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I

DEFINATION OF LOGIC:

The terms logic is derived from the Greek word


"logos", which means reason or expression of reason
in words that is discourse. Etymologically.
Therefore, Logic is the science of reasoning or
argument According to Dewey and Stebbing, reasoning
or reflective thinking is a process of finding way
out of some difficulty or problem by weighing the
evidence on the basis of a tentive hypothesis and
thereby reaching some conclusion. The reasoning can
be either deductive or inductive. In the deductive
reasoning we argue from a general principle to a
particular conclusion. For example if we say that
since all men are mortal, and X who is a man is
mortal. But if we argue that since X, Y, Z, who are
men are subject to death, every man must be subject
to death, we are arguing inductive In logic we
study the general principles governing both type of
reasoning. Accordingly, we may define Logic as the
science of taws of thought and reason.

LOGIC AND PSYCHOLOGY:


Though there exists a close and strong relation
between Logic and Psychology, the two are quite
distinct and it is not possible to reduce one to
the other or treat logic as a branch of psychology,
which primarily deals with thinking and judgment.
Again, it will be equally false to assert that
since all arguments are decidable by logic
principles, psychology is nothing but the logic "of
mental process.

A general confusion about the relation of logic and


psychology stems from the fact that traditionally
logic is defined to be a science of laws of thought
but now it is generally accepted that any
investigation into the laws or ways in which we

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actually think belongs to psychology. Logic has


little concern as to how one thinks and arrives at
conclusions; -It is only concerned with whether two
propositions imply each other and what can be the
valid inference, to illustrate: it may not be
possible for someone to conceive the existence of
mermaids. But irrespective of the fact whether we
are able to imagine mermaids or not, logically it
is valid to assert, that if there are mermaids then
they are females with human head and the body of a
fish.

It has been aptly observed by Cohen and Nagel that


it is very important to distinguish between logic
and psychology if we are to avoid the confusion of
logic with certain allied subject which though
occurring along with logic are nevertheless very
different. The realization that logic cannot be
restricted to psychological phenomena, therefore,
will help us to discriminate between logic and
rhetoric. The rhetoric is an art of persuasion.
While it is true that if a ailed argument is put
effectively by employing words like 'indubitably',
beyond a shadow of doubt', 'clear as day which do
not militate against them no amount of rhetoric can
transform an invalid argument into valid. This does
not mean that rhetoric is useless. It helps
harmonious social relation. But it must be realized
that the validity of an argument is quite
independent of what goes in our head or how we put
it forward. The validity in short is extra human.
Therefore, psychology has to bearing upon the
essential subject matter of logic; however,
psychology does have an important role. It helps us
appreciate how the social and personal prejudices
block effective argument and also that personal or
subjective assurance is no guarantee about the
validity of an argument. As Nagel says, "The
history of human error shows that the assertion 'I
am absolutely certain' or 'I cannot help believing’

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in regard to any proposition is no adequate


evidence of its truth.”

LOGIC AND GRAMMER:


Logic is the science of thoughts and Grammar is the
science of language. Because thought and language
are related to each other in so far as science of
thought (logic) and the science of language
(grammar) must also be related to each other.
Language is the means by which we express and
communicate our thought to others. Logic in
addition to being concerned with thought is also
concerned with language. Logic and Grammar is
differ form each other. Logic is primarily or
directly concerned with thought and secondarily or
indirectly concerned with language. In other words,
with logic is primary and more important, while
grammar is secondary and less important. Another
difference is Grammar is concerned with all kinds
of sentences, but logic is concerned with only with
indicative sentences. Grammar analysis a sentence
into many parts of speech, but Logic analysis a
sentence only into three parts, namely, subject,
predicate, copula.

LOGIC AND METAPHYSICS:


Metaphysics studies ultimate reality, and logic
studies the laws of correct thought. Logic as we
have already read is concerned with the form and
the matter of thought. The matter of thought refers
to the things about which we think, such as tables,
chairs, men, triangles or circles. Now logic
doesn’t enquire into the real character either form
or matter of thought. Metaphysics enquires into
their real character. Logic and metaphysics are
different from each other, but in spite of this
difference, they are connected. Metaphysics must
based on logical principles. Logic too depends upon

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Metaphysics for the truth of its principles and


materials (i.e. things). Many philosophers believe
that thought (logic) and reality (metaphysics) are
identical, and then logic and metaphysics should be
identical. But many philosophers reject this view.

LOGIC AND PHILOSOPHY:


Philosophy is the philosophical process, which
deals with certain specific problems from the
philosophical viewpoint with the help of
philosophical methods and arrives at certain
philosophical conclusion. This definition of
philosophy, abstract though it is, shows the
distinction between philosophy and science. Science
is a systematic study of a limited field of
experience. Thus philosophy and a science differ in
connection with methods, problems, viewpoints and
conclusions. The most important branches of
philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology and
axiology of those logic comes within the fields of
axioloav. Axiology is the study of values. These
values are generally of three kinds - truth, good
and beauty. While ethics studies good, aesthetics
studies beauty, Logic studies truth, It is the
science which discriminates between true and untrue
among the oppositions It is the method of arriving
at the implication or meaning of propositions- It
is the science of the value of truth. Thus logic is
a branch of philosophy. Its knowledge is absolutely
necessary for a philosopher, though it cannot be
said that the logician equally necessarily requires
the knowledge of philosophy.
Philosophy depends upon logic, though in its turn
logic does not depend upon philosophy.

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SCOPE AND SUBJECT MATTER OF LOGIC:

The definition of logic given by Mill clearly


indicates the scope of logic. According to Mill,
"logic is the science of the operations of the
understanding which are subsequent to the
estimation of evidence, both the process itself of
advancing from known truth to unknown and all other
intellectual operations in so far as ancillary to
this". This definition brings our following facts:

(1) That logic studies various intellectual


processes such as thinking, reasoning and judgment.
(2) That logic studies processes necessary for
evaluating evidence.
(3) That logic studies how to move from known to
the unknown. This can be done in two ways: by
moving from general to particular, as in the
example "All men are rational, Ram is a man,
therefore, Ram is rational", or by moving from
particular instances to a general conclusion as in
"Apples, bananas, mangoes etc. fall to ground
because they are heavy and, therefore, all heavy
things must fall to the ground". The first example
illustrates the deductive reasoning while the
second illustrates inductive reasoning, and both
are within the scope of logic.

(4) That logic studies all intellectual processes


involved in deduction and induction.
(a) In deduction we study laws of thought, viz.,
law of identity, law of non- contradiction and law
of excludes middle. We also study the different
types
of terms. We also study genus differential and
accidental properties of terms. We also study
formal rules of deduction, the immediate and
mediate inferences. And, finally we study various
fallacies in argumentation.

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(b) In induction we study the difference between


form and matter, the nature of definition,
hypothesis, evidence, experimental techniques,
probability etc.
We also study rules of classification, taxonomy
(giving new names) etc. Finally, we study the
fallacies incidental to inductive reasoning.

IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC:

Though it is true that the knowledge of rules of


logic is no guarantee against false reasoning, this
is no serious objection against logic. The worth of
any science is to be judged not by its actual
practice but by the nature of facts it is about.
For instance, the science of medicine is not to be
condemned as some doctors fail to diagnose diseases
properly. The study of logic cannot ensure that
logicians will never make in argument; but the
chance of making mistake is certainly much less in
their case.

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ANLOGIES
1.MASON: WALL::

(A) fisherman: trout (B) artist: easel


(C) congressman: senator (D) author: book
(E) sculptor: mallet

2.FIRE: ASHES::

(A) wood: splinters (B) accident: delay


(C) water: waves (D) regret: melancholy
(E) event: memories

3.GOOSE: GANDER::

(A) duck: drake (B) hen: chicken


(C) dog : kennel (D) sheep: flock
(E) horse: brindle

4.CARPENTER: SAW::

(A) stenographer: typewriter (B) painter: brush


(C) lawyer: brief (D) seamstress: scissors
(E) runner: sneakers

5.CAPTAIN: SHOAL::

(A) lawyer: litigation (B) pilot: radar


(C) soldier: ambush (C) doctor: hospital
(E) corporal: sergeant

6.HORNS: BULL::

(A) mane: loin (B) wattles: turkey


(C) antlers: stag (D) hoofs: horse
(E) wings: eagle

7.JUDGE: COURTHOUSE::

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(A) lawyer: brief (B) carpenter: bench


(C) architect: blueprint (D) physician: infirmary
(E) landlord: studio

8.HELMET: HEAD::

(A) pedal: foot (B) gun: hand


(C) breastplate: chest (D) pendant: neck
(E) knapsack: back

9.GULLIBLE: DUPED::

(A) credible: cheated (B) careful: cautioned


(C) malleable: molded (D) myopic: misled
(E) articulate: silenced

10.DUNDGION: CONFINEMENT::

(A) church: chapel (B) school: truancy


(C) asylum: refuge (D) hospital: mercy
(E) courthouse: remorse

11.HERMIT: GREGARIOUS::

(A) miser: penurious (B) ascetic: hedonistic


(C) coward: pusillanimous (D) scholar: literate
(E) crab: crustacean

12.MANDACITY: HONESTY::

(A) courage: cravenness (B) truth: beauty


(C) courage: fortitude
(D) unsophistication: ingenuousness
(E) turpitude: depravity

13.MARATHON: STAMINA::

(A) relay: independence (B) sprint: clarity


(C) hurdle: perseverance (D) jog: weariness
(E) ramble: directness

14.NAIVE: INGENUE::

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(A) Venerable: celerity (B) ordinary: genius


(C) urbane: sophisticate (C) crafty: artisan
(E) modest: braggart

15. RETOUCH: PHOTOGRAPH::

(A) Hang: painting (B) finger: fabric


(C) retract: statement (D) compose: melody
(E) refine: style

16.INDIGNET: WEALTH::

(A) contented: happiness (B) aristocratic: stature


(C) smug: complacency (D) emaciated: nourishment
(E) variegated: variety

17.SHALE: GEOLOGIST::

(A) catacombs: entomologist (B) aster: botanist


(C) obelisk: fireman (D) love: philologist
(E) reef: astrologer

18.DIDACTIC: TEACH::

(A) sophomoric: learn (B) satiric: mock


(C) reticent: complain (D) chaotic: rule
(E) apologetic: deny

19.HACKNEYED: ORGINAL::

(A) mature: juvenile (B) trite: morbid


(C) withdrawn: reserved (D) evasive: elusive
(E) derivative: traditional

20.AUGER: CARPENTER::

(A) studio: sculptor (B) awl: cobbler


(C) seam: seamstress (D) cement: mason
(E) apron: chef

21.MUSTER: CREW::

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(A) convene: committee (B) demobilize: troops


(C) dominate: opposition (D) cheer: team
(E) dismiss: jury

22.DWELL: DENIZEN::

(A) shun: outcast (B) inherit: heir


(C) squander: miser (D) obey: autocrat
(E) patronize: protégé

23.MENDERING: DIERECTNESS::

(A) menacing: ambition (B) affable: permissiveness


(C) digressive: conciseness (D)circuitous: rotation
(E) aboveboard: openness

24.CEMENT: TROWEL::

(A) lawn: rake (B) conflagration: match


(C) paint: brush (D) floor: polish
(E) wallpaper: ladder

25.PIGHEADED: YIELD::

(A) lionhearted: retreat (B) lily-livered: flee


(C) dogged: pursue (D) featherbrained: giggle
(E) eagle-eyed: discern

26.ALARAM: TRIGGER::

(A) prison: escape (B) tunnel: dig


(C) criminal: corner (D) fright: allay
(E) trap: spring

27.QUOTATION: QUOTATION MARKS::

(A) remark: colon (B) sentence: period


(C) aside: parentheses (D) clause: semicolon
(E) interjection: exclamation point

28. SIGNATURE: ILLUSTRATION::

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(A) byline: column (B) alias: charge


(C) credit: purchase (D) note: scale
(E) reference: recommendation

29.SCALES: JUSTICE::

(A) weights: measures (B) laws: courts


(C) torch: liberty (D) laurel: peace
(E) balance: equity

30.SURPRISE: EXCLAMATION::

(A) insolence: bow (B) dismay: groan


(C) happiness: grimace (D) deference: nod
(E) contentment: matter

31.APOSTATE: RELIGION::

(A) potentate: kingdom (B) traitor: country


(C) bureaucrat: government (D) jailer: law
(E) teacher: education

32.FOX: CUNNING::

(A) dog: playful (B) hyena: amusing


(C) beaver: industrious (D) vixen: cute
(E) colt: sturdy

33.PERJURY: OATH::

(A) plagiarism: authority (B) embezzlement: trust


(C) disrespect: age (D) testimony: court
(E) jury: vow

34.EULOGY: BLAME::

(A) elegy: loss (B) satire: mockery


(C) tirade: abuse (D) simile: likeness
(E) benediction: curse

35.PRIDE: LIONS::

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(A) gaggle: geese (B) honor: thieves


(C) snarl: wolves (D) arrogance: kings
(E) lair: bears

36.RANGE: MOUNTAINS::

(A) atlas: maps (B) plain: prairie


(C) sting: heads (D) novel: short stories
(E) sea: rivers

37.EXCESSIVE: MOERATION::

(A) extensive: duration (B) arbitrary: courage


(C) impulsive: reflection
(D) distinguished: reverence (E) expensive: cost

38.DEADBEAT: PAY::

(A) killjoy: lament (B) spoilsport: refrain


(C) daredevil: risk (D) diehard: quit
(E) turncoat: betray

39.MENDICANT: IMPECUNIOUS::

(A) critic: quizzical (B) complainer: petulant


(C) physician: noble (D) liar: compulsive
(E) philanthropist: prodigal

40.SNICKER: DISRESPECT::

(A) whimper: impatience (B) chortle: glee


(C) down: indifference (D) sneer: detachment
(E) glower: cheerfulness

41.MYTH: LEGNEDRY::

(A) sermon: lengthy (B) anecdote: witty


(C) fable: didactic (D) epic: comic
(E) allegory: obscure

42.TIRADE: ABUSIVE::

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(A) monologue: lengthy (B) aphorism: boring


(C) prologue: conclusive (D) encomium: laudatory
(E) critique: insolent

43.EXPEDITIOUS: SPEED::

(A) astute: wisdom (B) decorous: impropriety


(C) thoughtful: inanity (D) haggard: sturdiness
(E) portable: frailty

44.ANNOTATE: TEXT::

(A) enact: law (B) prescribe: medication


(C) caption: photograph (D) abridge: novel
(E) portable: frailty

45.DRUDGERY: IRKSOME::

(A) encumbrance: burdensome (B) journey: wearisome


(C) ambivalence: suspicious (D) compliance: forced
(E) dissonance: harmonious

46.IMPROMPTU: REHEARSAL::

(A) practiced: technique (B) makeshift: whim


(C) offhand: premeditation (D) glib: fluency
(E) numerical: calculation

47.ELISION: SYLLABLES::

(A) contraction: letters (B) thesis: ideas


(C) diagnosis: symptoms (D) almanac: facts
(E) abacus: numbers

48.STICKLER: INSIST::

(A) mumbler: enunciate (B) trickster: risk


(C) haggler: concede (D) laggard: outlast
(E) braggart: boast

49.DETRITUS: GLACIER::

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(A) thaw: snowfall (B) snow: ice cap


(C) silt: river (D) range: mountain
(E) foliage: tree

50.DESCRY: DISTANT::

(A) mourn: lost (B) whisper: muted


(C) discern: subtle (D) destroy: flagrant
(E) entrap: hostile

51.HORSE: CORRAL::

(A) oyster: reef (B) dog: muzzle


(C) sheep: flock (D) pig: sty (E) deer: stag

52.RUBBER: ELASTIC::

(A) paper: brittle (B) diamond: hard


(C) satin: sheer (D) metal: heavy
(E) dust: allergic

53.REAM: PAPER::

(A) carton: milk (B) statue: marble


(C) tablet: clay (D) ink: pen (E) cord: wood

54.HOBBLE: WALK::

(A) gallop: run (B) stammer: speak


(C) stumble: fall (D) sniff: smell
(E) amble: stroll

55.DETECTIVE: INFORMER::

(A) spy: counterspy (B) reporter: source


(C) author: editor (D) architect: draftsman
(E) sailor: mutineer

56.SCULPTOR: STONE::

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(A) essayist: words (B) painter: turpentine


(C) composer: symphony (D) logger: timber
(E) etcher: acid

57.MASTHEAD: NEWSPAPER::

(A) footnote: essay (B) credits: film


(C) spine: book (D) ream: paper
(E) advertisement: magazine

58.FRAYED: FABRIC::

(A) thawed: ice (B) renovated: building


(C) frazzled: nerves (D) watered: lawn
(E) cultivated: manner

59.INDOLENT: WORK::

(A) decisive: act (B) gullible: cheat


(C) perceptive: observe (D) theatrical: perform
(E) taciturn: speak

60.INALLIBLE: ERROR::

(A) irreversible: cure (B) invulnerable: emotion


(C) impeccable: flaw (D) intolerable: defect
(E) immovable: choice

61.INFRACTION: LAW::

(A) interruption: continuity


(B) renovation: structure (C) establishment: order
(D) enactment: amendment (E) punishment: crime

62.LAYCHRYMOSE: TEARS::

(A) effusive: requests (B) ironic: jests


(C) morose: speeches (D) profound: sighs
(E) verbose: words

63.MIOSTEN: DRENCH::

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(A) enclose: confine (B) prick: stab


(C) disregard: ignore (D) scrub: polish
(E) heat: chill

64.WITCH: COVEN::

(A) ogre: castle (B) seer: prophecy


(C) actor: troupe (D) fairy: spell
(E) doctor: medicine

65.CONTINENT: ISLAND::

(A) ocean: land (B) isthmus: peninsula


(C) cape: cove (D) river: canal
(E) plateau: plain

66.STORY: BUILDING::

(A) plot: outline (B) rung: ladder


(C) blackguard: protective (D) spendthrift: weak
(E) diehard: stubborn

67.CANONIZE: SAINT::

(A) train: athlete (B) guard: dignitary


(C) deify: sinner (D) lionize: celebrity
(E) humanize: scholar

68.STARE: GLANCE::

(A) participate: observe (B) scorn: admire


(C) hunt: stalk (D) gulp: sip (E) confide: tell

69.PERFORATE: HOLES::

(A) speckle: spots (B) evaporate: perfume


(C) decorate: rooms (D) filter: water
(E) repent: sins.

70.PUGNICIOUS: BATLE::

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(A) timorous: beg (B) loquacious: drink


(C) tenacious: persist (D) veracious: lie
(E) wicked: survive

71.CLEARSIGHTED: PERSPICACITY::

(A) daring: temerity (B) reserved: impulsiveness


(C) transparent: opacity (D) severe: clemency
(E) lethargic: energy

72.PLEAD: SUPLIANT::

(A) disperse: rioter (B) shun: outcast


(C) revere: elder (D) beg: philanthropist
(E) translate: interpreter

73.EPIGRAM: PITHY::

(A) allegory: lengthy (B) saga: heroic


(C) anecdote: humorous (D) elegy: satiric
(E) proverb: modern

74.BOLT: FABRIC::

(A) lock: key (B) book: paper (C) roll: film


(D) needle: thread (E) light: lamp

75.PROOF: ALCHOHAL::

(A) cream: milk (B) canteen: water


(C) tanker: oil (D) octane: gasoline
(E) pulp: juice

76.INCUBATOR: INFANT:

(A) henhouse: chicken (B) greenhouse: plant


(C) archives: document (D) cooler: wine
(E) hive: bee

77.CITADEL: DEFENSE::

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(A) chapel: refreshment (B) gazebo: refuge


(C) marine: contemplation (D) warehouse: storage
(E) rampart: supervision

78. RANCID: TASTE::

(A) tepid: temperature (B) glossy: look


(C) rank: smell (D) dulcet: sound
(E) savory: odor

79. TRYST: CLANDESTINE::

(A) reverie: dreamy (B) acquaintanceship: brief


(C) expectation: hopeless (D) glance: resentful
(E) journey: leisurely

80.WHISPER: SPEAK::

(A) brush: touch (B) skip: walk (C) listen: hear


(D) request: ask (E) whimper: whine

81.EXCLUSIVE: CAPTURE::

(A) persuasive: convince (B) elastic: stretch


(C) headstrong: control (D) sensible: decide
(E) gullible: trick

82.LINEAGE: PERSON::

(A) foliage: tree (B) derivation: word


(C) adolescence: child (D) title: book
(E) landscape: portrait

83.IMPANEL: JUROR::

(A) accuse: defendant (B) convict: culprit


(C) testify: witness (D) enroll: student
(E) involve: bystander

84.PECCADILLO: TRIFLING::

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(A) pariah: popular (B) diagnosis: accurate


(C) notion: farfetched (D) squabble: petty
(E) pursuit: trivial

85.PHYSIQUE: STURDY::

(A) intellect: noble (B) punctuality: tardy


(C) investment: sound (D) fabric: worn
(E) technique: inept

86.TRAILOR: MOTION PICTURES::

(A) truck: cargo (B) theater: play


(C) edition: novel (D) commercial: product
(E) libretto: opera

87.SIGN: ZODIAC::

(A) poster: billboard (B) letter: alphabet


(C) prediction: prophecy (D) signal: beacon
(E) rhyme: almanac

88.LUMINARY: ILLUSTRIOUS::

(A) zealot: intense (B) miser: prodigal


(C) atheist: devout (D) dignitary: conceited
(E) celebrity: wealthy

89.BUFFOON: DIGNITY::

(A) braggart: modesty (B) blackguard: strength


(C) laughingstock: ridicule
(D) imposter: identification (E) gambler: risk

90.ROUT: DEFEAT::

(A) ovation: applause (B) triumph: failure


(C) grief: loss (D) pathway: ruin
(E) memory: oblivion

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91.METAPHORE: FIGURATIVE::

(A) fable: contemporary (B) adage: paradoxical


(C) precept: instructive (D) irony: dramatic
(E) epic: literal

92.CALUMNY: ASPERSIONS::

(A) approbation: praise (B) slander: mockery


(C) approval: criticism (D) expectation: threats
(E) satire: lamentations

93.LAST: SHOE::

(A) cuff: trousers (B) finable: curtain


(C) pattern: glove (D) buckle: belt (E) strap: slip

94.INDOLENT: SLOTH::

(A) wrathful: ire (B) arrogant: acuity


(C) covetous: enigma (D) gluttonous: loyalty
(E) impatient: apathy

95.GROVEL: SERVILITY::

(A) titter: arrogance (B) fume: anger


(C) yawn: civility (D) preen: modesty
(E) snivel: hypocrisy

96.DELICATE: FASTIDIOUS::

(A) hard-working: diligent


(B) altruistic: mercenary
(C) demonstrative: effusive
(D) deceptive: fallacious (E) blithe: melancholy

97.RICOCHET: BULLET::

(A) soar: falcon (B) aim: crossbow (C) pierce: dart


(D) carom: ball (E) catapult: missile

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98.JUGGERNAUT: INEXORABLE::

(A) cosmonaut: worldly (B) colossus: gigantic


(C) demagogue: liberal (D) philistine: cultivated
(E) despot: immaculate

99.APOCRYPHAL: AUTHENTICITY::

(A) Nefarious: wickedness


(B) dogmatic: assertiveness
(C) hypocritical: integrity
(D) Perspicacious: discernment
(E) deceptive: artifice

100.DOLLAR: DIME::

(A) rupees: franc (B) saleswoman: pitch


(C) retreat: victory (D) century: decade
(E) ring: necklace

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ANSWERS KEY
01 C 17 B 33 B 49 C 65 A 82 A 98 D
02 E 18 B 34 E 50 C 66 E 83 C 99 B
03 A 19 A 35 A 51 D 67 B 84 B 100 D
04 D 20 B 36 C 52 B 68 D 85 D
05 C 21 A 37 C 53 E 69 D 86 D
06 C 22 B 38 D 54 B 70 A 87 C
07 D 23 C 39 B 55 B 71 C 88 D
08 C 24 C 40 B 56 A 72 A 89 B
09 C 25 A 41 C 57 B 73 E 90 A
10 C 26 E 42 D 58 C 74 B 91 A
11 B 27 C 43 A 59 E 75 C 92 A
12 A 28 A 44 C 60 C 76 D 93 C
13 C 29 C 45 A 61 A 77 B 94 A
14 C 30 B 46 C 62 E 78 D 95 C
15 E 31 B 41 A 63 B 79 C 96 B
16 D 32 C 42 E 64 C 80 A 97 C

SHAH ABDUL LATIF UNIVERSITY KHAIRPUR

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