SYNTAX 1. Compound Sentence-two independent sentences connected by a linking word (and, but, or, so).

Protesters converged on the Capitol primarily to exercise their right to assemble and their freedom of speech, but they also congregated for the purpose of learning more about new environmental issues. The clown frightened the little girl and she ran off screaming. 2. Complex Sentence-A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. After I came home, I made dinner. We visited the museum before it closed. 3. Compound-Complex sentence-A sentence with multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch. 4. Start a sentence with a verb. Consider the possibility of world peace. Assume for one moment that freedom of speech has been abolished in America. 5. Use an Infinitive Phrase (to + simple form of verb). To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customers lap is Michelles only goal tonight. 6. A Participial Phrase-When a verb is used as an adjective Sitting in his office, the President called the Vice-President. The swinging sign made a creaky noise. 7. Prepositional Phrase-a preposition is any word or grouping of words that indicates the spatial, temporal, or logical relationship of the object/subject to the rest of the sentence. Generally tells us when or where the subject was doing something. At midnight, Jill craved a chocolate candy bar. At midnight is the preposition. It tells us at what time Jill craved a candy bar. The monkeys jumped over the barrel. Preposition List: out, above, according to, across, after, against, along, along with, among, apart from, around, as, as for, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, by means of, concerning, despite, down, during, except, except for, excepting, for, from, in, in addition to, in back of, in case of, in front of, in place of, inside, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, onto, on top of, out, out of, outside, over, past, regarding, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, up to, with, within, without.

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Gerund- always ends in ing and must serve as the noun, the subject, or the subject compliment of the sentence.. Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion. Swimming is the gerund. It end in ing and it is part of the subject of the sentence. Fishing in the Mediterranean is like fishing in a turquoise tub. Fishing is the gerund. It is the subject of our sentence and it ends in ing.

9. Use an appositive- an appositive renames another noun right beside it. It gives us more information about the original noun. Dr. Maxwell Shuman, the nations first heart surgeon, practices at St. Johns Hopkins University. The nations first heart surgeon is the appositive. It provides us with more information about Dr. Maxwell Shuman. During the dinner conversation, Clifford, the messiest eater at the table, spewed mashed potatoes like a volcano. The messiest eater at the table is the appositive. It gives us more information about Clifford. 10. Imperative-gives advice, instructions, or a command. Eat your peas. Clean your room 11. Anaphora-the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence. Used for emphasis. Better to try and fail than to die never knowing. Better to have loved and lost than to have never loved at all. Better to dream and pursue than never dream at all. Better to, is the anaphora. 12. Epistrophe-the repetition of a word or phrase at the ending of sentences. Used for emphasis. The errors in this essay are unacceptable. Run-on sentences are unacceptable. Fragments are unacceptable. Not following directions is unacceptable. Unacceptable is the epistrophe. 13. Conditional Clause- used to show that the second condition can only happen if the first condition happens. If I find her address, Ill send her an invitation. If I did my homework, Id probably get better grades. 14. Allusion-a reference to an outside person, place, event, text, or work of art. If the reader is aware of the allusion it will provide them with a greater depth of meaning and understanding. The Captain opened a Pandoras Box after jailing the sailor for a petty offense. She was a Scrooge. She never purchased anything but the bare necessities.

15. Apostrophe-a sentence in which an abstract quality is directly addressed, whether present or not. "Freedom! You are a beguiling mistress." 16. Parallel Structure-parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. Correct: My degree, my work experience, and my ability to complete complicated projects qualify me for the job. Incorrect: My degree, my work experience, and ability to complete complicated projects qualify me for the job. 17. Chiasmus- A figure of emphasis in which the words in one phrase or clause are replicated exactly, or closely, in reverse grammatical order in the next phrase or clause (A-B-B-A). Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. The absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence." 18. Hortative sentence-a sentence that exhorts, advises, calls to action. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. 19. Zeugma-The use of one word in two way grammatically different ways Now the trumpet summons us again-not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need-not as a call to battle, though embattled we are-but a call to bear the burden. You held your breath and the door for me. 20. Antithesis-opposition, or contrast, of ideas, or words in a balanced or parallel construction. We shall support any friend, oppose any foe. Not that I loved Caesar less but that I love Rome more. 21. Cumulative Sentence (Loose Sentence)- An independent clause followed by a series of subordinate constructions (phrases or clauses) that gather details about a person, place, event, or idea. I can easily walk ten, fifteen, twenty, any number of miles, commencing at my own door, without going by any house, without crossing a road except where the fox and the mink do: first along by the river, and then the brook, and then the meadow and the wood-side. 22. Periodic Sentence-A long and frequently involved sentence, marked by suspended syntax, in which the sense is not completed until the final word--usually with an emphatic climax. Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada.

23. Metonymy (Synecdoche)-A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated (such as "crown" for "royalty"). Metonymy is a rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it, such as describing someone's clothing to characterize the individual. The pen is mightier than the sword. s Pen and sword represent publishing and military force, respectively. A Mercedes rear-ended me. The word me stands for the car that the speaker was driving. 24. Tautology-needless repetition of an idea or words, whether the same word or synonymous words. Let us proceed without hesitating or lingering. 25. Catachresis-Use of the wrong word for the context, or when a highly unusual and outlandish comparison is made between two things. 'If this thing starts to snowball, it will catch fire right across the country.' Often hyperboles count as catachreses. 26. Anadiplosis-a repetition of the last word of a sentence and the beginning of the next. "Fear is the path to the dark side. Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering. 27. Polysydenton- repetition of conjunction in close succession. Example: "He pulled the blue plastic tarp off of him and folded it and carried it out to the grocery cart and packed it and came back with their plates and some cornmeal cakes in a plastic bag and a plastic bottle of syrup. 28. Praeteritio-is mentioning something whilst saying it cannot be discussed. Not to mention your salary, but I do think you can afford this. That part of our history detailing the military achievements which gave us our several possessions ... is a theme too familiar to my listeners for me to dilate on, and I shall therefore pass it by 29. Pleonasm-using more words than necessary to convey an idea We need to draw a round circle. 30. Hendiadys-A figure of speech in which two words connected by a conjunction are used to express a single notion that would normally be expressed by an adjective and a substantive, such as grace and favor instead of gracious favor. Despite the wind and weather instead of Despite the windy weather. 31. Litotes-using an understatement for effect. Shes not the brightest bulb in the tanning bed. Hes not the sharpest tool in the shed.

32. Prolepsis-Foreseeing and forestalling objections to an argument. *When you consider the counter argument. 33. Bathos-Not to be confused with pathos, bathos is a descent in literature in which a poet or writer--striving too hard to be passionate or elevated--falls into trivial or stupid imagery, phrasing, or ideas. 34. Onomatopoeia-use of words to imitate natural sounds; accommodation of sound to sense. Oink, Oink, Oink. 35. Archetype-a model from which copies are made. In literature this means the staple of characters and symbols. We know that whenever we get a pair of star-crossed lovers, fate will separate them somehow. We know that the bad guys always loses, the hero always wins, trees always represent growth and life, spring always represents youth, and new beginnings. 36. Aphorism-A brief statement that expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation. Could include a metaphor or simile, or any other syntax structure, its just a sentence that makes an observation about life. 37. Synesthesia- The description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. Using a sight word to describe sound, I heard a blue noise The painting consisted of warm colors She was a cold woman. 38. Cacophony- harsh discordance of sound, dissonance: a cacophony of hoots, cackles, and wails. 39. Double entendre - The double meanings of a group of words that the speaker or writer has purposely left ambiguous. If you don't go to other people's funerals, they won't come to yours. Slow Children Crossing 40. Auxesis An extreme hyperbole. Magnifying the importance or gravity of something. Calling a scratch on an arm a wound. 41. Paradox - A statement that seems untrue on the surface but is true nevertheless. "Not having a fashion is a fashion." 42.Oxymoron - Juxtaposed words with seemingly contradictory meanings. "O miserable abundance! O beggarly riches!"

43. Idiom- an expression that has a specific meaning to a specific grouping of people, other than what the expression literally seems to mean. For example: Kick the bucket means someone has passed away. Example: Theyre very green means someone is very new at something. 44. Euphemism-very similar to an idiom except, a euphemism specifically refers to a phrase that is used to say something harsh or uncomfortable in a more gentle, less awkward manner. For example: Hes passed on is a kind way of saying someone has died Example: Shes a late bloomer is a kind way of saying someone is slightly behind developmentally. 45. Epithet-a nickname given to someone that captures an aspect of their personality or character. For Example: Calling someone a brain may be used as a nickname for a very intelligent person. Example: Calling someone a teddy-bear may be used as a nickname for a very tender hearted person. 46. Asyndeton-Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. (No coordinating conjunctions, and, but, or, so, yet, etc.)