers for practising shorthand and typing is in operation in CGCs.In addition, there are also plan schemes for modernisation and computerisation of employment exchanges. Welfare of labour One of the major concerns of the Government has been the improvement of labour welfare with increasing productivity and provision of a reasonable level of socialsecurity. The planning process attempts to achieve these goals by monitoringworking conditions and creation of industrial harmony through an infrastructurefor healthy industrial relations.Special drives for

inspections under the Crash Programmes & Task Forceinspections were organised during the year for extending coverage of labour lawslike the Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Wages Act, Equal Remuneration Act &Contract Labour (Regulation & Abolition) Act to workers in theunorganised/informal sector. A total of 1074(P) inspections under the aboveenactments were carried out during the year 1998 as a result of which 15938(P)irregularities and 489(P) cases of under payments/non payments were detected.There are at present 12 Industrial Tribunals cum Labour Courts constituted byMinistry of Labour dealing with industrial disputes in respect of which the CentralGovt. is the appropriate authority. Two CGIT cum Labour Courts,one each atLucknow and Nagpur have been setup. It is also proposed to open three newCGITs at Hyderabad, Bhubaneswar and Chennai, and provide computer facilitiesin all the CGITs in a phased manner. The number of Industrial Tribunals andLabour Courts set up by the State Governments and the Administrations of theUnion Territories as on 31.10.1998 was 331 Labour Welfare Funds The Ministry of Labour is administering five welfare funds for beedi, cine andcertain categories of non coal mine workers. the funds have been and set up under the following Acts of Parliament: 1. The mica mines Labour Welfare Fund Act, 1946. 2.

The Limestone and Dolomite Mines Labour Welfare Fund Act. 3. The Iron Ore, Manganese Ore and Chrome Ore Mines Labour Welfare FundAct 1976. 4. The Beedi Workers' Welfare fund Act, 19765.The Cine Workers Welfare Fund Act, 1981The fund created by these acts, is used by the Central Government for the Welfareof Workers under these occupations. Agriculture Workers Agriculture Workers constitute by far the largest segment of workers in theunorganised sector. These workers get employment for less then six months in ayear and have to migrate to other ares for alternative employment.Several measures have been taken to protect the interests of the agriculturalworkers. The very first legislation-the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 is applied to theagriculture sector also. Measures have also been taken to look into the interest of construction workers. Many enactments were extended to the include constructionworkers. Child Labour According to the 1991 Census, the number of working children in the country wasof the order of 11.28 million (State wise details are available in annexure 5.7.5).The existence of child labour in hazardous industries is a great problem in India. Non availability of accurate, authentic and up to date data on child labour has beena major handicap in planned intervention for eradication of this social evil. Effortsare underway in the Ninth Plan, to modify and improve the existing National ChildLabour Project. A major activity undertaken under this scheme is the establishmentof special schools to provide non-formal

education, vocational training,supplementary nutrition, stipend, health care etc. to children withdrawn fromemployment in hazardous industries. Under the existing scheme 76 National ChildLabour Projects were sanctioned in the Child Labour endemic States to cover nearly 1.55 lakh children. According to the available information, about 1.05 lakhchildren have benefitted from the special schools. State wise coverage under National Child Labour Project is furnished at Annexure 5.7.6.The revised scheme approved by Govternment of India in January, 1999 providesfor 100 National Child Labour Projects to cover more children. Rehabilitation of Bonded Labour A Centrally Sponsored Scheme was launched by the Ministry of Labour in 1978-79 for the identification, release and rehabilitation of bonded labourers. Thescheme envisages provision of rehabilitation grant up to a ceiling limit of Rs.10,000/- per freed bonded labourer, half of which is given as central share. Women Labour The Ministry of Labour has set up a Women Labour Cell in 1975. The intentionwas to focus attention on the lot of working women with a view to improving it.An important activity of the Cell is to convene the meeting of the Central AdvisoryCommittee which has been constituted under the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976and follow up the recommendations made by the Committee. Another importantactivity of the Women Cell is to examine and process project proposals to carry outstudies on matters affecting women workers and also to fund programmes aimed atimproving their economic well

being. Several projects aimed at improving theworking conditions of women and raising their economic level were processed bythe Women Cell of the Ministry of Labour during 1998-99. The Cell also givegrants-in-aid to voluntary organisation to carry out research studies on problems of women workers, their employability and the extent of their displacement onaccount of technological and various other changes. This scheme was introducedwith the intention of furthering Governments policy of helping women workers to become aware of their rights and opportunities and also become economicallyindependent. Occupational Safety and Health The Constitution of India contains specific provisions on Occupational Safety andHealth of workers. The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) andDirectorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes(DGFASLI)strives to achieve occupational safety and health in mines factories and ports. Theschemes relating to occupational safety concentrate on improvement of work environment, man-machinery interface, control and prevention of chemicalhazards, development of protective gears and equipment, training in safetymeasures and development of safety and health information system.Directorate General of Factory Advise, Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI)This organisation functions as the technical arm of the ministry in mattersconcerning with safety, health and welfare of workers in factories and ports/docks. Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS)

The Directorate General of Mines Safety which is a subordinate office of theMinistry of Labour is entrusted with the responsibility of enforcing the provisionsof the Mines Act, 1952. With a view to ensuring enforcement of necessary safetymeasures in mines, inspections and enquiries are carried out by the inspectingofficers. During the period April, 1998 to September 1998, 17 notices and 11orders were issued to coal mines and 4 notices and 15 orders were issued to non-coal mines. The number of inspections and enquiries carried out during this periodwas 4181. Labour Statistics The Labour Bureau is responsible for collection, compilation and publication of statistical and other information regarding employment, wages, earnings, industrialrelations, working conditions etc. It also compiles and publishes the consumer Price Index Numbers for industrial and agricultural workers. The Bureau further renders necessary assistance to the States for conducting training programmes inLabour Statistics of State/District/Unit levels. Workers' Education The Central Board of Workers Education is dealing with schemes for training of workers in the techniques of trade unionism and in bringing about consciousnessamong workers about their rights, duties and responsibilities. The Board has alsoundertaken programmes for rural workers' education and functional adulteducation. Labour Research and Training The V.V. Giri National Labour Institute, a fully funded autonomous body of theMinistry of labour, conducts action oriented research and provides training to grassroot level workers in the trade union movement, both in the urban and rural areasand also

to officers dealing with industrial relations, personnel management, labour welfare etc. Social Security There are a variety of laws enacted and schemes established by the Central/StateGovernments with a view to provide for social security and welfare of specificcategories of working people.The principal social security laws enacted centrally are the following: 1. The Workmen's compensation Act, 1923 (WC.Act.)2.The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948 (ESI Act)3.The Employees' Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1953(EPF & MP Act)4.The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (MB Act)5.The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972 (PG Act)The EPF and MP Act are administered exclusively by the Government of Indiathrough the EPFO. The cash benefits under the ESI Act are administered by theCentral Government through the Employees State Insurance corporation (ESIC),whereas medical care under the ESI Act is being administered by the StateGovernment and Union Territory Administration. The Payment of Gratuity Act isadministered by the Central Government in establishments under its control,establishments having branches in more than one State, major ports, mines, oilfields and the Railways and by the State Governments and Union TerritoryAdministrations in all other cases. In mines and circus industry, the provisions of the Maternity Benefit Act are being administered by the Central Governmentthrough the Chief Labour Commissioner (Central) and by the State Governmentsin factories, plantations and

other establishments. The provisions of the WC Actare being administered exclusively by State Governments. Programmes of the State Sector Important programmes undertaken by the State Governments relate todiversification and expansion of the vocational training programme, improvementin the quality of training and extension of training opportunities for women, theWorld Bank-assisted Vocational Training Project, extension and modernisation of employment services, strengthening of labour administration, rehabilitation of bonded labour, welfare of rural and urban unorganised labour etc.Some of the State Governments have attempted to enhance the utility of theemployment service set-up. The Government of Gujarat has attempted to utilise theemployment service set-up at the Taluka level by bringing the job seekers and the job providers together in Bharti Melas. The Maharashtra Government, in its programme of State-wide employment guarantee, intends to use the employmentexchanges to identify the beneficiaries. The West Bangal Government has providedunemployment allowance to those registered, and in the process has generatedsome information on the number of unemployed persons in the State, byidentifying them.States have also introduced various social security schemes. The Governments of Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh have insurance schemes for thelandless agricultural labourers. This needs to be extended to the entire country.Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu demonstrated the viability and potential of theold

age pension scheme. Some form of social assistance is also given to theworkers in the unorganised sector. This could be considered by the other states.Most of the States have strengthened their enforcement machinery to implementvarious labour laws. The Assam Government has been implementing the MinimumWages Act very meticulously. Many States and Union Territories have appointedcompetent authorities under the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 and have also set-up Advisory Committees under the Act. Kerala State has introduced the'Regulation of Employment d Conditions of Service Act' for building and other construction workers. There are various welfare schemes operated in some states.The Assam Government has the Assam Tea Welfare Board to promote the welfareof plantation workers. The State of Kerala has introduced many Welfare Fund Actsfor unorganised workers and has schemes to implement them. These Acts relate toHandloom Workers, Agricultural Workers, Abkari Workers, Auto RikshawWorkers, Tailoring Workers, Kerala Etta, Kattuvalli, Thazha workers and Beediand Cigar Workers. Social security measures The concept of social security has been mentioned in the early Vedic hymn whichwishes everyone to be happy, free from illhealth, enjoy a bright future and suffer no sorrow. The phrase social security is, therefor e , a n e w n a m e f o r a n o l d aspiration. Today is based on the ideals of human dignity and social justice.Social security is defined as the security that society furnishes,

throughappropriate organisation, against certain risks to which its members are exposed.These risks are essentially contingencies against which the individual, who hassmall means, cannot protect himself. These contingencies include employmentinjury, sickness, disa blement, industrial disease, maternity, old age, burial ,widowhood, orphanhood and unemployment.Social security is also broadly defined as the endeavour of the community,as a whole, to render help to the utmost extent possible to any individual during periods of physical distress inevitable on illness or injury and during economicdistress consequent on reduction or loss of earnings due to illness, disablement,maternity, unemployment, old age or death of working member. Social securitythus provides a selfbalancing social insurance or assistance from public funds or acombination of both.Though social security programmes vary from country to country, their three major characteristics are: they are established by law; they provide some kindof cash payment to individuals to replace atleast a part of their lost income that our due to such contingencies as unemployment, maternity, work injury, invalidism,sickness, old age and death; the benefits or services are provide in three major ways: social insurance, social assistance or public services. Social insurance: The features of social insurance are:

It is financed entirely by or mainly fro m t h e c o m m o n m o n e t a r y contributions of workers, employers and the state. The state and the employers make major contribution to this fund, while theemployees pay only a nominal amount.

When there is total or partial loss of income, these benefits, within limits,ensure the maintenance of the beneficiarys minimum standard of living. Social insurance benefits are granted without a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f a n individuals need and without any means test, without affecting the sense of self respect of the beneficiary. These benefits are so planned as to cover, on a compulsory basis, all thosewho are sought to be covered. Social insurance reduces the suffering arising out of the contingencies faced by an individual contingencies which he cannot prevent.Social insurance is different from commercial insurance, for the latter isvoluntary and is meant for the better paid section of the population, and its benefitsare in proportion to the premiums paid; it offers protection only against individualrisks and does not aim at providing a minimum standard of living. Social assistance :

Social assistance is provided as a supplement to social insurance for those needy person who cannot get social insurance payments, and is offered after a means test.The general revenues of the government provide the finance for social assistance payments, which is made available as a legal right to those workers who fulfilgiven conditions. Social assistance and social insurance go side by side. Socialassistance programmes cover such programmes as unemployment assistance, old-age assistance, public assistance and national assistance.Social security is the combination of social assistance and socialinsurance. Social insurance, however, falls mi dway between the two, for it isfinanced by the stste as well as by the insured and their employers;whereas socialassistance is given gratis to the needy by the state or the community. Public service: Public service programmes constitute the third main type of social security. Theyare financed directly by the government from their general revenues in the form of cash payment and services to every member of the community falling within thedefined category. This kind of public service is currently available in a number of countries in the form of national health service providing medical care for every person in the country, old-age pension, pension for invalidism, survivors pensionto every widow or orphan, and a family allowance to every family having a givennumber of children.Although these social security programmes have different characteristics, itis not always easy to draw a line of demarcation among them. In many cases, twoor even three programmes have common characteristics. Apart from state there aremany other agencies

which provide se4curity against contingencies. In manycountries trade union have their own sickness, old-age, unemployment schemes.Saving funds, sickness benefits and old-age pensions have also been provided by alarge number of organisations to their employees.The underlying idea of socialsecurity measures is that a citizen, who has contributed, or is likely to contribute tohis countrys welfare, should be given protection against certain hazards.The 1952 ILO convention on social security (minimum standard)dividedsocial security into nine components: (a)Medical care : This should cover pregnancy,confinement, and its consequencesand any disease which may lead to a morbid condition. The need for pre-natal and post-natal care, in addition to hospitalisation, was emphasized. A morbid conditionmay require general practitioner care, provision of essential pharmaceuticals andhospitalization. (b)Sickness benefit :This should cover incapacity to work following morb idcondition resulting in loss of earnings. This calls for periodical payments based onthe convention specification. The worker need not be paid for the first three days of suspension of earnings and the payment of benefit may be limited to 26 weeks in ayear. (c) Unemployment benefit : T h i s s h o u l d c o v e r t h e l o s s o f e a r n i n g d u r i n g a wo rkers unemployment period. When he is capable and available for work butremains unemployed because of lack of suitable employment. This benefit may belimited to 13 weeks

payment in a year, excluding the first seven days of the waiting period. (d)Old-age benefit : This benefit provides for the payment-the quantum dependingupon an individuals working capacity during the period before retirement.-of acertain amount beyond a prescribed age and continues till death. (e)Employment injury benefit: This should cover the following contingenciesresulting from accident or disease during employment: Morbid condition Inability to work following a morbid condition, leading to suspension of earning; Total o0r partial loss of earning capacity which may become permanent; Death of the breadwinner in the family, as a result of which family isdeprived of financial support. Medical care and p e r i o d i c a l p a y m e n t corresponding to an individuals need should be available. (f)Family benefit: This should cover responsibility for the maintenance of childrenduring an entire period of contingency. Periodical payment, provision of food,housing, clothing, holidays or domestic help in r espect of children should be provided to a needy family

(g)Maternity benefit : This benefit should cover pregnancy, confinement and their consequences resulting in the suspension of earnings. Provision should be for medical care, including pre-natal confinement, post-natal care and hospitalizationif necessary. Periodical payment limited to 12 weeks should be made during the period of suspension of earnings. (h) Invalidism benefit: This benefit, in the form of periodical payments shouldcover the needs of workers who suffer from any, disability arising out of sicknessor accident and who are unable to engage in any gainful activity. This benefitshould continue till invalidism changes into old-age, when old age benefits would become payable. (i) Survivors benefit: This should cover periodical payments to the familyf ollowing the death of its breadwinner and should continue the entire period of contingency.The ILO has suggested various methods of organizing, establishing andfinancing various social security schemes. For the benefit of the less developedcountries, it has fixed the level of benefits fairly low, so that the schemes may be practicable. Social security and unorganised labour Social security is the protection which society provides for its members, through aseries of public measures, against the economic and social distress that otherwisewould be caused by the stoppage or substantial reduction in earnings resultingfrom sickness, maternity, employment injury, unemployment, invalidity, old ageand death; provision of medical care, and

the provision of subsidies for familieswith children (ILO, 1989). The system of social security was started with the

organised sector. However, owing to pressures brought on the state and the society by the growing awareness within the unorganised sector, concern is increasingly being expressed and attention given to expanding legislative and social security protection to the unorganised sector.Social security schemes should be linked to economic security,including employment, income, and assets. There should be a convergence of theways of reaching sustainability and of attaining expanded coverage. The growingdemands of the unorganised labour force and their attempts to organise themselvescan be met by a decentralised participatory social security system. It will lead to arelease of the peoples creative energies and a rapid growth of social security for the organised sector. Extending social security to the unorganised sector is notmerely a matter of extending existing organised sector schemes to new groups for the following reasons (Getupig, et al, 1992).1. Unorganised sector is not a homogenous category;2. Identifying the employer in this sector is difficult;3. Unlike the organised sector, where steady and regular employment is a givenfact, unorganised sector workers

need employment security, income security, andsocial security simultaneously; and4. Needs of the unorganised sector workers vary from those of the organised sector.Welfare amenities stipulated in the Factories Act, Mines Act, Plantations Labour Act, etc., are employmentbased, in the sense that such Acts are applicable toundertakings employing the minimum prescribed number of workers. Outside therealm of these Acts, there are a large number of small-scale establishments, whichhave no obligation, statutory or other-wise, to provide welfare amenities to their workers. These establishments are located in both urban and rural areas, and areengaged mostly in processing primary products or in supplementing the existinglarge-scale industries in transportation, construction, and retail trade. (GhoshSubratesh, 1996). The precise estimate of their employment strength and their wage, welfare and working conditions are not known. The very nature of industry,the frequent collusion between the employer and his workmen and place of work often being in the backyard of the employers dwelling are some of the social problems which stand in the way of bringing the real picture of labour conditionsto light. In the absence

of any reliable data necessary for policy recommendations

one could take stock of the situation only in terms of opinions expressed byknowledgeable sources. DEFINITION The first National Commission on Labour (1966-69) definedunorganised labour as those who have not been able to organisethemselves in pursuit of common objectives on account of constraintslike casual nature of employment, ignorance and illiteracy, small andscattered size of establishments and position of power enjoyed byemployers because of the nature of industry etc. Nearly 20 years later the National Commission on Rural Labour (NCRL: 1987-91) visualised thesame scenario and the same contributory factors leading to the presentstatus of unorganised rural labour in India. EXTENT OF UNORGANISED LABOUR The 1991 Census has classified workers in this country into twodistinct categories as main workers and marginal workers. The mainworkers are those workers who work for the major part of the year (296days) and marginal workers are those who work for less that 6 months(183 days). Out of a total work force of 314 million in India, about 286million (i.e. about 91%) were main workers and about 28 million (i.e.9%)were marginal workers. The data of the Census of India also shows thatthe bulk of the working population is in the unorganised sector (i.e. 91%of the total population) and this workforce is as yet not activelyunionised. The organised sector, which is generally extant around urbansettlements, accounts for only 9% of the total work force. CATEGORIES OF UNORGANISED LABOUR

Unorganised workers can be categorised broadly under the followingfour heads, namely 1.In terms of occupation Small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural labourers, sharecroppers, fishermen, those engaged in animal husbandry, in beedi rolling, beedi labelling and beedi packing, building and other constructionworkers, leather workers, weavers, artisans, salt workers, workers in brick kilns and stone quarries, workers in saw mills, oil mills etc. maycome in this category. 2.In terms of nature of employment 3. Attached agricultural labourers, bonded labourers, mig rantworkers, contract and casual labourers come u nder thiscategory.4.In terms of specially distressed categories Toddy tappers, scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of animaldriven vehicles, loaders and unloaders, belong to this category. 5.In terms of service categories Midwives, domestic workers, fishermen and women, barbers,vegetable and fruit vendors, newspaper vendors etc. come under thiscategory. Social security measures in unorganised sector in India Social security comprises two types of measures, promotional and protective.Promotional measures consist mainly of employment, training, and nutritionschemes, by which persons are enabled to work and earn a livelihood. On the other hand, protective measures consist of schemes by which the State provides themeans of livelihood when a person is not able to work (Sankaran, T.S, 1993). ILOstandards relating to social

security are mainly protective and have been designed primarily for workers in the organised sector. Both promotional and protectivemeasures are necessary to provide adequate social security facilities. Medical care According to ILO recommendation No.69, medical care should be provided either through a social service medical care service, with supplementary provisions byway of social assistance, to meet the requirements of people in need who are notcovered by social insurance, or through a public medical service (ILO, 1984). Itrequires that complete preventive and curative care be available, care which isrationally organised and coordinated with general health services. In India, medicalcare is provided largely by the public medical service, by private doctors andhospitals, and to a limited extent by social insurance schemes, welfare funds, andvoluntary health associations. Some of the Welfare Funds in Kerala have adoptedthe reimbursement of the cost of medical care at standard rates or actual, whereas the Employees State Insurance Scheme is based on providing the service directlyunder an integrated arrangement in which the financing and the medical servicesvest with the same organisation. On the other hand, some of the public sector establishments provide service indirectly by entering into contract with doctors,diagnostic centres, and hospitals. Sickness benefit Sickness benefit is payable when an insured person has to stop work due to his poor health conditions, and such a stop in work usually entails reduction or stoppage of earnings. Cash benefit is

designed to replace in whole, or in part, thelost earnings. In India, there is provision for payment of sickness benefit under theEmployees State Insurance Scheme (Government of India, 1996). Employees of Central and State governments and some public and private sector establishmentsare entitled to medical leave on half-pay. Maternity benefit One of the earliest conventions adopted by ILO was the Maternity ProtectionConvention in1919. The purpose of this Convention was to ensure that a woman worker would be able to sustain herself and her baby during the period immediately before andafter her confinement. Maternity benefit is usually provided under a socialinsurance scheme along with medical care and sickness benefit. In India maternity benefit is provided under the Maternity Benefit Act (as an employers liability) theEmployees State Insurance Act (as a part of the health insurance scheme), the Beedi and Cigar (Conditions of Employment) Act, Beedi and Cigar Labour WelfareFund Act, and the various State government schemes for social assistance. The National Social Assistance Programme also provides for payment of maternity benefits in lump sum. Employment injury benefit Employment Injury Benefit is the most widely adopted branch of social security,and is also known as workmens compensation. According to ILO Recommendation No.67 concern in income security, the contingency for whichcompensation for employment injury should be paid, is traumatic injury, or diseasein the course of

employment, and not injury brought about deliberately, or byserious and willful misconduct of the victim, which results in temporary or permanent disability or death (ILO, 1984). This is a cash benefit but is oftenassociated with medical care. In India, employment injury benefit is providedunder theWorkmens Compensation Act and the Employees State Insurance Act. While theformer Act is applicable to some employment in the unorganised sector, such as theconstruction industry, the latter Act is applicable mainly to workers in theorganised sector. Old-age benefit Old age, invalidity, and survivors benefits are the main longterm social security benefits, which are of great importance in any social security scheme. ILOconventions stipulate that the pensionable age should not be more than 65 years,unless required by demographic, economic, and social criteria, and that thereshould be a lower age for persons engaged in arduous occupations. Old age pension may be at a flat rate, or be related to ones past earnings. The current trendappears to be toward building a multi-tiered system consisting of a basic minimum pension and one or more earnings-related pensions. In India old-age benefit is provided as follows (Ministry of Labour, 1996).(a) Government employees: Paid by respective governments on the basis of employers liability.(b) Employees pension scheme:Workers covered under the Employees Provident and Miscellaneous ProvisionsAct.(c) Destitutes and persons below the poverty line:Paid under national old age pension scheme and old age pension schemes of Stategovernments

There exist no pension schemes for the self-employed, or for workers employed ona casual, temporary or intermittent basis who are not destitute, and who are notcovered by the Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act. Invalidity benefit Invalidity benefit is meant for people who have permanently lost their capacity toearn to the extent prescribed. According to ILO Recommendation No.67concerning income security, the contingency in which invalidity benefit is payableis the inability to engage in any substantially gainful activity, because of a chroniccondition due to disease or injury, or because of the loss of a member or its proper functioning. The relevant ILO convention specifies 15 years of contribution or employment or 10 years of insurance. But usually one requires only a few yearsinsurance, say five years, a part of which needs to be immediately preceding theinvalidity. In India, the Employees Pension Scheme introduced in 1995 providesfor invalidity benefits. Survivors benefit This benefit is meant primarily for widows and children of persons covered bySocial Security Schemes who cease to have any financial support on the death of their breadwinner. However, national legislation often recognises claims of other dependents provided there are no primary beneficiaries. A widespread practice is to base the survivors pension on the rate of the old age pension the deceased wasreceiving or would have received (Sankaran, T.S, 1993). In India, survivors benefit is provided under the Employees State Insurance Act and WorkmansCompensation Act in case of death of a person engaged in any employmentcovered under these Acts. This benefit is provided under the Employees ProvidentFund and

Miscellaneous Provisions Act in case of the death of a member of thescheme for any reason. Insurance schemes of the Life Insurance Corporation andGeneral Insurance Corporation also provide this benefit. The National FamilyBenefit Scheme extends this benefit in case of the death of the breadwinner of afamily which lies below the poverty line. Unemployment benefit The underlying principle of unemployment benefit is that if a person, through nofault of his, is deprived of his income, he has a right to expect income support, atleast for the necessities of life while he remains available for work. According toILO recommendations No.67, the contingency in which unemployment benefitshould be paid is loss of earnings due to a state of unemployment of an insured person who is ordinarily employed, a person who is capable of regular employmentin some occupation and is searching for suitable employment or due to part timeunemployment (Government of India, 199596). Its main purpose is to deal withtemporary unemployment of employed persons and not the extensive and prolonged unemployment and under-employment found in many developingcountries. The payment of the benefits depends on satisfying the qualifying clauseof covered employment, and a waiting period may also be applied. Family benefit ILO Recommendation No.67 says that society should co-operate with parents, andgive general assistance designed to secure the wellbeing of children. This benefit isintended to assist families in raising their children. Although there are no family benefit schemes in India, which provide for the payment of cash allowances tofamilies for the maintenance of children, there exist many schemes which helpfamilies of Scheduled

Castes/Tribes, minorities and other weaker sections of society, in the discharge of their responsibilities for education of their children,marriage of their daughters, construction of houses, and meeting funeral expenses. Strategies for social security in unorganised sector The majority of the Social security schemes implemented in the country were inthe organised sector, keeping large numbers outside the realm of the Social securitynet (Berman, 1995). A beginning has been made lately to provide social insurancefor workers in the unorganised sector, with the help of the Central and the Stategovernments. These schemes are administered by government agencies, co-operatives or NGOs, and are a combination of social assistance and socialinsurance

Insurance schemes The Life Insurance Corporation of India has developed group insurance, which isakin to social insurance based on large numbers, and has the potential to providesocial security to persons in the unorganised industrial and agricultural sectors.There exist now several other group insurance schemes for the unorganised sector workers such as milk producers, handloom weavers, rickshaw pullers, shopassistants, beedi workers, and fish farmers. The schemes of the LIC provide mainlysurvivor benefits; however, some also provide old-age pensions. The GeneralInsurance Corporation (GIC) of India also administers a few social securityschemes for poor families,

a Hut Insurance Scheme, and a Solatium Fund. Inaddition, GIC has introduced a Health Insurance Scheme, and has beenadministering the comprehensive Group Insurance Scheme for the CentralGovernment. The schemes of theGeneral Insurance Corporation provide invalidity benefits, or health insurance, or protection against loss of property. National Social Assistance Programme Of the various protective schemes in existence for workers in the unorganisedsector, the most important is the National Social Assistance Programme introducedin 1955 (Wadhawan, 1989). It provides social assistance to poor households in thecase of old age, death of the breadwinner, and maternity through the National OldAge Pension Scheme, National Family Benefit Scheme, and the NationalMaternity Benefit Scheme respectively. Under the National Old Age PensionScheme, Central assistance is provided to States for payment of old age pension to persons who are of the age of 65 years or more. In addition to the National OldAge Pension Scheme, all State governments and Union territories have their ownold-age pension schemes. Other pension schemes Apart from the old-age pension schemes already referred to, the States Kerala,Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat have pension schemes for agricultural workers. Many states have extended the old-age pension scheme benefits to destitute widows, physically and mentally retarded persons, freedomfighters and indigent artists; and some have also set up homes for destitute widowsand deserted /divorced women. Under the Family Benefit scheme assistance isgiven to families

below the poverty line on the death of their breadwinner; under the National Maternity Benefit scheme assistance is given to pregnant women for the first two childbirths. Welfare Funds Welfare funds represent one of the models tried in India for providing socialsecurity protection to workers in the unorganised sector. There exist broadly twotypes of welfare funds contributory and tax-based. The Government of India hasset up tax-based welfare funds for mine workers, beedi rollers, cine workers, andworkers in the building industry; these funds are financed by cess levied on the production or export of specified goods. They provide mainly medical care,assistance for the education of children, housing and water supply, and recreationalfacilities. There are nearly 20 Welfare Funds constituted by Government of Keralafor the benefit of different target groups such as agricultural workers, head-loadworkers, construction workers, coir workers, cashew workers, motor transportworkers, autorickshaw workers, toddy workers, and artisans the majority of whichare contributory. Existing models of social security and labour welfare Since India has committed to the welfare of the marginalized sections of thesociety the government has taken upon itself the delivery of all types of socialservices and social security. This pattern is reflected in existing models of socialsecurity delivery as may be seen from Table 2.1. There are mainly three types of social security models: employers liability, social insurance, and social assistance.The last category includes welfare funds of Central government, welfare funds of State government, subsidised insuranceschemes, and other forms of social

assistance. The beneficiaries of the first(employers liability) are mainly workers in the organised sector, whereas under social assistance the beneficiaries are both workers in the organised sector andworkers in the informal sector. The latter belong in generally to the marginalisedsectors. In the context of growing privatizations of services on the one hand andthe growing awareness and organisation of the oppressed sections of workers onthe other, it is necessary to search for models of effective social security provisionto all the unorganisedsector workers. Breadwinner and maternity through the National Old Age Pension Scheme, National Family Benefit Scheme, and the National Maternity Benefit Scheme respectively. Under the National Old AgePension Scheme, Central assistance is provided to States for payment of old age pension to persons who are of the age of 65 years or more. In addition to the National OldAge Pension Scheme, all State governments and Union territorieshave their own old-age pension schemes..