LAELIOCATTLEYA BERGENFIELD

AND HOW TO GROW THEM

By ADELAIDE C. WILLOUGHBY

NEW YORK

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 1950

COPYRIGHT 1950 BY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, INC. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF A MERICA

Preface
THE grower of orchids is favored above other men. He belongs to a starry-eyed fraternity, to whom each small chore, accomplished in its turn for the better culture of his orchids, is a source of neverending and absorbing delight. The beauty of the orchid's line and color is known to all who bask in the offerings of the florist's window, but the breathless suspense and expectation that attend the unfolding of the mysterious growth of the orchid plant are known to the grower alone. The appearance of each new growth and root is cause for rejoicing; the slimy mark of a snail or the cottony warning of the presence of scale is cause for distress. The habits and idiosyncrasies of every species and plant are subject to absorbed study. Different methods of growing and the relative merits of hybrids and species are endlessly discussed among fellow growers. The orchid grower checks his mundane worries at the door of the greenhouse and enters a world that offers surcease even to the heart heavily burdened with sorrow and loss. However, when the beginner, eager but ignorant, seeks published information on the growing of orchids, he may be discouraged by the dearth of information. Where growers of gardenvariety flowers find an almost bewildering wealth of literature, the would-be orchid grower bumps up against what seems to be a wall of secrecy. This wall once was impregnableeach orchid

VI

hunter, grower, and hybridizer jealously guarded finds from curious and covetous eyesbut today there is an organized effort to popularize the growing of orchids by dispersing information through amateur groups and bulletins. If the amateur will play fair with the commercial grower, he can obtain much valuable information even from him. The amateur need only remember the important fact that to the professional the sale of orchids is a means of making a living, while to the amateur it is a means of securing pleasure and perhaps pin-money. There is now no deliberate conspiracy to conceal information about orchid growing, but there is still too little material available for the amateur. Many fine orchid books, first printed in expensive limited editions, have been long out of print, and others, published abroad, have not been translated. In the following pages we shall contribute our small share to building the foundation of a more general interest in and understanding of orchid culture. Beginning with a glimpse into the life secrets of the orchid and continuing through to the rather specialized knowledge required for growing orchids from seed, the aim of the book is to make a fascinating and worth-while hobby available to thousands. Once the way has been opened, the amateur will find many adventurous and rewarding by-paths to explore on his own. Credit must be given to Sanders' Orchid Guide, B. S. Williams' Orchid Grower's Manual, L. H. Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, and Schlechter's Die Orchideen, all of which were invaluable to me in preparing this book. Also of great help were Edward Albert White's American Orchid Culture, Rutherford Platt's This Green World, Charles Darwin's Origin of Species, Orchid Culture in Ceylon (edited by E. Soysa), the Orchid Digest, American Orchid Society Bulletin, Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin, Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, Australian Orchid Review, British Orchid Review, and the Brazilian Orquidea. I wish to extend my sincere thanks to friends and relatives for their faith in me during the writing of this book; to Mr. Fred

PREFACE

vii

Barns of the Pacific Coast Greenhouse Company, for his help on the chapter on 'Suitable Housing for Orchids'; to Mr. Harlan Crippen for the initial editorial assistance; to Dr. L. F. Hawkinson for the use of many of his orchid photographs; and to H. Patterson & Sons, 'Orchidhaven,' Bergenfield, New Jersey, whose Laeliocattleya Bergenfield, originated and raised by them, has been used for the frontispiece. The Orchid Digest has been more than generous in allowing me to reproduce many illustrations that first appeared in its publications. Finally, this book is dedicated to A. B. Willoughby, who first guided my footsteps down the path of orchid lore and, by his exhaustive study, observation, and sometimes painful experience, kindled in me the desire to add my bit to the gradually growing fund of orchid information. A. C. W. September 1949

Gontents
PREFACE, V
I

. Life Secrets of the Orchid, 3

2. The Orchid Family, 11 3. Suitable Housing for Orchids, 26 4. Proper Orchid Balance, 40 5. Orchid Potting, 50 6. Resting Is Necessary, 63 7. Pests dnd Diseases of Orchids, 70 8. Growing Orchids from Seed, 81 9. Artificial FeedingGravel Culture, 90 10. Hybrids of the Orchid Family, 98 A PPENDIX A: A List of Orchids, 107 A PPENDIX B: Prize-winning Hybrids, 124 INDEX, 129

List of Illustrations
Laeliocattleya Bergenfield
I FRONTISPIECE BETWEEN PAGES 36-7

1. Brassia Gireoudiana 2. Stanhopea Wardii 3. Mormodes colossus

11

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Cattleya velutina Brassavola nodosa Oncidium Forbesii Odontoglossum grande Miltonia vexillaria Odontoglossum dtrosmum
in

Dendrobium Farmed rv 1. Cycnoches chlorochilon 2. Lycaste brevispatha, syn. Candida 3. Phalaenopsis Stuartiana 4. Vanda coerulea 5. Coelogyne Huettneriana 6. Dendrobium superbum v "Vanda Sanderiana

xu
VI

1. An amateur's orchid house 2. Double-deck orchid bench construction 3. Wardian case used for orchid seed culture
VII

1. Slat shading 2. Side-view slat shading 3. Sketch of heating plant

VIII

Chicken ladder used in replacing glass in greenhouse

IX

1. Odontonia Cardinalis, F.C.C.R.H.S. 2. Cymbidium Swallow Perfection

x
1. Cypripedium Louis Crampton 2. Cypripedium Cheddington
XI

Potting Cattleyas
XII

1. 2. 3. 4.

From flask seedlings to blooming plant Seedlings Cattleya Mossiae x Laeliocattleya Rabeiana Potinara Ruby
XIII

From seed to embryo xrv Brassocattleya H. G. Alexander xv Brassocattleya Hartland

XVI

1. Laeliocattleya Elissa 2. Laeliocattleya Dulzura

ORCHIDS AND HOW TO GROW THEM

Life Secrets of the Orchid

THE beginnings of the orchid family are shrouded in mystery. Since most orchids are epiphyticthat is, having aerial roots through which they receive sustenance from the minerals in the moisture-laden air of the tropicsthey have left no traces such as the fossilized remains of ground-growing plants. Dr. E. Soysa, writing in Orchid Culture in Ceylon, advances the delightful and plausible, if unproved, theory that orchids antedated the fossil era, but in their love of light ascended trees to escape the advancing jungle. There they lived, died, dried up, and floated away, leaving no trace. Whatever the genesis of the orchid family, it cannot be doubted that the orchid family is very old, judging both by its great variety and its highly complex structural development, attainable only through the passage of time. The orchid is among the largest and most highly developed of the plant families, with some fifteen to twenty thousand species. A provident nature has lavished every means to insure the perpetuation of this favorite child. She has provided the flower with all the charm and allure of a fairy princess to win insect vassals to perform the service of cross-pollination. Nature has decreed that the orchid should be dependent on some outside insect agent, and the resultant relation is a beautiful example of cooperation between the plant and animal kingdoms. The highest means of perpetuation in plants, cross-pollination is necessary in
3

4 all but a very few species of orchids. In the few cases of selfpollination the seeds are frequently infertile. The insects performing the service of cross-pollination vary with the species and are as diverse as the ingenious contrivances by which the orchids utilize them. It is in every case a reciprocal arrangement, the plant receiving the benefits of fertilization, the insect the largess of food and drink. Each species usually has its particular insect, as is shown by the special means each flower uses to attract its insect. Darwin first noted a striking example of this specialization. On a trip to South America he had an opportunity to see a plant of Angraecum sesquipedale. This starry-white flower, a rare orchid of Madagascar, has a weirdly elongated lip containing a nectary, about eleven inches long, that holds one-and-a-half ounces of the sweet fluid produced by the sugar-secreting glands. Darwin immediately predicted that some day a moth with a proboscis at least twelve inches long would be discovered to be responsible for cross-pollination of this peculiar orchid. In time such a moth was found and was duly named Xanthopan morgani praedicta. In this particular alliance it is probable that the moth would starve without the orchid and that the orchid would become extinct without the moth. Such high specialization has insured the purity of species that has marked the progress of the orchid family. This specialization is reflected in the extremely varied forms of the reproductive organs. These organs lie within the lip, more scientifically known as the labellum, along a fleshy enlargement called the column. The anther-bearing stamens are usually sealed together into the column, and a projection of this elongated fleshy organ is the rostellum, whose purpose seems to be to separate the pollen and the stigmatic cavity, thus minimizing the danger of self-pollination. The anthers produce tiny powdery grains of fertile pollen, usually held together by a mysterious viscid fluid that hardens on exposure to air and is not affected by wind or rain. The stigmatic cavity with its receptive ovum (egg) waits for the 'marrying' insect to deposit pollen from another flower.

LIFE SECRETS OF THE ORCHID

The labellum serves in three capacities: it provides storage space for the pollen, an antechamber to the ovary, and a banquet room for the insect. On entering any orchid flower the insect must first brush the empty stigmatic cavity in his search for the nectar or other food. Drunk with the repast, he blunders out, the narrow passage compelling him on the way to brush past the pollen masses, which become dislodged and, because of the sticky fluid, adhere to him. These masses hold firmly until he enters another flower of the same species. The feeding position is ideal for depositing the pollen. In some species the insect is not allowed to enter the storage chamber but, by lighting on the labellum, he releases a tiny gun that projects the pollen masses toward him in the shape of a blunt arrow. With this attached to his body he flies to the next flower where, as he sups, the arrow of pollen fits neatly into the cavity. He probably picks up another load of precious pollen as he leaves, and hunger, or perhaps the memory of his recent feast, leads him again to the proper flower, where he once more deposits his burden. Most flowers offer nectar but some offer solid food to the insect performing the pollination service. Insects have been observed feeding on the crest, a crisp ridge on the labellum. Some pervade the air with perfume, while others bring visitors by their handsome size and showy color. Small inconspicuous flowers cluster together on the stems to win attention. Some wear shining white that gleams in the moonlight and draws night-flying moths. Once arrived at the flower, the insect's path is not left to chance but is carefully charted. Lines on the lip lead inward, crests are raised to keep his steps from straying, dark spots on the bright throats, or the large white spots common to some species and called 'eyes,' act as beacons. Although the flowers differ in their insect-attracting characteristics, there is one feature common to all: the insect must always pass the empty receptive stigmatic cavity first, thus depositing his load of pollen before feeding and picking up more pollen.

In most of the flowers the exaggerated labellum twists from normal to flatten out and form a welcome mat to the feast within. After pollination, this mat is lifted or twisted back to normal to prevent further intrusion. The ovary lies just behind the column and part-way down the stem. After pollination the male pollen cells travel down a long passage to fertilize the waiting egg. This requires a period of twenty-four hours or longer, and sometimes fails entirely. If fertilization has taken place, the ovary begins to swell and the fruit or seed pod begins to form below the flower. Maturation will require from nine to eighteen months, depending on the species. Seeds require five to seven years or more to produce blooming plants, although some of the so-called 'botanicals' may require less. Beauty and use seem to go hand-in-hand in the orchid family. The lovely petals and sepals of the flowers guard and protect the vital organs hidden in the labellum: in some cases as extra protection they never entirely open, and in others they fold as soon as the flower has been pollinated. This last evidence of protection often comes as a shock to the amateur orchid grower. When an uninvited bee enters the greenhouse and pollinates a bloom being cherished for a special exhibit, the flower responds by blushing violently and soon thereafter folds its petals or 'wilts,' much to the distress of the grower. Nature's schemes for perpetuation of the orchid species work with wonderful precision. A peculiar balance seems to be observed in that rarer and less productive orchids have developed a more complicated and thus more accurate and certain method of crosspollination. Self-pollination is discouraged by nature. Even in the few orchids capable of it, the process seems only to be used when insects fail to appear. The process of pollination is comparatively simple in genera with large, open flowers, having short, fairly wide, easily accessible nectaries as, for example, Cattleya, Laelia, Phaius, Sophronites, Bletia, Coelogyne, and Cymbidium. Bees readily perform the service. In greenhouses with wide-open vents the bees frequently

LIFE SECRETS OF THE ORCHID

pollinate indiscriminately and many wilted flowers result. Those having a longer nectary, like the Angraecum, are pollinated by moths. Members of the genus Vanda and perhaps of Aerides are probably pollinated by a larger moth. Some of these that produce only a few flowers also manufacture extremely firm cement for attaching the pollen masses to the insect, preventing loss in flight. Certain types of Cypripediums are attractive only to small bees. Epipactus latifolia finds its needs best served by wasps. Darwin reported that a Dr. Criiger had observed swarms of bees actually feeding on the crests of the labellum of Coryanthes, a weird flower with a hooded dorsal that appears to crouch down over the labellum. Its most interesting characteristic is a bucketshaped appendage peculiar to the species. This is filled with a slow-dripping fluid, not a nectar, whose purpose seems to be to wet the wings of the hungry bee when he passes the slippery sides and thus force him to creep through a narrow passage. Here he forcibly brushes the stigmatic cavity, finds crests spread for him to nibble, and picks up the pollen while feeding. He flies off and repeats the process on another Coryanthes and the cycle is completed. In Pterostylus, after the insect enters, the labellum shuts a little trap door, forcing him to leave by the back through a passageway where the cramped quarters facilitate the performance of his function. Masdevallia fenestra never fully opens but has tiny windows that remain open until pollination occurs, when they are drawn shut. Darwin admitted that he was never able to determine the method of pollination for this flower. As amazing as are these structural oddities, they are no more so than the means by which the pollen masses adapt themselves to a position suited to their proper delivery. Rutherford Platt in This Green World has reported that the Orchis, fertilized by bees, attaches the pollen masses to the bee in erect horns, which, however, wilt down in a manner that permits them to hit exactly the waiting cavity of the next flower. If they remained erect they would not fit.

8 Calopogon carries its stigma on the bottom part of the petal, and when the bee lands with a pollen load he is neatly flip-flopped into a somersault that brings the pollen on his back to proper contact. In Cypripedium acaule the bee is attracted to the entrance by white lines, pushes through the softly drawn drapes of the pouch of the 'lady's slipper,' and sips the nectar, but when he seeks to retreat, the drapes are closed tight behind him. By squeezing through the only open place, the hole at the top, he first scrapes the pollen on to the stigma and then, pushing past the pollen masses at the top, picks up another load. Apparently undaunted he flies to another rosy slipper and repeats the routine. In Catasetum the vital pollen is stored in a secret chamber inaccessible to the visitor and, as already described, is discharged by a miniature catapult at the intruding insect. Most interesting of orchids, Catasetum appears to be an exclusively male form, and Momtchanthus viridis, which has only rudimentary pollen masses, the female of the same species. The pollination of orchids is a subject that still has ample room for original research. Far too little is known about the subject. Are the so-called spider orchids (Cryptostylis arachnitis) fertilized by spiders, the Arachnis muscifera, resembling flies, by flies, and the bee orchids (Bee Ophrys) by bees? Is it the putrid smell of Bulbophyllum putridum, or foetidum, that attracts, and are the attracted insects those that feed on decayed vegetable matter? Patient and close observation will be needed to discover the answers. In addition to the great variety of inducements and ingenuity of nature to insure pollination, the orchid plant, compensating for the extreme danger threatening its very tiny and powdery seed progeny, produces this seed in great profusion. Darwin cited an instance of one pod with approximately 6,020 fertile seeds, the plant bearing four such capsules. One plant of Orchis maculate produced thirty seed pods, each pod containing about 6,200 seeds, or a total of 186,300. Fritz Miiller found 1,756,440 seeds in a single Maxillaria pod. The world would be overrun by orchids

LIFE SECRETS OF THE ORCHID

were it not that the seed prospers under conditions that are equally favorable to its enemies, pests and fungi. The orchid seed's chance for survival is further reduced by the fact that it is not in itself supplied with sufficient food but must depend on outside helpa friendly fungus called Rhizoctonia, supplanted in artificial cultivation by chemical nutrient. Another important disadvantage of the orchid seed is that, as compared to other plants, it is singularly undifferentiated into roots, leaves, and endosperm. The matter of propagation is of utmost concern to the grower. Propagating from seed, which will be considered in a later chapter, is a rather technical method for beginning amateurs, but other methods of propagation, either natural or artificial, seem prosaic compared to the thrilling story of seed production and seed growing. In some ways, however, they are more advantageous, in that they are simpler and produce a flower of certain appearance. Plants of sympodial growth, that is with the new growth coming out of the base of and alongside the old bulbs, will be found to propagate readily by division. Cattleya, Laelia, and Cymbidium are typical of this type. Cypripedium is frequently found to divide itself in nature even more readily than others of the type. The Cattleya permits division as long as three or four bulbs are allowed. Each year in the life of the Cattleya adds a new growth at the front end of the plant, and certain species may occasionally grow in two and, more rarely, in three directions. As the new bulbs form, the old ones frequently begin to lose their leaves and roots. They become 'poor relations,' a drag on the living plant. On being severed from the living plant the backbulbs, as these old drybulbs are called, will, if placed in a warm, moist spot, start life over. After two, three, or perhaps four years these will be new plants and will flower. The advantage of the backbulb type of propagation over the growing of seedlings is that the flower will exactly resemble that of the original plant, while in

1O

the seedling there is no way to tell whether it will resemble one parent plant or the other or be something entirely different. Plants of monopodial growth, like Vanda, Renanthera, and Angraecum, with the new growth appearing continuously from the top or crown, will not divide so readily. The only method of propagation for them, other than seed growing, is to cut off the top of the plant below several of the husky aerial roots. On being potted, the top part may take root and become a new plant. It is a risky practice, however, and is not especially recommended to amateurs unless for some reason the crown of the plant has become damaged and appears dead. When the top is cut off or injured in this fashion the bottom part will probably develop adventitious plants. This type of plant is a slow grower and needs to be very large before flowering, so that any kind of propagation is a slow and tedious process at best. Phalaenopsis, while differing from Vanda in that it is stemless, is also of monopodial growth and not divisible. It will occasionally throw adventitious plants from the nodes of the flower stem. Experiments have shown that it is possible, by wrapping the flower node in damp Osmunda and keeping it warm and damp, to force the growth of a new plant. Dendrobium, of sympodial growth, will put forth little plantlets, complete with bulb and roots, at the slightest provocation. These plantlets develop from the cane-like flower stems. If the beginner keeps his Dendrobiums, especially the deciduous type, too warm and moist during the dormant season they will waste their strength in plantlets and fail to bloom. Many commercial growers pick the entire cane on flowering and, after cutting off the blooms, lay the canes on damp, warm sand or gravel to allow plantlets to develop from the dormant eyes. Dendrobiums are easily divided or grown from seed.

Tlze Orchid Family

THE prospective orchidist will want to have a general knowledge of the orchid family and a survey of the individual members with whom he may want later to become more closely acquainted. The range of choice is wide, since, as has been said, there are from fifteen to twenty thousand species. This chapter gives a broad and general view of the field in the hope that the reader will be stimulated to further investigation. It is intended neither as a complete list nor as a scientific description, for which Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture is readily available. Out of print, but occasionally found are Williams's Orchid Grower's Manual, Dr. Rudolph Schlecter's books on orchids (in German), and Sanders' Orchid Guide. The year 1947 saw the publication of Sanders' Complete List of Orchid Hybrids. The orchid family varies widely in habitat, ranging throughout the tropics, over the temperate zones of both hemispheres, and even reaching into the fringes of the Arctic. There is a similarly wide variation in type, with several systems of classification. The first division is into monopodial and sympodial groups, referring to the habit of growth. The monopodial, including the Vanda and Aerides, grow continuously from a central crown, which eventually appears atop a long stem that has frequently lost its lower leaves. Phalaenopsis, although monopodial, is stemless, but yearly grows a pair of leaves from the characteristic crown.

12

The leaves of monopodial orchids are heavy, leathery, fleshy, and capable of storing some quantity of moisture, but the plants must never be allowed to dry out completely. The leaves of Vanda teres, like pine needles, do not resemble leaves, but are three to four inches long, very slender, round and succulent, and taper to a point. The sympodial group, of which Cattleya, Laelia, and Coelogyne are notable examples, has a creeping rootstock, with each new growth springing from the base and alongside the last year's growth. The new growth appears as a swelling or 'dormant' eye that at the proper time will 'break' or begin to grow. In some genera, such as Laelia and Coelogyne, the growths will break in several directions, but in Cattleya usually in only one. The pseudobulb, a characteristic of sympodial orchids, is a reservoir for food and moisture against times of drought and dormancy. It differs widely according to the different genera. The pseudobulb of Cattleya is longish, smooth, and rounded; while that of Laelia may be slightly flattened, even in some cases assuming a many-sided angular form. Certain species have pseudobulbs that resemble small pineapples. The pseudobulbs of Odontoglossum and Miltonia are much flattened and compressed; those of Coelogyne are very round, short, and prolific; and those of Cymbidium very large, rounded, and stocky. Dendrobium in many species lacks pseudobulbs, but even the long cane-like flower stems, along which the leaves grow in pairs, are capable of storing food and moisture. Orchids may also be classified as saprophytic, terrestrial, semiterrestrial, and epiphytic. Here we will not be much concerned with the saprophytes, natives of temperate zones, since they either lack flowers entirely or have small inconspicuous flowers of interest only to the botanist. Lacking chlorophyll, the valuable green substance in leaves by means of which is accomplished photosynthesis (the manufacture of carbohydrates, sugars and starches, through the action of the sun or light on carbon dioxide and water), the saprophyte is forced to obtain sustenance from

THE ORCHID FAMILY

13

the predigested food of decaying organic matter in the soil. The saprophytes are typified by the Corallorhyza, whose tangled rootstock resembles coral, and the Neottis. The terrestrial orchids are also found in the temperate zones of both hemispheres. Among them are the tall Sobralia, graceful Cypripediums, Spiranthes, and fairy-flowered Habenaria. Calypso bulbosa (or borealis) is a native of the cold reaches of the Arctic. North America abounds in native orchids, many of which are very common and not generally recognized as orchids. Most showy of these, the Cypripedium or well-known 'lady's slipper,' has a wide range of habitat in the United States and has attractive foliage as well as flowers. However, few of the terrestrial orchids transplant well from their marshy homes, and it is perhaps best to seek them out and enjoy them in their native habitat. By far the largest, most varied, and most showy of the orchid family are included in the semi-terrestrial and epiphytic groups. These are tropical or subtropical and live on trees in the rainswept coastal jungles or on bare rocks in the hot sun. Their elevation ranges from sea level to two thousand feet above sea level. They abound through parts of Asia, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and South and Central America. The Himalayas and the Andes are also congenial to lovely orchids. The epiphytic orchids are widely and wrongly considered to be parasites because they grow on other plants, notably trees. The plant 'home' is actually used only for support. In addition to the roots that cling to trees, these orchids also have aerial (epiphytic) roots that are sent forth to secure nourishment from the soluble mineral salts in the moisture-laden air and from the humus washed down into the crotches of trees and cracks of rocks. The supply of such nourishment is plentiful in some seasons and scant in others, a fact that no doubt accounts for the five to seven years required for the slow growth from seed to bloom. In his selection of plants, the grower may arrange his collection to include representatives of all of the above-mentioned divisions

14 and also plan to have plants coming to bloom all through the year. The epiphytic orchids, however, are of paramount interest to the grower, and we shall consider them in some detail in the following paragraphs. Botanical names of orchids are usually long and confusing and difficult to pronounce, and at first seem to offer a serious obstacle to the further study and understanding of the family. The pronunciations suggested in the listings of the various species and hybrids on pages 107-23 are in good usage, but are by no means the only ones permissible. The Cattleya, favored by the florist and valuable as the parent of large and showy hybrids, is perhaps the orchid best known to the public. There are over forty species of Cattleya. In their native state the plants grow in thick clusters on treesfrequently mahogany or a type of acaciaand are so well protected by giant stinging ants that the only way to harvest them is to cut down the tree. The Cattleya plant lacks beauty to the uninitiated, being composed of longish, rounded pseudobulbs, which advance rhizomefashion along the surface of the potting mixture, and are topped by one, two, or three long green leaves of firm leathery texture. The average Cattleya 'puts on' or grows one new pseudobulb a year. After several new bulbs have been formed the old ones tend to lose their leaves and roots, becoming backbulbs. These backbulbs are frequently referred to as poor relations, owing to their habit of sapping the energy of the growing end of the plant. If severed and placed in a warm, moist spot they will usually respond by sending forth new growth and roots to start a new plant. A tiny swelling or dormant eye will be found at the base of each pseudobulb in a Cattleya plant. In proper time the eye of the youngest bulb begins to swell and break into growth, acquiring new leaves and sending out new roots. A new pseudobulb is formed and, in a healthy, well-cared-for plant, each will be finer

THE ORCHID FAMILY

15

and larger than the last. In case of injury to the forebulb, one of the dormant eyes of an older bulb will break. From among the leaves at the top of the new growth the flower sheath will form. Very disconcerting to the beginner is the habit of some species of growing or 'throwing' sheaths at the time the new growth is made up. This means that after the new bulb is completed there is a long period during which the flower sheath remains empty of buds, and the amateur despairs of ever having a flower. Some Cattleyas even have double sheaths, which also disappoint the eager grower. Finally, after repeatedly holding the plant against the light in search of buds, he is rewarded by discovering small dark spots at the base of the sheath. At last the flower buds are 'set' or have begun to ripen. Species differ in the length of time required for maturing or flowering. The Cattleya is among the larger and showier of the species orchidsspecies meaning 'native' as opposed to 'hybrid.' Coloring ranges through all shades and tints of purple, from amethyst and violet to magenta and deep red. Brown, yellow, and green species are found among the genus. Many of the species have alba varieties, whose flowers are pure white with a touch of green or yellow at the throat. Important among the Cattleyas are the labiata group, those possessed of a fine, large lip, which makes them valuable as the progenitors of commercially desirable hybrids as well as for their own beauty and prodigality. These labiates have some representative blooming, with trustworthy regularity, at every season of the year. The intermediate or 'Cattleya' house satisfactorily serves this group. (For listing and descriptions of species of this genus see pages 1078.) The genus Laelia, native to Mexico and Brazil, is closely allied to Cattleya, crossing readily with it to form the exquisite Laeliocattleya hybrids. The plant is very similar in habit and appearance; the pseudobulbs are slightly more angular, at times quite square, at others quite flat. It has many aerial roots; the new leads

16 break in more than one direction, giving it an irregular form of growth. Either the intermediate or cooler house serves this family. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 109.) The genus Brassavola is related to Laelia and Cattleya, crossing harmoniously with them to form the exotic hybrids Brassocattleyas and Brassolaeliocattleyas. The plants have small pseudobulbs, which are frequently compressed. The flowers, usually white, or greenish-white, are not outstanding except for the very large, fringed lip, a characteristic handed down to the progeny. An intermediate, or even warmer, house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 109 f.) The genus Dendrobium is prolific and diverse, comprising some one hundred species, which vary greatly in size and shape. It contains D. violaceoflavens (vie-o-lay-see-o-flay-vens), with sixteen-foot pseudobulbs, and D. Schneideri (sh'ny-der-eye or ee), measured in inches. It ranges from southern Asia, particularly the Sikkhim region, through Ceylon, Malaya, Siam, China, Japan, all the large islands (the Philippines, Java, Sumatra, Borneo), and even some of the small islands, to Australia and New Zealand. A single species has been found to adjust itself to entirely different places. Members of the genus grow on trees, in the ground, and on bare rocks, through great extremes of temperature and elevation. Some have been found as high as 1500 to 2000 feet in Burma at 1200 F. The Dendrobium plant is unusual in appearance, being sympodial, epiphytic, and bulbless, but possessed of heavy cane-like stems, which also produce the papery-green leaves. Especially in the deciduous types these canes store sufficient moisture and food to tide the plant over periods of extreme drought. The genus is divided into deciduous and evergreen, which again divides into warm- and cool-growing plants. All evergreen Dendrobes (the name affectionately given the genus by orchidists) are handsome plants with their leafy, graceful foliage. They have

THE ORCHID FAMILY

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cane-like stems, taking the place of pseudobulbs, and bear the flowers in erect panicles (clusters, as of grapes), singly at the nodes, or in drooping racemes (stems with flowers attached at intervals). Evergreen Dendrobiums may be accommodated in the warm house. Deciduous Dendrobiums are peculiar-looking plants, becoming dry and shriveled bamboo-like canes each year after the leaves drop off. Amazingly, and lovelier by contrast, the flowers bud and bloom from the nodes (joints) of these dry canes. Deciduous Dendrobes bloom on the old wood, and evergreen Dendrobes on the new growth. They may be accommodated in the warm house and removed to a cooler spot while resting. (Listing and descriptions of warm-growing and evergreen and deciduous species of this genus may be found on pages 110-11.) The genus Oncidium is a very old one. It ranges from hot coastal regions to the cold of 12,000 feet elevation. It is native to Mexico, Central and tropical South America, and the West Indies. It has short, thick pseudobulbs and slender, graceful leaves. Though the flowers are small compared to the Cattleya, they are a spray-type of considerable grace and charm. The blooms are flat, of silky texture, resembling a dancing girl with wide-spread skirts and tiny waist. The clear bright yellow attained by some of the species is unsurpassed. An intermediate or cool house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of the species of the genus Oncidium may be found on pages 111-12.) The possibilities of each genus are so fascinating that it is only with reluctance that we pass on to the next. The Cypripediums must be dismissed in far too short a space. Williams has devoted ninety-two pages to this genus as against fifty-five for the Cattleyas and fifty-four for the Dendrobiums. The amateur can only be urged to further independent research. Botanists have lately decided on a complicated division altering the nomenclature of the Cypripedium, but for the present pur-

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pose all species can be dealt with under the old inclusive name. Cypripediums are both evergreen and deciduous. The deciduous groups are from South America and have chiefly a specialized botanical interest. All of North America boasts Cypripediums, but not many people are aware that the modest 'lady's slipper' and 'moccasin flower' are orchids and humble sisters to the regal Cattleya. Cypripediums are to be found in some form practically all over the world. (Listing and descriptions of native North American slippers may be found on page 112.) More showy, and adaptable to greenhouse culture, the tropical Cypripediums, denizens of the Far East, are handsome plants with shiny dark-green foliage. These warmer growing types have handsomely mottled leaves. They are the parents of the rounded-petal hybrids so prized by florists. Cypripedium in its tropical forms is a genus highly recommended for amateurs. It is gratifyingly prolific, easy of culture and adaptable, and one of the few that can be grown in a dwelling. (Listing and descriptions of species with marked and unmarked leaves may be found on pages 112-13.) The genus Cymbidium is a hardy one reaching an ever greater and well-deserved popularity. Plants are sympodial, terrestrial, semiterrestrial, and epiphytic. They are grown outdoors under lath in the tropics and thrive particularly on the West Coast of North America, where Southern California hopes to become the Cymbidium center of the world. The plants have great solid pseudobulbs and very long grasslike leaves. From the depths of this graceful foliage (waist high), the flowers climb along tall, sturdy stems, usually erect, but drooping in some species. This handsome spray orchid has lent itself so well to hybridizing that it has attained a perfection in flower, of size and shape that rivals the Cattleya, and in range of color it is surpassed by no other orchid. The aim of modern hybridizers has been to produce a flower with a dorsal sepal and petals so

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round that the hand cannot be seen if held behind the flower a far cry from the slim-petaled grandparents. Species of Cymbidium have proved strangely difficult to grow under artificial conditions, probably owing to the difficulty of giving them proper aeration. For that reason as well as for their superior beauty and size, the hybrids are far better known than the species. They must be grown in a cool house or outdoors. Although there are sixty known species, only about ten of them have been used to any extent in making the many lovely hybrids. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 113-14. Listing is for reference and not to tempt the amateur to produce or grow the plants.) The genus Vanda contains many species represented by large handsome plants and a wide variety of beauty in the flowers. By some growers considered difficult to cultivate, their charm is well worth the supplying of their particular needs and the studying of their habits. The plants are pseudobulb-less, the leaves distichous (dis-tik-ous), or disposed in two parallel lines along the heavy, erect stem. The tendency of the stem is to grow up toward the sun, as the surprised amateur finds when his plant reaches the roof and has no more room to grow. The lower leaves frequently drop off. Thick aerial roots form along the stem and, when smooth, green-tipped, and fat, indicate that the plant is progressing. When they become shriveled and ringed, something is drastically wrong with their culture. In the showier species the flowers are borne in loose racemes and have spreading sepals and petals; in others the petals are spread and tend to roll under. In the former type the texture of the flowers is papery but shines as though sprinkled with diamond dust. In the latter the texture is leathery or waxy and very heavy. The lip is often very inconspicuous. (Listing and descriptions of interesting and lovely Vandas to be grown in the hot house may be found on page 115.)

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The genus Phalaenopsis boasts plants almost as beautiful as their flowers; they have smooth, shiny, large leaves, emanating from the central crown, and they lack pseudobulbs. Called by the florists 'butterfly orchids,' in their home they are more nearly correctly known as 'moth orchids,' gleaming white and moth-like in the dark of night. In recent years they have often replaced lilies of the valley for bridal bouquets because of the purity of their white spray-like flowers. Heavy strap-like roots go forth searching for moisture and, owing to their habit of roving and clinging to foreign objects, constitute a considerable problem in repotting. Erect woody stems bear flowers prolifically until the weight causes them to curve gracefully. The structure of the flowers is exquisite, the dorsal sepal rounded, shaping to a point at the top; the side petals broad and sweeping; the two lower sepals, narrower and sometimes overlapping, forming a background for the remarkable lip, crested with yellow. Red lines in the throat seem to signal the way to the hybridizing insects, and the fore lobes of the lip are frequently elongated into curling tendrils. An intermediate house will serve though they prefer warmer conditions. (Listing and descriptions of species included in this genus may be found on pages 115-16.) Epidendrum is a hardy genus to which belong a great number of so-called 'botanicals' that, because their flowers are small and of no commercial value, are of interest only to botanists. The plant is vine-like in some species, but has definite pseudobulbs in others; it is epiphytic and sympodial. The small flowers are very abundant, usually starry (slender sepals and petals as contrasted with the broad petals and sepals of Cattleya and Phalaenopsis), and frequently of brilliant, almost harsh, coloringincluding all shades of red from orange to maroon. It has an affinity for Sophronitis (sof'fron-eye-tis), with which it readily crosses to form Epiphronitis, It grows like a weed in Mexico where hedges of E. radicans axe often seen. Plants have pseudobulbs of many and varied shapes. Outdoors or an intermediate, cool, or hot house

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will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species may be found on pages 116-17.) Sophronitis is a genus of epiphytic, dwarf, evergreen plants similar in appearance and habit to Cattleya but requiring cooler conditions and more light. The coloring of the flowers is very brilliant. An intermediate or hot house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species may be found on page 117.) Members of the genus Odontoglossum have been found difficult to grow under artificial cultivation, as they require conditions entirely different from those of most greenhouse orchids. Seldom found at an elevation of less than 5000 feet, they need shade, air, and moisture without being chilled. They are so showy and lovely, in respect to both plantpseudobulbous and foliaceous and to crisply serrated flowers, that it is well worth the effort to study their native environment and supply conditions to make them happy. The plants are small, compact, evergreen, sympodial, and epiphytic, and the flowers are borne along tall, curving spikes. The species are many and varied, all beautiful. They require coolhouse culture with shade. The genus is noted for its many fine natural hybrids. It crosses readily with Miltonia to form Odontonia, considered by many growers an improvement on the parents because of the larger flowers and greater ease of growth. It also hybridizes freely with Oncidium to form Odontocidium. (Listing and descriptions of species may be found on pages 117-19.) Stanhopea is an interesting genus. It is epiphytic and sympodial, with large, showy, fragrant flowers, and has the habit of throwing the flower spike from the bottom of the plant, so that it requires potting in a basket. The flowers, not prolific, have a peculiar waxy texture and are disappointingly short-lived. If cut immediately and placed in water they will last a little longer. The fleshy prominent lip and organs for reproduction display many surprising

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shapes in the different species. The plants are pseudobulbous and have dark green leaves. Either an intermediate or cooler house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 119.) The genus Miltonia has very fragile-looking plants, the pseudobulbs so pale a green as to appear transparent and the delicate foliage closely adhering to the pseudobulbs at the base and feathering out at the top. The plants are difficult to maintain without yellowing or spotting, and are very susceptible to thrips and red spiders, whose inroads still further mar their appearance. They are epiphytic and sympodial. The flowers are large for the size of the bulb and are borne in large numbers on a slender, erect stem. Miltonia, because of its beauty and variety, offers desirable plants for an amateur collection. The flowers do not last well when cut, but if left on the plant are long-lived. If well tended the whole plant makes a graceful and attractive decoration or centerpiece. It crosses with Cochlioda to form Miltonioda. An intermediate house serves. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 119-20.) The genus Phaius, although not one of the treasured 'commercials,' is satisfactory and easy to grow. The plant is terrestrial and epiphytic, handsomely ornamental, and usually pseudobulbous. It has large fine leaves from the midst of which rise tall, erect stems bearing large, showy flowers. The coloring is odd with the frequent combination of white and yellow, while the outside of the petals, sepals, and lip is white. Phaius crosses readily with Calanthe. An intermediate house serves. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 120.) The genus Calanthe is terrestrial, infrequently epiphytic, sympodial, evergreen, and sometimes deciduous. Having large, wide, gracefully drooping leaves of shimmering texture and artistic grooving, it is much used in England for table decoration. The

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pseudobulbs are large, heavy, and of light olive-green, and the flowers grow in sprays and are delicately colored, though coarser in texture than most orchids. An intermediate or cool house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 120-21.^ Coelogyne is a pseudobulbous, evergreen, sympodial epiphyte. It varies considerably with the species, the bulbs of C. cristate being short, plump, and well-rounded, while those of C. Pandurata are flattened, compressed, and distichous. The flowers are oddly attractive and of crisp texture, growing freely on racemes coming from the center of the new growths, and usually having sepals broader than the smaller petals. An intermediate or cool house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 121.) The genus Lycaste is a sympodial epiphyte, attractive and easy to grow. It has thick pseudobulbs and short, ribbed leaves, and in some species the flowers are extremely large for the size of the plant. There is a wide color range, from deep pink to greenishbrown; the texture is exquisite and glistening; and the shape is oddly like a half-open rosebud. It is strictly a native of the tropical Western Hemisphere. It may be accommodated in a cool or intermediate house. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on pages 121-2.) Maxillaria, of chiefly botanical interest, is a genus very similar to Lycaste; in fact, it was formerly confused with that genus. It is a monopodial epiphyte with many close-growing, rounded, slightly flattened pseudobulbs, and it blooms prolifically, with tiny flowers. The leaves are usually grass-like. An intermediate house serves. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 122.) Cycnoches is a lovely genus that has been neglected by American growers. The plants have heavy, woody pseudobulbs. The

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graceful foliage is frequently shed in the winter. In fact, flowering is such a strain on the plant that the old bulb often gives all its strength to the new growth, and then shrivels and dies. An injudicious use of water is disastrous. The plant produces large, handsome flowers whose shape has earned for it the graceful name 'swan's neck orchid.' The flowers are so unusual and beautiful that they are worth any amount of labor involved in encouraging them to bloom. According to Lindley, C. ventricosum produces male, female, and neuter flowers in the same scape. It enjoys the hot house with Vandas and Phalaenopsis. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 122.) Catasetum is a genus that is of special interest not because of its beauty, but because of the weird shape of its flowers and the amazing contrivances used in pollination. It is seldom seen in collections. It is definitely epiphytic, producing aerial roots in profusion; it is sympodial and native to Central America. When the plant was originally found, it was thought that the male flowerproducing plant and the female were two separate species. Green, yellow, and brown predominate in the color scheme of the flowers. An intermediate house serves. Trichopelia is another genus, of largely botanical interest. The plants are dwarf and evergreen. They have fleshy pseudobulbs and leaves and showy, curiously shaped flowers, usually bearing tubular-shaped lips. An intermediate or hot house will serve. /Listing and descriptions of species may be found on page 122.) Masdevallia is a large genus which is remarkable principally for the weird and fantastic shape taken by its flowers. It is native to tropical America. It is sympodial and both terrestrial and epiphytic. Its creeping rhizome and shiny leaves take the place of pseudobulbs. The flowers resemble unearthly insects, with long, tapering, curled sepals and a tubular or contorted lip, which is most frequently white. An intermediate house will serve.

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Chysis is a small genus containing only about eight species. It is epiphytic, evergreen, and pseudobulbous. It has showering flowers, which have a divided lip with a spreading skirt-like base, and erect side lobes, lightly curving together, with a hooded effect. (Listing and descriptions of some of the species of this genus may be found on page 123.) Renanthera, a native of India and the South Pacific islands, is a genus of epiphytic and distichous growth and a difficult roving habit. Some of the species have $howy flowers, but they are difficult to grow. It may be accommodated in a hot house. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 123.) It may surprise and interest the amateur to know that Vanilla is a genus of the orchid family. It is exceedingly difficult to grow, however, owing to its far-roving, vine-like habit of growth, and it infrequently flowers in the temperate zone. It is monopodial, epiphytic, and evergreen. It lacks pseudobulbs, but has heavy, fleshy leaves. The flowers are fairly large, but the plant must assume considerable size before it will flower. The seed pods are the source of vanilla. An intermediate or hot house will serve. (Listing and descriptions of species of this genus may be found on page 123.)

Suitable Housing for Orchids

FROM the time of acquiring his first plant the beginner in orchid culture must learn much that is new and, perhaps equally important and difficult, unlearn much that applies to growing other plants. For successful growth the orchid, like plants of the garden variety, requires a proper balance of light, heat, water, and food. The proportion and quality of these elements are, however, radically different for the orchid. Most epiphytic orchids come from tropical or subtropical regions where there is abundant atmospheric moisture and where the intense sunlight is modified by dense foliage. Showy tropical orchids, dwellers in rain-swept jungles, cling to trees and send out long roots, seeking nourishment from moisture-soluble minerals in the air and from humus in the forks of tree trunks. Other orchids grow on bare rocks, where they are subjected to drenching rains and drying winds. The sun in the regions where such orchids grow is tempered by the constantly drifting clouds that bring the sudden showers. In transplanting orchids from their diverse habitats to civilization the grower is faced with a major problemsuitable housing. There are some fortunate regions where housing presents little or no difficulty. Hawaii boasts few or no indigenous orchids (opinions differ on the matter), but the climate makes it possible to hang imported orchids in trees, with happy results. Australia
26

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has many native orchids and many localities accommodate imported orchids in bush-houses, the equivalent of American lathhouses. On the island of Ceylon and in some other tropical countries a large foliaceous tree in the garden makes a splendid home for many types of orchid. Central and South America are the habitat of many of the finest members of the orchid family, and gardens abound in them. Even there, however, scale and other pests must be kept under firm control. Regions with a climate similar to Southern California are ideally suited for growing, under lath, genera such as Cymbidium. The climate of the major portions of North America, England, and the Continent, however, make some sort of heated glasshouse necessary. The balance needed by the orchid, although peculiar and exacting, can be provided if the requirements are understood and provided for by the grower. The task is to provide conditions paralleling those of the plant's native habitat, and to substitute others when the natural environment cannot be approximated. The success of this procedure is demonstrated by the fact that many species grown in the glasshouse are far larger and more beautiful than jungle-grown specimens. Natural conditions of temperature, atmospheric humidity, sunlight, and free circulation of air must be reproduced for each species of orchid plant under cultivation if maximum production and quality of blooms are to be attained. This requires some sort of enclosure where each component of the balance can be properly controlled. There is perhaps no perfect answer to the problem of housing. Each grower, guided by the experience of others, must find a solution according to his needs, desires, and resources. Occasionally someone will describe, with contagious enthusiasm, how he has grown orchids on the window sill of a kitchen or sun porch, and has even brought them to full bloom. It can be done. Success depends on the ingenuity of the grower in improvising means for balance. Some amateurs have attained a measure of success by adapting a heated glass-enclosed porch. Others have grown plants in the home over open pans of water resting on

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shelves in front of large windows. But it must be emphasized that only the most vigorous types of orchids will thrive or even live under such conditions. The Wardian case is a solution of the orchid housing problem for apartment-house dwellers and people living in congested areas. It may be a glass case, frequently piano-box shape, about twentyfour inches by twenty-eight inches and from twenty-four inches to thirty-six inches high, provided with a thermostatically controlled heating system (an electric-light bulb, an electric coil under the gravel of the tray, or even a brooder element will serve), with a water-tight pan covering the bottom to hold water or moist gravel to humidify the air, and with a means of controlling the ventilation (a hinged front may be used for such aeration). Additional moisture is sometimes secured by laying lamp wicks on props with one end in the pan of water on the floor. An all-glass floor-type showcase may be readily converted into a Wardian case. More elaborate cases, specifically designed for orchid culture, are produced by several manufacturing firms. For the amateur who wishes to grow only ten or twelve blooming-size plants or who requires an incubator for orchid-seed culture and for growing seedlings in community pots a properly constructed Wardian case gives excellent service. Now, although the owner of a Wardian case at first proclaims his satisfaction, it is the very nature of an orchid grower that sooner or later he should begin to yearn for a greenhouse. The greenhouse is essentially a glass-covered structure (into which the grower may easily walk standing erect), equipped with the means to control ventilation, temperature, humidity, and sunlight. The range of choice extends from the lean-to (using the wall of a dwelling as a common wall) and the simple amateur greenhouse to the conservatory with a lofty arched roof and the neat rows of trim commercial houses called ranges. Before making a final decision in regard to the type and size of house, the amateur will be well advised to pause and consider his needs and his ability to meet them. He should look ahead as

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far as possible, to build for tomorrow as well as today. Many an amateur has rushed headlong into building only to find that many costly mistakes might have been avoided if he had put a little thought and study into planning. One thing, aside from burning enthusiasm for his hobby, sets the orchidist apart as different and perhaps a trifle eccentrichis terrific acquisitiveness. Today he has one plant, the next day someone offers him a backbulb from 'my very best plant.' He repots and divides what he has, indulges in a community pot of fine seedlings, trades here, buys there, and finally takes a chance on importing a hundred or more species plants. Before he is aware of what is happening the single plant has grown to a collection that is not small. Almost overnight his orchid-housing needs have become unexpectedly complex. If this contingency is not foreseen the house will be outgrown before it has been completed. It is difficult, as in all branches of orchid culture, to set down any hard-and-fast rules about the size of the greenhouse. This must be determined strictly by individual needs. Ideally one square foot of bench space per plant is desirable. Orchid plants vary greatly in size; they grow in containers ranging from thumb pots to large tubs, so that their space requirements differ. In general the plants in an amateur's collection will require from onethird to one square foot of bench space, with additional space allowed for future acquisitions. It might be safe to say that a nine by twelve house can be made to hold about 150 plants without too much crowding. The overcrowding of plants must be considered seriously, for overcrowding brings trouble in the form of pests, disease, and spotted flowers owing to poor air. The need of orchids for free circulation of air cannot be over-emphasized. In the last analysis, the size of an orchid house will be determined by the very practical considerations of available space, the amount of money the grower can spend, and the number of plants to be housedeither now or in the future. Advantages of a small house are ease and economy of construction and mainte-

30 nance. A somewhat larger house allows superior heating and ventilation control, with better air and less crowding. Sample measurements for an amateur house might be fifteen by thirty feet with a ridge nine to ten feet high, the roof with a pitch of about twenty-six and a half degrees, aisles not less than two and a half feet wide. The benches may be thirty to thirtysix inches highthe exact height governed by the comfortable reach of the grower. A thirty-six-inch bench on each side of a three-foot walk requires that the house be at least nine feet wide; a five-foot middle bench can be added if the house is sixteen feet wide. After size, the next consideration in the plan is location, which will probably be dictated by elevation and the contour of the ground. The house should be so located as to provide the most sunshine. Shade can be attained by any number of means, but the right light comes only from the sun, for which there is no substitute. Contrary to popular belief the orchid is a sun-loving plant. It may exist, and even grow, without sun, but without an adequate amount of sunlight it will not bloom. The needs of the different genera extend from well-diffused light to full sunlight. For this reason a location should be chosen where plenty of sun is available. The amount can then be regulated by artificial means. There has been much controversy over the relative merits of north-south versus east-west facing. There is no principle involved herethe facing that gives the most sun is the best; but again the contour of the ground is a determining factor. The problem of facing is not of great importance with a small house, since it is so nearly square, but the sun's path over a larger house should be considered. Trees shading the location should be kept well trimmed to let enough light through. Deciduous trees make excellent shade, for they are more or less bare in seasons when the sun is weak while their full summer foliage coincides with the period when the sun's rays are strongest. It is not necessary for the lot to be level. The greenhouse may

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be raised on piers to compensate for a hillside or it may be built in tiers with steps between. The foundation proper, however, must be level and firm. A good, level concrete foundation pays dividends in insuring firmness. Settling causes cracks in the glass; cracks cause dripping; and drippings make for spotted flowersthe grower's tragedy. Additional firmness can be gained by sinking eight- to ten-inch bolts into the wet concrete of the foundation, and then bolting the mudsill into place. The next choice facing the amateur is between the home-built house and the many available sectional, ready-built greenhouses. Prefabricated houses, while possibly more expensive, are easily erected and may save money by eliminating the mistakes prevalent in the trial-and-error method of design. There is the additional advantage that prefabricated houses are movable, being bolted rather than nailed together. Greenhouse manufacturers supply detailed plans and all materials for houses to be erected by the grower or a carpenter. There are many types of design, but the most economical and satisfactory is the so-called 'even span' type where the roof slopes uniformly down from both sides of a ridge to the eaves. This slope should never be less than six inches vertical to one foot horizontal; a lesser slope will invariably cause leakage during rainy weather, and, instead of running down the glass, condensed moisture will drop from the glass on to the plants below. If condensation grooves are milled in the sides of the bar supporting the roof glass, moisture condensing on the glass will be drawn off and destructive dripping prevented. A lean-to construction, with the greenhouse attached to the building along the high point of the glass roof, is sometimes necessary. In this case there are certain difficulties to be overcome. It is difficult to make strictly weather-tight joints between a lean-to and the building that forms one wall. It is often advisable to use a standard construction with one end attached to the building and with the ridge at right angles to the building, as this minimizes the difficulty of flashing at the building connections. It should be borne in mind that the six-inch to one-foot

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roof pitch must also be provided for this type of greenhouse. The best of construction plans may be frustrated by selection of unsuitable materials. Orchidists of Europe and the British Empire have shown wisdom through their long orchid-raising experience by selecting only the most durable materials for greenhouse construction. Materials must be durable and suitable in relation to the specific conditions necessary for orchid growingagain the balance of heat, humidity, and ventilation. From the days when the name 'stove' was first applied to the hothouse, brick has been favored for sidewalls, not only because of its durability but equally because it holds the moisture and stays cool in summer and warm in winter. Cement, while not so popular, is almost as satisfactory and not so expensive. The continuous moisture conditions the choice of material for the frame and equipment. The wrong wood will rot and unprotected metal will rust. Pine and other soft woods are definitely not usable, as many a misguided amateur, with his house disintegrating about him after a few short years, has found. The constant damping necessary for the health of the plants causes rapid rot in the softer woods. On the Pacific Coast the availability of redwood, with its resistance to damp and abuse, makes it the wood of choice. In the East and Midwest, Red Gulf cypress is favored for the same reasons. All metal used should be hot-dipped galvanized steel or brass in order to minimize corrosion. While the nine-foot wide, two-bench greenhouse does not ordinarily require additional framework to support the roof, houses wider than this must be more substantial to carry the additional weight, prevent sagging of roof bars, and resist wind. Galvanized steel pipe or structural steel is preferred for this purpose. Where the initial cost is the main consideration, wood may be used, but it has a poor appearance and is likely to sag. Roofing glass should be new and of good grade, since poor glass may interfere with the quality of the light. Single-strength glass is suitable for use on the Pacific Coast or other localities where there are no snow loads or high winds to be guarded against. Double-strength glass should be used in more severe climates.

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Glass can be used in sizes from sixteen by eighteen inches to eighteen by twenty-four inches. It should be installed by being laid with lapped joints similar to those of a shingle roof, except that the laps between should be only one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch. Wider laps are not advisable because the capillary action in the space between the lapped surfaces will cause leakage. In glazing the roof, beds of putty should first be placed on the glass rabbets of previously primed wood roof bars, and the glass pressed into the putty so that the entire space between the glass and the bars is filled with putty. After each pane has been set in place it should be secured to the bars by means of zinc glazing nails: one nail at the bottom to prevent the glass from slipping down, and two more nails driven into the bars at either side to hold the glass firmly to the putty. After the glass has been secured, excess putty can be cut away flush with the glass inside and outside. It is poor practice to 'face putty' or place fillets of putty along the outside joints, as is usually done in glazing a window sash in a building. Any first-quality outside paint may be used for painting the greenhouse. There is only one variation from standard practice in exterior painting: it is well to run the paint over the surfaces of putty and about one-eighth of an inch on to the glass in order to prolong the life of the putty. It might be well to varnish the putty and let it dry before painting. Paint to be used inside the greenhouse should be selected with caution. It should be known to be non-toxic to the plants. The constant damp makes anything soluble. Plants are so sensitive and the possible damage so insidious that the amateur is warned not to use any doubtful paint. Deleterious effects on orchids may not show up for six months to a year. In the discussion of the plan so far, provision has been made for maximum sun. There is still the problem of controlling the intensity of the sun, which is again a matter on which intense debate rages among orchidists. The plants demand sun, but only experience will enable the grower to steer the fine course between enough sun and the excessive amount that will burn.

34 Generally speaking, the greenhouse glass may be kept clear for only a few weeks in mid-winter. At all other times it is necessary to provide shade of one sort or another, both to avoid excessive temperature and to prevent burning. An attempt should be made to approximate the degree of shade found in the natural habitat of the plants, where sunlight is filtered through layers of jungle growth. The cheapest and easiest method of shading is to paint the glass on the exterior with some mixture that admits considerable light and that may be easily removed in the late fall to admit clear sun in winter. Either a mixture of white lead and gasoline or a white casein paint that will wash off is satisfactory for this purpose. A much more satisfactory shading is secured by means of lath slats supported eight to twelve inches above the roof surface. Most orchid plants thrive best in the kind of shading provided by laths, where moving bands of sunlight alternate with bands of shadow. Anyone who has seen orchids growing in the tropics will remember that effect of the sun. The slat shading also efficiently moderates greenhouse temperature on blazing summer days. An adjustable type of slat shading has been developed that varies the amount of shade to suit the season and can be removed easily for clear glass conditions in the winter (see page 39). Some growers take an extra precaution against burning by tacking cheesecloth or sheer muslin about three inches below the ceiling inside. There is some disadvantage in this procedure, however, since the damp cloth furnishes an almost ideal place for the growth of fungus. The important matter of aeration is next to be considered. Proper circulation of air is essential for the health of the plants. Under natural conditions drying winds keep the epiphytic roots sweet at all times. 'In captivity' the orchid roots are confined in pots and baskets, and the air of the greenhouse can easily become 'dead' and stuffy. Air-conditioning would seem the ideal solution, but the grower must be mechanically inclined and ingenious enough to invent a system of his own, for the few available ready-

SUITABLE HOUSING FOR ORCHIDS

35

made systems are prohibitively expensive. Fortunately a wellplanned ventilation system can bring the desired result except in extremely dry climates, and even in such localities a proper balance between heat and moisture can bring a workable solution. Vents placed along the roof ridge will provide sufficient air circulation. The openings should face away from prevailing winds, since a gentle movement rather than a draft is required. The openings may be operated by pushrods or the more elaborate worm-and-gear mechanism. Vents must overlap the openings to keep out rain and snow, and they should be screened against insects. Greenhouses are often equipped with bottom vents, but these are seldom used except in the case of certain genera like Cymbidium and Odontoglossum. Only experience will give the grower an understanding of the kind of aeration that is best for his particular collection in his particular circumstances. It is surprising how quickly, with conscientious observation, the grower comes to recognize the needs of his plants. The major furnishing of the greenhouse interior is some kind of bench or table to support the plants. If certain basic requirements are fulfilled, the exact type of bench or staging is up to the individual grower. Such stagings are, of course, subject to severe moisture conditions and should be built of durable wood, such as redwood or cypress, or other materials that will resist deterioration. Cement is sometimes used but it lacks the advantages of drainage and aeration of the wood-slat type of bench. Slat-deck or table-type benches may be built of boards or of one by two inch slats placed % of an inch apart. Some growers use a double-deck bench. The lower deck holds water-absorbent gravel, coke or Haydite for humidifying purposes. Over this there is a slat deck for plants supported by galvanized-steel pipe legs. The tiered bench, built like steps with eight-inch treads and risers, has the advantage of accommodating about ten per cent more plants per foot of floor area, but the grower in watering with this arrangement must be prepared for difficulty. Benches that are to hold small pots should have a raised rim to prevent plants from being knocked to the floor.

36 Insect-proofing of the greenhouse is vital, as anyone who has seen the depredations of pests among orchids can testify. Benches should be set a short distance from the wall and the legs may be set in some kind of holdera cement form or even a Pyrex baking cupcontaining insecticide. Scale and fungi have a diabolical tendency to attack the part of a plant against the wall and out of reachhence the warning that benches should be 'reach' width. Floors should preferably be raised a few inches above the surrounding ground to provide drainage. One or two inches of gravel over earth (round or pea gravel is most satisfactory) makes the best type of floor, since it dries out quickly on the surface while retaining moisture underneath. Such a floor helps maintain proper humidity when it is wet down on hot days. Walks may be of brick or rough concrete. Durable wood walks are more comfortable to stand on and, if constructed of slats, will dry out rapidly enough. They do, however, provide hiding places for slugs and other pests, including rats. Aisles between benches should be wide enough so that one may walk comfortably without fear of breaking off new shoots, damaging flowers, or knocking down pots. Heating is perhaps the most vexing problem concerning orchid housing. Fear of heating failure, which may leave orchids exposed to the disastrous cold of freezing weather, causes the sleepless nights of many an orchidist. One amateur has gone so far as to have an alarm bell rigged up in his bedroom to warn of any heating failure. Most of the worry can be avoided if enough thought goes into a heating plan well in advance of construction. Visits to the houses of other growers, discussions with them of the merits of different systems, conferences with a local plumber or heating expert, and investigation of available material will be worth all the time and effort so spent. The simplest heating systems can be considered only expedientssome of them dangerous ones. The fumes of a kerosene stove are disagreeable to humans but a few orchids in a tiny house will not find them so. The kerosene stove is excellent in

I i. Brassia Gireoudiana. Costa Rica (Courtesy Orchid Digest)

I 2. Stanhopca Wardii. Guatemala (Alberto Perez; courtesy Orchid Digest)

I 3. Mormodes colossus. Central America (Courtesy Orchid Digest)

II i. Cattleya velutina. Brazil (Alberto Perez; courtesy Orchid Digest)

II 2. Brassavola nodosa. Central America (Alberto Perez; courtesy Orchid Digest)

II 3. Oncidium Forbesii. Brazil (Harry Blossfeld;

courtesy Orchid Digest)

II 4. Odontoglossum grande. Guatemala (L. F. Hawkinson; courtesy Orchid Digest) II. 5. Miltonia vexillaria. Colombia (O. O. Uhle; courtesy Orchid Digest)

II 6. Odontoglossum citrosmum. Mexico (Courtesy Orchid Digest)

Ill Dendrobium Farmeri. India, Burma (Courtesy Orchid Digest)

IV i. Cycnoches chlorochilon. Colombia (L. F. Ha' kinson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

IV 2. Lycastc brevispatb syn. Candida. Central Amt ica (A. B. Willoughb courtesy Orchid Digest)

IV 4. Vanda coernlt North India, Burn (O. O. Uhle; courte Orchid Digest)

IV 3. Phalaenopsis stuartiana. Philippine Islands (R Davis)

IV 6. Dendrobium superbui Philippine Islands (A. B. W longhby; courtesy Orchid Digea IV 5. Coelogync Huettncriana. Burma (Alex D. Hawkes; courtesy Orchid Digest)

V Vanda Sanderiana. Found only on Mindanao, Philippine Islands (Harold Johnson)

VI 1. An amateur's orchid house with gravel floor double-deck wall bench stepped center bench Wardian case for seedling at rear

VI 2. Double-deck bench construction

orchid

VI 3. Wardian case used orchid seed culture (F Bams)

VII 1. Slat shading (for description see page 39) (I.. F. Hawkinson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

4'X 1 1/8' LATH SPACED /'APART

WINGNUT

PlPfFLAUGE

1. Side-view slat shading (J. J. Wilson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

/II 3. Sketch of heatng plant (for descripion see pages 37-8) Lee Brooks and J. J. Vilson)

SHOWING HOW LADDER. RESTS ON 2 GLAZING BARS

(I) CHICKEN LADDER.

(7) VENTILATOR

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF CHICKEN LADDER.

(+) I** 2." RIOGE lV6" STRIP NAILED TO THE Z"2" OR 2** (J) HORIZONTAL " STRIP

NAILED ON II" OR iCCENTERS

(6) l"x |4" SLA8 OF RIGID REDWOOD OR. OREGON PINE. (IF SLAZINS BARS BETWEEN GLASS ARE MORE OR LESS THAN IZ* SLAB WIDTH CAN BE MORE OR LESS ACCORDINGLY.)

( 3 ) 2 T - 2 - O R 2 >4 " HORIZONTAL STRIP TO REST ON Z BARS AT EAVI AT CENTER, 5UPPOCT, AN AT RIDGE.

CROSS SECTION OF CHICKEN LADDER

VIII The chicken ladder (Jeanne F. Brown) Any orchidist who has used an ordinary ladder for the purpose of replacing broken glass o his greenhouse roof will welcome this 'chicken ladder.' The ladder rests across 2 glazing bai (2) on horizontal strips (3) and is securely hooked over the ridge of the house (4). It may t pushed easily along the ridge when change of position is required. The steps of the ladder ( = are nailed to the redwood slab (6). The ventilator (7) is shown closed, and at (7a) is show open under the ladder.

IX i. Odontonia Cardinalis, F.C.C.R.H.S. (Miltonia Lyceana F.C.C. x Odontoglossmn Purple Queen) (L. F. Hawkinson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

IX 2. Cymbidium Swallow Perfection (C. Alexander! Westonbirt var, x C. Pauwclsii var. Comte de Hemptinnc) (Alex D. Hawkcs)

X i. Cypripediiim Loin's Crampron

X 2. Cypripedium Cheddington (C. Wilson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

XI Potting Cattleyas (O. O. Meek; coi tesy Orchid Digest) 1. Plant in need of repotting. Notice t roots breaking from front leadideal tii to repot. 2. The plant is taken from the pot, ai the decayed material removed. The bac bulbs, which have no roots, may be c from the plant and started in gravel, wh the dormant eye may break and produ a new plant. 3. Well-potted plant with old bulbs clc to edge of pot, fore-bulb leaving room f new growth. Rhizome lies flat across p( ting medium. 4. Incorrectly potted plant growing u ward from potting medium and over ed ; of pot.

XII 1. From flask seedlings ti blooming plant (Jack Wood)

XII 3. Cattley; Mossiae x Laelio cattleya Rabeian; (Jack'Wood) XII 2. Seedlings (Jack Wood)

XII 4. Potinara RubyStuart Low, 1934 (Charles O. Dunne; courtesy Orchid Digest)

XIII From seed to embryo (M. A. Bunow; courtesy Orchid Digest) 1. Seed as from pod, showing fertile and infertile seed 2. Seed 8 days after planting, showing beginning tubercles but no enlargement 3. Seed 8 days after planting, showing enlargement but no tubercles 4. Seed at 10 days 5. Seed at 11 days 6. Seed at 12 days, tubercles showing at side 7. Seed at 14 days, showing embryo breaking through capsule and flattened area from which first leaf will appear 8. Seed at 16 days. Embryo free from capsule 9. Typical embryo at 18 days, free from capsule

XIV Brassocattleya H. G. Alexander (Cattleya citrina x Brassavola Digbyana) (Robert Johnson

XV Brassocattleya Ilartland (L. F. Hawkmson; courtesy Orchid Digest)

XVI 1. Laeliocattleya Elissa (Harold Johnson) XVI 2. Laeliocattleya Dulzura (Ruth M. Todd)

SUITABLE HOUSING FOR ORCHIDS

37

case of emergency, and many an amateur has set the alarm for the middle of the night to refill the stove against the cold. A type of gas floor furnace, well vented and with the flame not directly open to the house, has been found satisfactory for the small greenhouse. Humidity must be maintained to offset dryness. Open gas heaters are a menace in the greenhouse, for if the flame is accidentally put out the fumes will quickly kill the plants. Electric heaters are too drying and too concentrated for plants near by and do not provide enough warmth for plants some distance away. More elaborate systems are required for a completely satisfactory solution of the heating problem. For areas where the temperature does not fall below zero, hot-water systems operated by thermostatically controlled gas are very satisfactory. Where severe winters prevail, hot-water or steam systems with coal or oil burners will be required. There are many types from which to choose, but only one can be examined here in any detail. The simple gravity system has been found very efficient for small greenhouses (nine by twelve feet to twelve by fifteen feet). The best pipe for this or any system is the one and a half or two-inch hot-dipped galvanized, rust-resistant type. Black pipe is a good conductor of heat but is more susceptible to rust from the constant damp. In the sketch (Plate vn) the gas enters through a valve (1) and goes to the solenoid valve (2) (controlled by the thermostat [11]). From there it goes to the copper coil side-arm heater (coils should be at least % inch), which is controlled by a pilot light. Water enters the heater through the shut-off valve (7), which is closed after the pipes are filled. A valve (6) is used to drain the system. The water passes through the coils and rises as it is heated to the highest point (A). As the water heats, it expands, forcing some up into the expansion tank (9), which is open to the air at 10. Gravity carries the water to B, a drop of one-half in three inches being allowed. From B the water falls to the pipe (D-D), which is level with the ground, causing equal amounts of water to flow to both points. Water then flows from D down both sides of the house and back to F under the same drop as it did from A to B.

38 From F there is another drop back to the heater and the process is repeated. A water outlet (8), outside the shut-off valve, is provided for watering the house. The 'closed' system is similar to the 'open' system outlined above, but has a reduction valve from the city system and should have a 'bleeder' so that the maximum water pressure in the pipe does not exceed 28 pounds pressure per square inch. The disadvantage of this layout is that heat may be lost by backing up into the city system. The side-arm heater system with two-inch pipe is only suited for a small house in a mild climate. For the larger house in a mild climate it may be operated by a boiler or Arcola type of heater. Where temperatures drop below zero the pipe should be four inches, and heat should be supplied by an oil or coal boiler. The gravity system is probably not practical for the larger house. In such circumstances a circulating pump can be used to force the water through the pipe. The pump must be kept in good condition, for, if it should freeze, water will not circulate and the boiler may explode. The chimney should be taller than the roof and designed to keep injurious fumes from the house. Many amateurs use the shed housing their heater as a potting shed. It is conveniently placed for this purpose and will be warm in winter. These plans are not for the 'ideal' greenhouse, if there is any such thing. The ideal, of course, would be three greenhouses. The first would be for the cool-growing orchids like Cymbidiums, some Cypripediums, and Odontoglossums, and would be kept at a minimum winter temperature of 48 degrees F. at night. The second, which might be called the intermediate house, would be kept at 60 to 65 degrees, a temperature suitable for Cattleya and allied genera. The third, or hothouse proper, would have a minimum night winter temperature of from 68 to 700, making it suitable for Phalaenopsis, Vandas, Dendrobiums, and the mottledleaf slippers like Cypripedium Maudiae. Most amateurs, however, lack space and resources for three houses, and with ingenuity one house can be departmentalized. A section away from the source of heat and infrequently pene-

SUITABLE HOUSING FOR ORCHIDS

39

trated by the sun should be selected for the orchids preferring coolness. One bench might be left without piping for this purpose. Warmer-growing plants can be placed in the warmest part of the greenhouse. Plants requiring direct sun, like Laelias and Cattleya gigas, can be placed right up against the glass. Whatever form of shading is used may be varied from one part of the roof to another to provide special conditions. Plants will have to be moved about the house until observation shows the spot in which a particular species will thrive best. SLAT SHADING The framework and slats for the greenhouse illustrated in Plate VII were made of dry redwood. It is essential to use dry lumber for the slats or there will be considerable warping. The center ridge and side members were made of 2 x 3's and attached to the greenhouse with pipe flanges and nipples. Seven-inch nipples were used for the center ridge and 6-inch for the sides; the finished framework is then equidistant from the glass. Small wood wedges were placed on each side of the flanges on the ridge, so that the flange is on a flat surface. Cross pieces, from the center ridge to the side members, were 1 x 2's, nailed level to the side members and to the bottom of the center ridge. This permits putting small pieces of wood or strap iron at the top of the center ridge to hold the sections of slats down. Each section of slats, consisting of battens (slats) 1/4 x 11/8 spaced 1 inch apart, is 6 feet wide and extends from the ridge to just below the eave on the greenhouse. Battens are nailed to 1 x 2's and held to the side members with bolts and thumb nuts. The greenhouse in the illustration runs north and south, and it was necessary to put a small framework of battens on the south of the house in the space between the main framework and the greenhouse (shown in photograph). If the greenhouse faced eastwest, the battens would run up and down rather than lengthwise. The entire wood structure may be oiled with linseed oil or painted. The following material is required for a 9 x 1 2 greenhouse with a 30 degree roof: 32 x 3 x 12 feet 81 x 2 x 6 feet 101 x 2 x 5 1/2 feet 1301/4 x 1 1/8 x6 feet 93/4-inch pipe flanges 33/4 x 7-inch pipe nipples 63/4 x 6-inch pipe nipples galvanized nails and screws

Proper Orchid IBalance

THE grower's task, and it is no easy one, is to set in motion the complicated growth processes of the orchid plant, and, through maintenance of proper balance, insure continuation of that process. Using the energy provided by light, the green leaf chlorophyll transforms the carbon dioxide from the air and the mineral salts from moisture into sugar and other carbohydrates. These energy carbohydrates are stored until needed either for rebuilding plant tissue or for flowering. The pseudobulbs of some types, the large leathery leaves of others, and the slender grass-like leaves of orchids lacking pseudobulbs are the storage reservoirs. The cycle will continue only if the grower devotes the utmost attention to the special requirements of the orchid. The reward for his devotion comes when the brilliant bloom and beauty of the tropics is reproduced in the greenhouse. No hard and fast rules can be set down for the beginner to follow. It has been said that each grower in his own greenhouse, within limitations established by the plants, is a law unto himself. The amount of each element in the light-heat-moisture-air formula will vary according to season, experience, and variety. One of the things that make the growing of orchids unique and stimulating is the spirited controversy that arises over every aspect of culture. One of the many points on which there is no incontroversial

40

PROPER ORCHID BALANCE

41

procedure is the matter of how much light should be admitted. It must be decided whether to grow the plants 'soft' or 'hard,' to use the parlance of experienced growers. The amateur must make his own choice. To grow 'soft' means to shade the plants from the sun so that the leaves remain a beautiful dark green. There can be no doubt that this method produces the most beautiful plants, but the quality of bloom is a question that cannot be answered so definitely. In 'soft' conditions care must be exercised not to shade to the point where flower growth will be hindered. To grow 'hard' means to allow so much light that the leaves have decided overtones of yellow. This method, while marring the appearance of the plant, is said by its proponents to give increased bloom. Too much light must be avoided, since it will burn the plant and growth will be interrupted. Dry, yellow flower sheaths will at times result from such sunburn, and incipient buds will become steamy and subject to destruction by wet rot. Cutting off the very top of such a sheath with a sharp knife will allow air to reach the bud and may save it. The claim that growing orchids 'hard' increases flower growth appears logical if the conditions under which orchids grow in their natural state are considered: the natural environment is 'hard.' It must be remembered, however, that nature controls sunlight in a way difficult to approximate in the greenhouse. Even in those areas where certain varieties grow in so-called 'full sun/ it will be found that drifting clouds give a protection that is absent under intensely directed light in the greenhouse. Once the amateur has made the choice between 'soft' and 'hard' methods, the subsequent treatment must be consistent. If much sun is provided, more moisture and air will be required. If the plants are grown with minimum sun they will require less moisture, but an increase in ventilation may be needed to keep the air sweet. Too great an increase in heat during the winter is a common error of orchid growers. Plants store up energy during the daylight hours and give off or transpire energy at night. Increase in

42 night heat increases transpiration. Shorter periods of daylight lessen the manufacture of energy. If the plant loses more energy at night than it is able to store during the day, obviously it will suffer. Orchids are very susceptible to shock of any kind, and they take considerable time to recoverif they ever do. This danger must be borne in mind regarding sunburn, chilling, or energy deficit. There is the further difficulty of each species' having its own light requirements. Quick reference to conditions in the native homes of the species that the amateur is likely to acquire will illustrate the point. Cattleyas, native to Central and South America, are found hanging on trees in the tropical rain forests. The burning sun of midday is usually kept off the plant by foliage directly overhead. The grower, guided by this knowledge, lets Cattleyas be exposed to the sun, but provides shade in summer during the warmest part of the day, for sunburn must be avoided. The increased exposure to sun necessitates a corresponding increase in humidity to prevent the pseudobulbs from shriveling. Laelias, showy natives of Mexico and Central America, are found growing on rocks in the open sun. They are closely related to Cattleyas, but require larger amounts of both light and air. The grower should find a place for them in the sun, right up under the glass. Sudden temperature changes should be avoided. Among the sun-worshipers are the Vandas, natives of India, the Philippines, and some Pacific islands. They will not thrive without adequate sun, and they must have corresponding amounts of heat and water. Care must be exercised to keep water from remaining in the growing crown. The evergreen Dendrobiums, native to the Indian Islands, and Oncidiums, from Central and South America, are also sun-worshipers. Phalaenopsis, the lovely white 'bride's orchids' from the Philippines and the Eastern Archipelago, respond well to sun, but must not be overexposed. A warm, moist atmosphere, with plenty of air, is best for this species. Zygopetalums, found in Brazil, Venezuela, and the Guianas, require moderate exposure to sun.

PROPER ORCHID BALANCE

43

As a rule orchids from mountainous regions or from the temperate zone need protection from direct sun. Cymbidiums, natives of the Himalayas, require controlled sun and cool conditions with abundant air. These spray orchids, with their Joseph's-coat range of colors from pink, yellow, green, and brown to the rare pure white, are difficult to grow under glass because they like their 'heads hot and feet cold'; but with careful observation a proper balance can be worked out. Odontoglossums, aristocrats of South America, are normally found at heights of from 5,000 to 12,000 feet. They require cool, shaded conditions at all times and for this reason they are a little difficult to raise with other species. Miltonias are found at heights up to 8000 feet in Brazil, Costa Rica, and Colombia. They require shaded sunlight. Deciduous Dendrobiums, native to India and the Philippines, must be protected from the sun during the growing season. Cypripediums, usually called lady's slippers, are found in many lands and in a great variety of climates. Consequently they like differing amounts of sun, but all must be protected from burning. Generally the mottled-leaved types require more shade and more heat. The problem of the amount of heat is closely allied to the matter of light. Most climates in the temperate zone require artificial heat in the orchid house to supplement that provided by the sun. Automatic controls simplify the matter, but they do not take the place of brainwork. The beginner must watch his plants carefully, combining all his knowledge of orchids with solicitous observation and a strong admixture of green thumb. Experimenting with orchids is extremely precarious because their life cycle is so long, five to seven years from seed to bloom, and the cause of damage may have been forgotten in the six or eight months before it is evident. The grower should vary heat conditions to balance other conditions of the house and plants. As in most native habitats, the temperature can be some degrees lower in winter than in summer. This is another point on which there is difference of opinion.

44
Some growers increase the heat a bit during the winter day, reducing it again at night to sustain balance. As was pointed out in Chapter 3, the ideal set-up for growing the widely differing genera would be the three-house system. One house would be for orchids tolerating 45 to 48 degrees F. minimum night temperature in the winterCymbidiums, some Laelias and Cypripediums, and all Odontoglossums. The second house would be the 'intermediate' or 'Cattleya' house, requiring moderate sun and a heat of 58 to 65 degrees F. minimum night temperature in winter. Cattleyas, allied genera, and hybrids thrive in a house of this type. The third house would be the 'hothouse,' with a minimum night temperature in winter of 65 to 70 degrees F. Tiny seedlings, Dendrobiums (although the deciduous type should be removed to a cooler house while resting), Cypripedium Maudiae, Phalaenopsis, and Vanda Sanderiana are among the types preferring conditions of this house. The average amateur, however, will not find it practical, advisable, or necessary to have three houses. With some ingenuity one house can be adapted to serve all purposes. The so-called 'Cattleya' house lends itself most readily to this adaptation. Heating pipes or other heating equipment may be omitted from one corner. This cooler corner, together with heavier shading and more ventilation, will approximate cool-house conditions. A protected spot near the source of heat and away from the ventilators will substitute for a 'hothouse.' If additional protection is needed, as is necessary for very young seedlings, a glass partition may be added. For all conditions it should be remembered that the control of heat, aside from the automatic turning on and off of the heating system, hinges directly on the amount of air and moisture allowed. In regard to ventilation we again find varying needs among orchids. 'Cool-house' orchids require increased circulation; Cattleyas a moderate amount; and 'hothouse' orchids still less. A gentle circulation of air is specified at all times. Strong draughts are injuriousthus the warning to the grower, when building, to

PROPER ORCHID BALANCE

45

Tceep vents away from prevailing winds. The more crowded a house is, the more ventilation will be needed to prevent the air from becoming stagnant. Air provides the plant with carbon dioxide. Carbon-dioxide starvation can result from conditions preventing free circulation of air. If ventilators are properly placed in the building, warm air will rise and escape at the top of the greenhouse. Cool air will take its place and rise as it becomes warm, thereby creating a gentle circulation. It will be necessary to experiment with the ventilators so that while adequate ventilation is provided there is not so much that moisture is carried off too rapidly. Orchids require a live, buoyant atmosphere and will quickly show the result of air that is too stagnant or dry. Flowers grown in a well-aerated house seldom show blemishing spots. The manipulation of ventilators depends on atmospheric conditions outside as well as inside the house. In damp climates the vents may be kept open even on the coolest days. The entrance of damp air will cut down the use of water. In a hot, dry climate, on the other hand, it may be advisable to keep vents closed to conserve the humidity of the house. At times a difficult choice between humidity and fresh air must be madeagain a matter where observation and commonsense rather than hard and fast rules must be obeyed. With the proper balance of light, heat, and ventilation there remains only moisture to round out the growth formula. The technique of watering orchids includes, besides watering in the pot, spraying and damping. With orchids the old familiar watering in the pot is the trickiest and the most dangerous procedure. There are a few general rules to be observed. Watering or spraying should be done only with a rising temperature. Daily watering of plants up to three inches in height is recommended; thereafter caution is urged. Tiny seedlings should be kept wet at the roots, but must not be allowed to become soggy. Finally, the beginner is warned once more not to acquire too many plants. There should be only as many plants as can be handled individually once a

46 weeknever less often than once every two weeks. This is the only efficacious manner of checking watering needs, to say nothing of the fact that it provides a needed check on scale, fungus, and pests. In watering, the amateur again finds wide variance in the needs of the many species. When watering Cattleyas, it is well to soak the pot thoroughly and then allow the potting material almost but not entirely to dry out. The pots should not become completely dry since the bulbs may shrivel and plant growth may be retarded for at least a year. Yet, if there is any doubt, it is far better to err on the dry side. Dryness will deter growth, but too much moisture will kill the plant. If water remains in the pot and does not dry out in a week or ten days, it is likely that the roots will have rotted off. The pseudobulbs will shrivel and the leaves droop. Many amateurs mistake this for an indication of dryness, and treat the pot to another drubbing, thus rotting the remaining roots and probably killing the plant. A plant that shows signs of shriveling from lack of roots will often respond to a daily gentle overhead spray. Laelias and other plants with light, heat, and air requirements similar to the Cattleyas need about the same watering treatment. Laelias like slightly more water after complete growth and before flowering. After flowering they will require slightly less. Vandas, since they are without pseudobulbs, must have water at all times, but their lusty aerial roots will take care of some deficiency in watering by taking moisture from the air. Phalaenopsis, also pseudobulb-less, must not be allowed to dry out entirely. Watering of this species must be done with care to prevent water from remaining in the crowns, a condition that is conducive to the growth of fungus. Oncidiums must not be allowed to shrivel. They need a great deal of water when growth is being completed and flowering is beginning, but require less after flowering. The bulbs of Cymbidiums should not be allowed to shrivel. Standing pots on damp gravel on the floor seems to give them the warmth at the top and

PROPER ORCHID BALANCE

47

coolness below that they find congenial. They prefer water at the roots at all times, but the potting mixture should be well drained and not soggy. Cypripediums have no bulbs and require copious water at the roots. Odontoglossums also require much moisture at the roots, and must be kept cool and shaded. Evergreen Dendrobiums will require a moderate amount of water at the roots at all times, but the deciduous Dendrobiums must be allowed to dry out thoroughly during dormancy, at which time they resemble dry bamboo canes. They need cooler conditions during dormancy. When the new growth is made and the joints of the cane begin to swell, indicating initiation of flower growth, they must be given large amounts of water and moved to a warmer spot. It will be helpful to the grower to have some method of marking plants after watering so that he will not water them again too soon. Segregating plants of one kind is not very satisfactory, since orchids are individuals and one will dry out sooner than another. Marbles or colored stakes in the pot may answer the purpose. But no mechanical system is infallible and any system must be supplemented by close observation. Signs of need for watering are easily distinguishable. The experienced grower 'hefts' or weighs the pot in his hand: if light, watering is indicated. The dry pot leaves no ring on the bench. The appearance of the potting material is an indication, but not always an accurate one. The amateur will soon learn to recognize signs of well-being or need in his plants. Jewel-tipped roots and fat, rosy growths are indications of health. Root growth is usually, though not always, apparent, and pots indicating healthy roots can be watered more frequently than those where root growth is doubtful. The latter should be treated to plentiful overhead spray. This brings us to consideration of the importance of the overhead spray. Orchids appreciate diffused water as they do diffused light. A fine spray makes a hot, dry day bearable for all the plants. A daily spray is routine except for dark, cold days in winter; at the height of summer two or more sprays a day will be gratefully re-

48
ceived. Daily light spraying over the potting material is prescribed for tiny seedlings, backbulbs without roots, sick plants, and newly potted plants. Healthy roots attest the value of this treatment. Some growers pot with damp material and allow the newly potted plants to go without pot watering until roots show. Light spray over the top of the potting material supplies enough moisture to prevent shriveling. Damping is the simplest of the watering operations. Its virtue is enhanced because it is hard to do damage with this method. It consists of watering down the walls, floors, paths, and benches between the pots. In most climates this should be almost a daily procedure, omitted only when the house is too cold or the outside air too damp. But there is one caution that should be heeded. It is popularly believed that orchids grow in steamy jungles. This is a misapprehension. What takes place in the jungle is rapid evaporation. Steam is injurious to orchids, and when the house is being damped down, care should be taken not to play the water on hot pipes. Finally, it is imperative that the plants have water with an acidity reading of approximately 4.5 to 5 pH.1 Where the local water supply is very alkaline, some method of putting it on the acid side must be arranged. It is advisable to have the water supply analyzed and a remedy for deficiency suggested by a local chemist. Some growers collect rain for watering, but if this is done they should be sure that the roof has not been sprayed with any injurious paint or stain. Other growers dip watering cans into vats containing water whose pH has been altered by the addition of acid. Hydrochloric acid is most frequently used, but resultant acidity should be checked by some sort of acid meter. It is wisest to consult a chemist about exact methods. This introduction to the techniques of balance may seem unDistilled water is neutral, being neither acid nor alkaline, and has been designated as pH 7 (pHparts hydrogen), the number seven representing this neutrality. Numbers above 7 denote increasing alkalinity; numbers below 7 increasing acidity. Water of 4.5 to 5 has sufficient acid content for orchids.
1

PROPER ORCHID BALANCE

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duly complicated, but the amateur should not be discouraged, because these techniques will actually be less involved than they sound in the telling. Constant watchfulness and faithful observation are perennial 'musts/ but they and the details of maintaining balance will soon become second nature to the beginning orchidist. The gradual realization of the dream of having the fragrant glory of the tropics at hand will be the reward.

5 Orchid 'Potting
WITH the appearance of the long-awaited first flower in his greenhouse, the amateur quite justifiably feels a warm glow of achievement and pride. He will find, however, that this is no time to bask in the glory of the moment, for, almost overnight, the greenhouse has quickened with life. New growths glow a healthy red and the emerald-green tips of new roots peep from the potting mixture and even from breaks that are apparently dead roots. These are signals that the potting season is at hand. The demand of the orchid for periodic repotting is another characteristic setting it apart from other plants grown under artificial conditions. It is common to most orchids out of their native environment. Just as important as housing and balance, repotting may appear to present almost insuperable obstacles to the inexperienced grower. The difficulties, if advice against overcrowding the greenhouse has been heeded, will not prove to be so great. Repotting is not something that can well be postponed, for, once the precise moment for repotting is past, it is best to hold the plant over for another yearthe only exception to this being in extreme cases involving the life of the plant. This enforced holdover may result in retarded development and the appearance of a smaller new bulb. Next season's flowers may be fewer and poorer or there may be no flowering at all. It is one of the paradoxes of orchid growing that the plants require repotting at
50

ORCHID POTTING

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regular intervals, yet they resent shock and suffer from the procedure if every circumstance is not just right. The best time to repot varies by genus but in most cases it is soon after flowering when the live eye at the base of the most recent pseudobulb begins to swell and form a new growth. It should never be done unless the plant is in active growth. Repotting in flower sheath is inadvisable, since it usually results in loss of the flower. The ideal moment is just before the tiny new roots break through the tissue. If the plant can be caught at just this time and repotted without injury to these budding roots, they will immediately take hold of the new medium and the shock will be comparatively slight. There are some plants that are such prolific and vigorous growers that they put out new growth and a flower sheath at the same time. In such cases it will be wise to repot when the bulb has attained a size larger than that of the previous year, provided that no dark shadow of bud appears at the base of the flower sheath when the plant is held to the light, and that the roots show sign of strong and immediate growth. Friends of orchidists often remark that growers spend much time in the greenhouse, seemingly doing nothing but brooding over the plants. But there is purpose in this 'brooding.' Careful inspection of the base of bulbs will occasionally reveal a need for repotting that would be missed by cursory observation. If growth of the new bulb progresses too far or if the roots become too long, it is almost impossible to repot without knocking them off. New growths appear as though by magic but may remain undetected for a considerable time unless the plant is watched closely. It is an incidental reward of such care that other damage may be avoided. The base of a bulb is a favorite hiding place for scale, and the pest may have injured the new shoot before being discovered. Sometimes, too, it is found that the new eye has been buried in the medium and the new growth has rotted off. Careful removal of surplus compost with the tweezers will free the base of the bulb without injuring the plant.

52 Aside from the known requirements of a particular orchid, to be learned by experience and research, there are certain indications of a need for repotting that will be obvious to any beginner. One such sign, although not always to be trusted because of the sprawling nature of some roots, is the appearance of many roots ranging out of the pot and over the potting material. There is an urgent need for repotting when new bulbs are crowding or overhanging the edge of the pot or climbing awkwardly in the air. Repotting should have taken place long before such conditions appeared and the plant may be retarded by this neglect. Equally obvious is the case of a plant that has exhausted its compost. The compost will appear entirely decomposed and will feel spongy and soggy. In spite of the risk involved in potting at the wrong time, it is best to remove plants at once from such unhealthy conditions, since otherwise rotting of the roots, loss of leaves, and death of the plant may result. The question of the most suitable material for potting orchids is a matter of considerable debate among hobbyists. In making a decision it will be wise to refer to the native environment of the orchid. Many of the showy orchids popular among amateurs are aerial-rooted epiphytes, receiving much of their sustenance from mineral salts in the moisture of the jungle air and from the debris washed into the crotches of trees on which the plants hang for support. It cannot be expected that they will thrive after being cramped and packed in ordinary garden potting material. A special medium is requiredsome coarse, fibrous, and porous substance with an acid reaction of 4.5 to 5, which will not decompose too rapidly and so make the need for repotting too frequent. English growers formerly used with success a native fibrous peat, but the supply of this material is near exhaustion. Since the war many fine British and Continental orchid collections have suffered from the lack of suitable potting media. Potting in tropical localities, where orchids can be brought in from the jungles and hung in the garden, presents no difficulties. Cocoanut half-

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shells with broken shells for a medium are frequently used. Manuring is usually an essential part of such outdoor culture. While the problem of the American grower is not so easily solved as that of the orchid enthusiast in the tropics, he is more fortunate than European orchidists. The special needs of orchids are met very satisfactorily by the use of Osmunda fiberthe root of the cinnamon fern, either Osmunda cinnamonea or Osmunda Claytonia. In addition to providing the required drainage and pH, it is clean, easily handled, sufficient in itself as a medium for most orchids, and found in abundant quantities in New Jersey, Indiana, and the swamps of Florida. The only rival of Osmunda as a general orchid-potting medium is Polypodium, root of the fern Polypodium vulgare. It is found over much of the world, with the Pacific Northwest of the United States as a favored locale. In certain respects Polypodium is better than Osmunda. It decomposes as rapidly and has a finer texture, particularly suitable for tiny seedlings, backbulbs, and sick plants. A mixture of chopped, live sphagnum moss and finely chopped Polypodium is a recommended formula for plants in poor condition. The drawbacks of Polypodium, however, still make Osmunda the choice of most growers: it is more difficult to water plants in Polypodium; if not saturated it dries out more quickly; and when saturated it does not drain so well. It is difficult to change plants from Polypodium to other media without setbacks. Proper equipment is the next requirement for a successful repotting operation. A sharp, strong knife will be needed to make a clean cutting of roots clinging to the pot. A screw driver is valuable for freeing the compost and plant without damaging plant or pot. It is also handy for tucking compost into tiny seedling pots. Some type of shears will be indispensable. Grape shears with long, slightly curving, pointed blades are excellent. The potting tool proper is often a matter of the grower's ingenuity. Many types are in use. Highly recommended is a piece of hardwood (such as a broom handle) about 12 inches long and from 1 1/2 to 1 3/4 inches thick, smoothed to fit the palm

54 at one end and sharpened to a point, or flattened to a sharp wedge, at the other. Some growers prefer a metal tool, since it allows the use of more pressure in packing the medium firmly. This may be a flat blade of heavy metal about 1/2 inch thick and 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide, shaped to an 'L,' and filed to a flat, moderately sharp edge at one end. The other end may be covered with a piece of rubber hose to protect the hand. Some growers use stakes of redwood or bamboo to support weak or leaning bulbs, but supports of heavy galvanized wire, cut to a suitable length, will best survive the continued damp. String or flat dental floss may be used for tying material; raffia is not advisable as it deteriorates too rapidly when it dries out. Tweezers are useful for removing dead tissue from the bulbs and decomposed compost from roots. At times the dry tissue at the base of the new bulb may become chilled when wet and a wet fungus sets in that may affect the entire bulb if not removed. Care should be taken not to injure the dormant next-year growth under this tissue. The type of container used will depend on both the need of the individual plant and the taste of the grower. Pots are most suited to Cattleya and allied genera, to Cymbidiums grown under glass, and Cypripediums. On the West Coast, where plants will not dry out too rapidly, fern or half pans may be used. Deeper containers are needed in hot and dry climates. Phalaenopsis can be grown in pots or baskets. Oncidiums and Wanda coerulea thrive on rafts of bark or blocks of wood. Potting material may be tied firmly around the base of the plant and container with wire, allowing the air-loving roots to wander at will. Certain plants (all Vandas, some Laelias, and Coelogyne cristata) react so badly to repotting that it is best to resort to other expediencies. Decomposed material may be removed from between the roots with tweezers and fresh material gently tucked in its place. In the case of Laelias in baskets, with roots ranging far outside, fresh material in the form of a feed bag may be wired around the outside of the basket. After fresh material is tucked

ORCHID POTTING

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around Coelogyne cristata, the bulbs that are growing in wild abandon may be fastened back in place with wire hairpins. In selecting the proper-sized pot for a plant, choice is governed by the health, size, and habit of growth of the particular orchid. For example, plants such as the Cattleyas, with a running rhizome-type of growth, may be potted to allow for two years of growth, a growth to a year, and an inch of pot to a growth. Generally, a large healthy plant will require a large pot, while a weaker, slower-growing plant needs a smaller one. A sickly plant may sometimes be brought back to health by confining it to a small pot. Overpotting, an error which many beginners make, is a costly practice. The roots of the plant will not be able to absorb all the moisture in a large pot. Excessive moisture settles in pockets in the potting medium and rapidly decomposes the compost. When this condition prevails, roots tend to rot off, bulbs shrivel, and leaves turn yellow. An inexperienced grower, concluding that these symptoms are caused by a lack of water, may overwater, completing the damage to the roots and killing the plant. Cleanliness is important in repotting. Old pots and crock (broken bits of pots used in the bottom of a pot for aeration and drainage) should be scrubbed thoroughly. New pots should be soaked for a time. As a concluding word on the subject of equipment, the grower should remember that 'A proper place for everything and everything in its proper place' is a wise maxim. The best arrangement is to have a clean, light potting shed adjacent to the greenhouse. The major furnishing of this shed should be a potting bench of a height suited to the potter. A comfortable height is advisable, or potting may become a back-breaking job. A specific example will provide the most understandable picture of potting procedure. Let us take a Cattleya plant with Osmunda as the medium; the method will be similar for other plants with certain exceptions that must be discussed separately. The Osmunda, after dirt and foreign material have been shaken

56 from it, is chopped into pieces about four to five inches square, cut with the grain. The medium is easier to handle if it has been sprinkled with water the night before. Old clinging roots are severed from the pot with a sharp knife, and the compost, containing the undisturbed plant, is forced from the pot with a screw driver. The roots are shaken free from decomposed material. Dead or long roots are trimmed slightly, since they would be injured in potting anyway. On a mature plant most of the backbulbs will be found to have no roots and, usually, no leaves. Three to five of the newer bulbs are left; the rest are cut from the plant and, if they are lacking leaves and roots, and are true backbulbs, they are labeled and kept under the bench, dark and damp, until dormant eyes break.1 The plant is now inspected for pest or fungus, for which it may be treated with a safe insecticide and a small brush.2 If it has not been possible to save some of the good Osmunda on the forepart of the plant or if for some reason the roots have been destroyed, a soft ball of Osmunda is tied to the base of the plant as a foundation on which to work. It is often well to enlarge the hole in the bottom of the pot to give the drainage and aeration needed by epiphytes. Some growers use a single piece of crock in the bottom, while others fill as much as one-third of the pot with crockbits of brick, coke, haydite, or gravel may be used instead; in any case, the hole should not be tightly covered. With the plant held firmly in one hand about one-half inch below the top of the pot, the back of the plant close to the edge of the pot, and the growing end toward the center, potting begins. A piece of Osmunda is held at a right angle to the top of the pot with the grain also running at a right angle to the top; with a little flip of the potting tool, so that it never touches roots
1

In view of the fact that the house fills up so quickly and that it takes so

long for backbulbs to recover and become productive plants (2 to 5 years), some growers recommend throwing them away unless they are of a very fine variety. 2 See p. 74 in chapter on Pests and Diseases.

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or plant, the chunk slips neatly in place within the pot, to rest vertically and against the plant. This procedure is repeated, from side to side, until all the gaps are filled, each chunk being made shorter as the edge of the pot is approached. If the plant leans to one side it can be straightened by adding Osmunda to prop it up. The beginner often feels that experienced orchidists place too much emphasis on packing the medium tightly in the pot, but there are good reasons for this emphasis. Cattleyas require firm potting so that roots will have a strong hold on the medium. Plants that are held weakly may wobble and roots may be broken. Firm potting also prevents plants from falling out of dry and shrunken compost and keeps water from settling in holes and rotting the roots. It is wise to spread the roots, packing Osmunda among them for aeration. There are many methods of packing the medium into the pot, but the one outlined is a good workable way of doing it and seems to pack the medium more satisfactorily than just to force it in without regard for direction. Some growers favor severing the rhizome while the plant is still in the pot, dividing it some time before repotting, and thus encouraging new roots and growths without disturbing the plant. This is a good plan and sometimes saves a year of growth. Whatever the method, the potting material should be worked in without letting the potting tool touch the roots. Success depends largely on the roots' being disturbed as little as possible. If the tool is pressed against the edge of the pot for leverage and the material worked toward the center, only the medium will touch the plant. A further and equally necessary precaution is to take care that the rhizome lies along the top of the potting material and particularly that the dormant eye is not buried. This may be difficult if, owing to failure to repot in time, the plant has started to form new growths up in the air. Even so, the rhizome must be placed along the top of the material and the bulbs gradually tied into an upright position. Even after the amateur has decided he can force no more Os-

58 munda into the pot, it is usually wise to try again. It is surprising how many times the pot will be found not nearly so full as it was believed to be. When the pot is full, the stake is inserted at the back of the plant and the bulbs are tied up. They should be tied firmly enough to prevent a movement that will break off roots as they form, but not tight enough to choke the bulb or to force it so suddenly into an upright position that it will snap from the strain. The label is placed toward the back of the pot, and the pot is then set aside in a place especially designated for newly potted plants. Some growers do not believe in watering until the new roots are well established; others let the repotted plant go unwatered only a few days or, at most, a week. There is no object in watering until the roots are at least formed because until then the plant cannot use water. A light, daily overhead spray will be sufficient to keep the leaves green and bulbs plump until the roots do form, which may take as long as three weeks. Labels are very important and should not be lost or placed on the wrong pot when repotting. Many types are available but only those that are water-resistant are satisfactory. White or colored labels of celluloid, dull on one side for printing with a lead pencil or India ink, are ideal. The potting method described applies to all Cattleyas, hybrids, and allied genera. Vandas, with their air-loving roots, must have different treatment. Vanda coerulea, especially, will do better on a raft than in a pot. The roots will then be able to wander freely through the Osmunda tied around the base of the plant and the stocky aerial roots will break above the Osmunda. One method of dividing a Vanda (not particularly recommended to the amateur, until he has at least gained some experience) is to cut off the top part of the plant below one or two of the big fat roots breaking from the stem. The top part may then be tied on a raft, and both parts are supposed to grow and flower. This would be dangerous treatment for V. Sanderiana, a plant apparently loath to send out typical roots from the stem.

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If Vandas are planted in pots, good drainage must be assured (at least one-third crock being used), and the plant should be well centered in the pot. Vanda Sanderiana, as has been indicated, is the most temperamental of the Vandas. It thrives in a large pot and reacts badly to repotting. Old medium may be removed from the roots and fresh material tucked in its place. Repotting, with Vandas as with Cattleyas, makes a good time to check up on scalea pest most detrimental to this plant. Phalaenopsis give trouble to some growers. When potting, the plants should be well centered in the pot or basket. Medium should be well packed but not so firmly as for Cattleyas. Compost should come well up around the base of the plant, since Phalaenopsis has a tendency to force the constantly forming crowns up from the medium. There should be very good drainage. Osmunda makes a most satisfactory medium. Phalaenopsis are heavy feeders and will usually exhaust the medium in two years, after which they should be repotted. This orchid has strap-like roots that wander out of the container and become fastened to it, the bench, or adjacent pots. These roots must be severed in repotting, and the plant is inevitably set back. The intense interest in gravel culture, which is spectacularly successful with Phalaenopsis, is partly a result of this difficulty in repotting. Dendrobiums need to be repotted immediately after flowering since they start new growth almost at once. Osmunda agrees with them, although the addition of sphagnum is often helpful. The deciduous canes may be cut from D. nobile and D. superhum and laid on the gravel under the benches. They will break at the eyes and form new plantlets. Dendrobiums may be accommodated in a variety of containers, but, since they thrive in confinement, the receptacle should be as small as possible. Rafts or baskets are suitable for the drooping types. Drooping canes should be allowed to follow their inclination unless room is scarce, in which case they may be tied up. Other types will do well in pots with Osmunda as medium. Sanders recommends a compost of three parts finely cut Osmunda to one part of sphagnum.

6o Coelogynes, with few exceptions, should be potted in shallow containers in firmly packed Osmunda. When repotting, the growths should be placed toward the center and the compost mounded. As they do not react well to repotting, it should be avoided when possible. Rather than repot, some growers prefer to add fresh medium at the front of the plant. From time to time freshly sifted Osmunda may be sprinkled over the top and watered in. Here again Sanders recommends a compost of slightly less than three parts Osmunda and a little over one part sphagnum. Oncidiums, like Dendrobiums, do well in confinement. Their containers, which may be baskets or rafts, should be just large enough and, as a rule, hung in the light. Osmunda is a satisfactory medium. When Oncidiums are potted in a basket there should be a great deal of crock and not much compost. Sphagnum may be added to the medium. The genus requires a lot of water and consequently adequate drainage. A book might well be devoted solely to Cymbidiums. Every grower has his favorite mix of compost and these splendid plants do gratifyingly well in all mixes. They are terrestrials and so do well in straight soil, although they seem to do best on a rich, welldrained medium. Old, clean Osmunda, collected when un-potting Cattleyas and other species, is excellent for this purpose. A formula highly recommended by a successful grower is three parts of leaf mold (oak and sycamore), one part disintegrated granite, one-half part fibrous peat, and one-half part turf and sand. One grower's wife has been heard to complain that her husband tears up the front lawn to get potting material for his Cymbidiums. The use of fertilizer is a controversial matter, but it is probably good for these heavy feeders. Addition of leaf mold is always recommended. Cymbidiums need moisture at the roots at all times and correspondingly good drainage. Since these plants grow enormous bulbs, a large pot is necessary. The time for repotting is late spring when new growths are just beginning. Backbulbs may be removed without disturbing the plant and they will start new

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6l

plants from the dormant eyes. When potted the backbulbs should be centered in the pot since there is no way of predicting the direction in which the eye will break. They should be potted firmly, although not so tightly as Cattleyas, and they may be held fast with a stake. Cypripediums have needs very similar to the Cymbidiums, but require more water and not such firm potting. Cypripedium roots are brittle and delicate and should be handled gently to avoid injury. If the plant is soaked for several hours before being removed from the pot, the compost may easily be separated from the roots. Cypripediums can be readily divided during repotting, as they practically fall into separate plants, but, lacking pseudobulbs, they take up little room and there is not much need for separation. Pots of four to six inches will be most convenient to handle. The plant should be well centered since new growth may break from any side. This genus will do well with the composts used for Cymbidiums. The native habitat of the Cypripedium is usually swampy, so they need a rich, wet compost. One grower recommends a mix of almost liquid, mud-like leaf mold to be poured around the roots and kept wet. Osmunda, preferably partially decomposed, is effective. A satisfactory formula for the green-leaved types is three parts loam, one part of Osmunda chopped fine, and one part sphagnum. The mottled-leaved varieties do better with a formula of one part loam to two parts of Osmunda and two parts of sphagnum. Odontoglossums also require a rich, moist compost; they thrive in leaf mold and heavy soil. Osmunda tends to be too dry. Old Osmunda, the residue from previous repotting of other orchids, can be used in repotting Odontoglossums, and a bit of sand may be added. Polypodium mixed with finely chopped Osmunda is also used. A more elaborate mix consists of sphagnum, fine-cut fiber, a little sharp silver sand, and a few decayed oak leaves. These plants do exceedingly well under oak trees in localities where they can be grown outdoors.

62

As Odontoglossum roots are very fine, the plants should be soaked before repotting so that the old material will fall away without injuring them. About two thirds of the pot should be filled with crock to insure good drainage. Odontoglossums should be potted firmly but not tight. Water should be withheld until new roots form, and then frequent damping will see the plant through in good shape. This genus does not react well to disturbance of the roots during hot weather, so September is the ideal time for repotting; growths will then be about an inch high and the plant will have a chance to re-establish itself before winter. Repotting is also possible in March as new roots will have a chance to form before hot weather sets in. Miltonias may be repotted at the same time as Odontoglossums. Straight Osmunda may be used. Another medium consists of equal amounts of peat and moss, with good drainage. Pots, not too large, are used as containers. Extreme care should be taken that repotted Miltonias do not receive water until new roots form. When the first orchids were imported from their native jungles many years ago, thousands of plants died from being transferred to unnatural conditions under glass with the aerial roots crammed into unsuitable media. Gradually but surely painful experience has evolved the modern treatment that is now so successful that hothouse-grown plants often far surpass jungle plants of the same species in beauty, and in number and size of blooms.

6
'Resting Is Necessary
WITH the end of the flowering season for most plants and with potting under control, the grower finds next that all orchids need restsome going into such deep rest or dormancy that they appear dead. In a state of nature this rest is provided by the change of seasons. It will be found that those plants requiring a long spell of complete rest in the greenhouse come from regions where long periods of hot wind occur. During such times these plants shrivel and dry, giving no sign of life. In the native habitat of many orchids these extremely dry seasons will be followed by torrential rains, during which the plant awakens and puts forth new growth that will culminate in bloom. It is during the time of dormancy that collectors gather and ship orchids with the least danger of shock and damage. Many a plant has died en route, having been shipped after growth has recommenced, when the fresh young roots and tender bulbs are easily broken or rotted. If shipped when completely dormant and dry, they will comfortably survive the long overseas journey and the fumigation, required on arrival. By watching his plants, the grower will learn to recognize their needs. When the plant feels the need of rest, usually during the winter months, active growth ceases and the plant 'stands still.' There are no new roots and buds seem to remain endlessly in the sheath. Most orchids cannot be induced to break this dormancy
63

64 until they are ready, but others, if conditions encouraging growth surround them when they normally rest, will begin premature growth. If this happens, the flowers will not have a chance to mature and the plant will refuse to flower for a season. For a weak plant this may be a good idea, but usually the grower expects a yearly flowering. Other plants, notably deciduous Dendrobes, will throw new plantlets if watered during the rest period. If a treatment inadvertently breaks dormancy, the amateur will be startled to find his collection increased by small additions, when what he expected was blooms. Watching the roots is one means of judging a plant's needs. Old roots that are still performing their special functions will be white and tough, and very hard to break. Dead roots turn black and wet or dirty-brown and dry according to the cause of death. If the plant needs to be removed from badly decomposed material and repotted, the roots may be green and slimy from fungus. But the most heartening sight to the orchid grower is the new roots of a plant awakening from rest. New roots, of a bright, clear, translucent green with a rosy glow, can be described only as jewel-tipped. When plants are resting and the roots are inactive, it is only natural that they should require little or no water. They usually need more air, more sun, and less heat. In addition to these general rules, each of the genera, according to their native climate, has certain special needs. The genus Cattleya is moderate in its demands for heat, air, and moisture at all times. It does not require complete rest. Withholding water from the pot for a short time after repotting or after flowering will suffice, but the bulbs should not be allowed to become dry to the point of shriveling. Humidity in the air and overhead spray will help keep them plump and firm. They should be well watered in the pot and then allowed to dry out until the pot feels light when weighed in the hand. The 'prima donna' of the genus, Cattleya Warscewiczii or gigas, requires special treatment in resting; withholding water is

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not sufficient. If not properly handled it will put on new bulbs and leaves and refuse to bloom. Stern measures will be required to shock the plant into flowering. Cattleya gigas is one orchid that really demands neglect. When the new growth and roots start, the plant should be well watered until the new bulb is completely made upthe flower sheath will appear at the same time, but without buds. The plant should then be placed in a very sunny spot and water withheld. Occasional overhead spray will meet all its needs during the winter months. As root activity begins anew and buds are formed in the sheath, watering may be gradually resumed and the plant moved to a warmer, shadier spot until after flowering. A slight rest may take place again after flowering before the new growth starts, and water should be used sparingly at such a time. Flowering takes place during the summer months. The genus Laelia requires a great deal of light and air plus a more decided rest period than Cattleya. The plants should be hung against the glass in the sun after flowering. While growing they need much water at the roots. They thrive on extremes, heat and air in the daytime, and less heat and air at night. They should be kept in the sun and fairly dry during dormancy, but the bulbs should not be allowed to become shriveled. The genus Brassavola calls for a warm temperature and copious amounts of water while growing and up to the point of flowering, which in most species takes place in autumn. After the growth is made up, during resting, less water will be the rule. The genus Dendrobium, owing to its many locales, is as perverse in its rest demands as it is diverse in its beauty. Rest is essential if the cane-like bulbs are to ripen and grow strong enough to bear the blooms. While the evergreen and the deciduous varieties follow the same cycle of maturation, rest, and flowering, means of securing rest differ. One division of the evergreens comes from the rain forests of the tropics, where natural conditions encourage almost continuous growth. This division includes D. Phalaenopsis, D. dearei, D.

66 thyrsiflorum, D. densiflorum, D. superbiens, D. bigibbum, and D. Farmed. They flower on the new growth and do not lose their leaves. As a result they can use some water at the roots at all times, with extra amounts during active growth. Temperature should be maintained at a minimum of 60 even during the rest period. A second group of the evergreen Dendrobes comes from higher elevations and so requires less heat and plenty of light. Water will be given slightly less freely during resting, but it should never be entirely withheld. This group includes D. infundibulum, D. Jamesianum, and D. Formosum. The deciduous Dendrobes, including D. superbum, D. nobile, D. Wardianum, and D. aureum, lose all their leaves during dormancy, becoming dry, shriveled, bamboo-like canes. They can be hung up against the glass and kept cool and airy, with water almost entirely withheld during the rest period. This treatment allows the canes to ripen and harden, strengthening them for profuse bloom. When the nodes begin to swell, indicating that the flower buds are set, the rest period is over and the plants should be given more heat, moisture, and shade. The genus Oncidium needs a long dry rest after a well-watered growing season. It lacks pseudobulbs, but the heavy, leathery leaves are capable of storing food and water for the dormant period. There are exceptions to this rule among the family: O. candidum, O. crispum, O. flexuosum, and O. micranthum require little or no rest and should be kept moist at all times; O. Lanceanum must be removed to a cooler spot and dried out, although not completely, for a short time during the winter. All the other Oncidiums enjoy a scarcity of water during the rest period, with only enough moisture to keep the bulbs from shriveling. The genus Cypripedium grows in a locale conducive to almost continuous growth. It has no pseudobulbs and its evergreen leaves make water at the roots a 'must' at all times. The genus Cymbidium tends to produce vegetative growth if

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not rested properly. It should be watered more sparingly beginning at the end of August, and should be allowed to dry out fairly well between waterings. Always syringe overhead on sunny days, but make sure that the house dries out before night. The artificial feedings so beneficial during the growing season should be withheld from the time the new bulb is made up to the time when flowers appear. After flowering it may be resumed. Cycnoches is a genus requiring special dormancy treatment. It goes completely dormant after flowering and water is completely withheld. If watered during the winter months, when the plant is dormant, it will succumb to rot and die. Much water is needed when the rest is over and the new bulb is being made up, but even then care must be taken not to allow water in the crowns. Flowering takes place immediately after new growth, usually in the summer. The genus Coelogyne rests according to species, but all species require some rest. The condition of the bulbs is an accurate gauge of the needs of the plants. They should always be kept plump. Coelogyne Pandurata and C. asperata come from warm, moist, marshy habitats and so will grow most of the time in congenial environments. If the temperature can be kept at 6o F., they will take water at all times. If the temperature is lower, the water supply can be cut down after growth is completed. Coelogyne cristata benefits from sun and reduced water supply during the resting period. It should be watered profusely while growing. Vanda is a pseudobulb-less genus. Growth is continuous. It appreciates a warm, moist condition, with slightly diminished water at the roots during winter. It requires little shade, since it seems to rest but little. When grown in good conditions, V. coerulea has an unusually fine root system for an orchid and will bloom prodigally, sometimes twice and, less frequently, three times a year. Vanda teres and V. Agnes Joachim seem difficult to bring to bloom in the temperate zones, their requirements for heat, intense sun, and much air being difficult to fulfil in a greenhouse. Vanda tricolor and V. suavis, whose roots require air and

68 moisture at all times, are more easily accommodated. Vanda Sanderiana requires more heat than V. coerulea and needs air and moisture at all times. The genus Phalaenopsis is also pseudobulb-less, and, if properly nourished, will bloom constantly and never rest. When the potting material is Osmunda, this tendency to excessive activity must be curbed or the plant will bloom itself to death. Buds can be pinched off unless at least one pair of the firm, leathery leaves have been formed since the last flowering. Old flower stems may break into bloom anew, which weakens the plant and should be discouraged by cutting stems close to the plant. The plant should be kept well watered, but the roots should not be allowed to become soggy from lack of air. The genus Epidendrum rests somewhat, requiring slightly less water at the roots. It needs almost daily syringing, however, to prevent fatal drying out. The genus Odontoglossum, native to elevated parts of tropical Central America, requires no rest. The roots must be kept moist at all times. Care must be taken to prevent the compost from becoming sour. Odontoglossum require more shade than most orchids. Genus Stanhopea, on the other hand, responds gratefully to a period of rest after growing. Rest can be induced by allowing the roots to dry out fairly well and by providing plenty of light and air. When new growth starts, water in quantity is resumed. For most species blooming time comes in summer and should be immediately followed by a rest period. The genus Miltonia is sensitive and delicate. Root activity is slight during damp winter months, so resting must be aided by very careful watering. The potting mixture, since the plants have very slight bulbs, must never be allowed to dry. They should be syringed with a fine mist because they chill easily. They are susceptible to thrips in dry conditions. Humid air provides the answer to both problems. To the amateur, each factor in the raising of orchids is likely

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to seem most absorbing and demanding in its turn. In reality all phases are equally important. Each factor must be right and must be combined harmoniously for perfection in growing and flowering. The grower will discover, as he watches and studies his orchids during periods of rest and activity, that he is actually serving an apprenticeship to the orchids. No matter how much he may read or study, in the final analysis the surest way to success in orchid culture is through day-to-day acquaintance with the plants. Matters that appear mysterious or confusing at the beginning will soon become second nature. A habit of doing the right thing, a 'green thumb' or 'orchid touch,' will develop from this close relationship. Whatever it is called, it enables the grower to tell, when he enters the greenhouse, whether or not the air is sufficiently sweet and moist; to determine, by lifting or glancing at a pot, whether water is needed; to decide, after inspection of a plant, whether it needs repotting and the precise time for repotting; and, finally, to determine with great accuracy how much or how little rest each plant needs.

7
Pests and Diseases of Orchids
THE damage that can be done by pests and diseases in an orchid greenhouse is so appalling that no effort should be spared to prevent their initial entrance. The first line of defense is a roomy, airy greenhouse, in which balance is scrupulously kept. The grower who inspects plants frequently should be able to halt an invasion of pests before it gets under way, while the preservation of plants and the immediate segregation of sickly ones prevent pests and diseases from gaining an easy foothold. The successful grower is a good housekeeperpicking up dead leaves, removing dead plants, and isolating sick ones. Adequate bench room for each plant is also an advisable precaution. The greenhouse can be kept clear of pests and diseases only if the grower recognizes signs of trouble and is acquainted with effective means of control. There are a few merely bothersome pests whose appearance need occasion no alarm, although the grower may wish to be rid of them. Ants and fruit flies are the most common members of this category. Many growers dislike ants. In the jungle ants have friendly relations with orchidsstinging ants often preventing human desecration of the plantsbut in the greenhouse ants are unsightly and unnecessary. They have never been proved guilty of damaging orchids, but as sometimes they live in co-operation with the mealy bug and may assist aphis, it is just as well to prevent their entrance into the greenhouse. Ant-proofing outside the house
70

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is the safest and simplest method of dealing with them. Fruit flies are often found in the greenhouse. They feed on decomposing Osmunda and, although at times difficult to distinguish from the scale fly, they do no harm. Routine spray will dispose of them. Thousand-legged insects, mites, and sow-bugs are occasionally found in the greenhouse but apparently do no harm. The tiny plant lice that thrive in decomposing potting materials are harmless though disturbing to a grower's sense of neatness and order, and almost impossible to eradicate. Where possible, garden snakes, toads, frogs, and salamanders should be encouraged, as they feed on pests. The coming of spring and warm days brings thrips, red spiders, and aphis. The maintenance of humidity in the greenhouse during this period will not only keep plants from being burned, but will also control these pests as they are susceptible to pneumonia. Such control is especially important because these pests are extremely small and may do damage before they are seen. Nearly all flower-lovers have seen thrips-marked gladiolas; the petals and leaves of orchids attacked by thrips are disfigured in much the same manner. Red spiders leave ugly rust marks, particularly apparent on leaves of the Cymbidiums, and they can kill Miltonias. In the past, systematic spraying with rotenone, pyrethrum, or nicotine provided a fair control for thrips, red spider, and aphis. Some growers even burned nicofume (a poisonous gas, difficult to handle) two or three times a year. In spite of all precautions the pests seemed to persist. Since the war, what penicillin and sulfa drugs have done for the medical profession, D.D.T. and other insecticides have done for the orchid grower. Once a considerable problem, pest control has been made simple. While D.D.T. has not proved specific for thrips, red spider, and aphis, as it has for scale, O.O. di-erhyl-o.p. nitrophenyl thiophosphate, a poison sold under the trade names of Parathion or Orchid-thion and requiring caution in handling, and Tetra-ethyl pyrophosphate or Vapotone, also requiring delicate handling, are most efficient controls.

72

Any form of extermination should be repeated at intervals, for, although the first application kills flying pests, the dormant stages are rarely touched and must be killed at maturity. D.D.T. has the apparent advantage over other insecticides of maintaining its effectiveness over long intervalsfrom three to six months. One of the most deadly orchid pests, but fortunately not very common, is the Cattleya fly (Eurytoma orchidearum). This insect lays its eggs in the tender new leads of the Cattleya. The lead, when the eggs have hatched and the nymphs begin to feed, swells grotesquely and becomes soft to the touch. The nymph finally eats its way out of the lead, emerging as a fly about a quarter of an inch long with a coal-black body and light transparent wings. A plant that has been attacked should be isolated and the injured growth cut off and burned. Careful observation of the new growths should lead to discovery of the condition before the nymph emerges as a fly to cause more damage. Burning nicofume in the house will kill the flies but will have no effect on the larvae. Pest B-Gon (D.D.T. 20%) is reported to have been successful in handling severe infestations needing drastic measures. Another vicious pest much dreaded by growers is the Cattleya or Dendrobium beetle (Diorymellus laevimargo), which does not, incidentally, limit its operations to the species for which it is named. This hard-shelled, shiny black beetle, about a sixteenth of an inch long, has a curving beak with which it attacks flowers, buds, and leaves. It lays its eggs in the new green tips of the roots, where the larvae then hatch and, by feeding, destroy the root growth. The mature beetle is quick and agile, and when disturbed will usually drop to the potting material, where it is almost invisible. These beetles are less active in the early morning and late at night, and hand picking may get rid of many of them at these times. Means suggested for extermination of the Cattleya fly are also effective in dealing with this beetle. Pyrethrum powder is mildly effective and is harmless to the plant. A Tartar-emetic spray (3 ounces Tartar-emetic, 3 ounces sugar, 5 gallons water) gives good

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results. Before D.D.T. was discovered, growers were forced to have recourse to Paradichlorobenzine for severe infestations. This was a very complicated process, involving the drying off of plants, closing of greenhouse vents, and raising the temperature to 700 F., but, despite all precautions, there was frequent damage. D.D.T. 50% wettable is preferable when strong measures are needed. Although not so destructive (except in cases of neglect) nor so difficult to discover as the beetle and the fly, scale is one of the most persistent threats in the orchid greenhouse. No house seems entirely free of it and only constant treatment can ward off serious damage. There is a bewildering number of types of scale, some thirty-three having been intercepted at the U. S. Quarantine Department in San Francisco in 1941 alone. The type most common to orchids is Cocciidai diaspis Boisduvalli, which attacks Cattleyas and sometimes Oncidiums and Cymbidiums. Parlatoria proteus, a scale attacking Vandas, Cymbidiums, and Cypripediums, causes leaves to die back at their base. Coccus pseudohesperidum, black and soft, attacks Cymbidiums, Odontoglossums, and Cattleyas. A light armored scale, Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides, may heavily infest Cypripediums, causing the leaves to die back. Pulvinaria Phaiae, 'cottony orchid scale,' attacks Phaius, Phalaenopsis, Calanthes, and Odontoglossum. Although not so destructive as some scale, it is disfiguring in that it turns leaves soft and yellow. There seems to be a particular type of scale for practically every species of orchid, but fortunately control measures are the same for each type. The males are a flying form and can be killed by spray, but the females, which are hard-shelled will not be affected by it, and partlienogenetic broods can be hatched that do not require the male to carry on the line. The eggs hatch and the nymphs develop under the female's armor. The males pass through a quiescent cocoon stage, often collecting in colonies under a powdery covering (sometimes mistaken for mealy bug) on the under side or in the apex of a leaf, in the dry tissue of the bulb, or, more rarely, at the base of the bulb around the new growth and dormant eyes.

74 When the males emerge from their cocoons they go on a mating flight, during which they do not eat; afterwards they disappear. That the nymphs can crawl about, together with the free flight of the male, accounts for the extremely rapid spread of scale. Unremitting attention is necessary to keep scale in check, although amateurs should be warned that some cures can be as bad as the pests and only proved methods should be used. Before the advent of D.D.T., spraying with rotenone, Extrax, or Wilson's O.K. Orchid Spray was found fairly effective in controlling scale. Destruxol was used but because of its oil base, needed caution; some orchids, especially Miltonias, are extremely susceptible to oil. Spraying, however, was not sufEcient to keep the scale infestations down. The use of a toothbrush was required to loosen the adult scale, which is protected by a heavy armored shell, under which it is impervious to the spray. The cottony deposit of young scale would build up in the axil of the leaf, and it was necessary to loosen this by the aid of some sharpened instrument, or stick of bamboo. Prior to the development of D.D.T., keeping scale in check was the most that could be hoped for, but the future seems to offer the prospect of complete eradication. Its advocates claim that it will control all forms of the pest. After two or three applications, the quarantining of new plants until treated will make it unnecessary to spray more than once in six months. A commercial product called T.A.T. has been used, as a spray, at intervals of three to six months, with harmless but efficient results. Other solutions of D.D.T. with oil should be avoided by the amateur because of the penetrating quality of such solutions. A suspension of 50% wettable D.D.T. in water, one tablespoon to a gallon, is a safe and easy control, but it will settle if not agitated. In fact the result seems to be elimination rather than control of flies and ants as well as the scale. Unfortunately it does not seem to have the same effect on snails and slugs. Cockroaches are voracious and seem fond of orchids, but they are not apt to be prevalent. When damage caused by such a pest

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is apparentchewed leaves and bulbsthe grower will patrol his house in the dark with a flashlight and hand pick the pests. Other unfriendly foes may be detected in a similar way; snails and slugs feed in the dark, and do much damage to the blooms. Growers wax eloquent on their sad part in providing luscious orchid salad for these hungry pests. Benches set in cups, filled with oil, and provided with covers to keep the water from overflowing them are used by some growers. Clean ground, gravel or cement floors, free of vegetative growth, help to keep them out. It seems, however, that the most careful precautions against their entrance fail and a control is needed. Any of the snail baits on the market may be usedpreferably in pellet form since they are composed of arsenic or methaldehyde, which on direct contact will burn the bulbs. Pellets of Snarol or Buggetta may be scattered on benches and floor, with varying results, frequently disappointing. Cory's Bait and Sander's Sui-slug apparently give a good control, although the pests at times still prefer the orchids. A tempting bait may be formed by mixing any of the bait meals with rotten lettuce leaves. Placed in a fresh leaf on top of the potting material, these tid-bits will lure the pest from other spots. However, they must be removed before watering, an item of labor in a large house. Earwigs, also destructive, may be controlled by the same methods, using earwig bait. They will also crawl into a rolled-up newspaper at night, which can be burned in the morning. Fungi, bacterial diseases, and virus diseases are all menaces. The conditions conducive to orchid growth are those under which fungi thrive. There is a friendly fungus, Rhizoctonia, that is found in association with orchid roots. Unfortunately, however, unfriendly fungi are present just as frequently, especially on a weak or sick plant. Too high humidity in the house, coupled with chilling from a sudden temperature drop or draft, will encourage fungus growth. The damp heat used for seedling growth is particularly attractive to certain damping-off fungi. Once the fungus

76 has attacked the seedling it becomes a race as to which will grow the faster. There are too many kinds of fungi to mention any but the major types. Gleasporium forms on the leaves yellow spots that eventually run together to form a large brown spot. Spread of this fungus can be prevented by airing and drying. The affected parts of the plant should be wiped with a dilution of o.i per cent bichloride of mercury. Cladosporium causes brownish spots on the leaves, which eventually turn black, and the leaves collapse. Bordeaux 4-4-50 or ammoniacal copper (Solcap or Bordelo may be used) will check this fungus. Wiping with corrosive sublimate will control Diplodia, which forms brownish pin specks on the leaves, and Cercospora, which causes roughened olive-green spots to appear. Oncidiums are the usual victims of Phylosticta, which shows in dark spots on upper and lower leaf surfaces and yields to copper sprays. Excess humidity encourages leaf mold, Botrytis cinerea, on Cattleyas, but it can be controlled by simply drying the air and providing more ventilation. Ventilation is perhaps the best defense against many of the fungi, hence the repeated warning against allowing the greenhouse to become overcrowded. Soap in insecticide spray and oil in commercial sprays help control fungus, but oil sprays must be used with caution, as oil in any but minute quantities is injurious to orchids. About 20 minutes after oil is used the plant must be washed with a fine water mist. However, the simple formula of 50% wettable D.D.T., suspended in water, 1-800, is so efficient for pests that it is foolish for the amateur to use oil at all. Bacterial disease in the orchid house is a little-understood subject. Again air and drying out before chilling do much to avert damage. A brown rot is caused by Phytomonas cypripedii, which frequently appears in the growing points of Vandaceous plants or often in wounds. Corrosive sublimate (0.1%) applied to injured parts should check the spread of this disease. Erwinia carotovera will enter a wounded leaf and infected parts turn dark green. Spread of the infection is rapid and results in complete collapse

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of the leaf and bulb. As this disease may be spread by contaminated hands or tools, cleanliness and care will prevent damage. It is wise to cut off the injured part, burning it, and then sterilizing the knife or shears before touching another plant. Badly infected plants should be burned, infected plants of any kind isolated. Phalaenopsis seem to be peculiarly susceptible to the disease of bacterial black spot. This appears as a tiny pearly spot in the crown and goes unnoticed frequently. The spot gradually turns black, spreads, and the leaves drop off, leaving an apparently dead crown. In some cases such a plant may be nursed back to health and blooming, by repotting in new medium, injuring the roots as little as possible, and spraying lightly until new leaves form. However, if the tiny beginning of the disease is noted, immediately treated with 1-1000 bichloride of mercury or Bioquin 700, the advance of the disease may often be checked completely. Water allowed to stand in the crown of the Cypripedium plants frequently results in a wet rot that destroys the flower buds. Overhead spray, particularly when the sky is overcast and plants do not have an opportunity to dry out, allows water to drip down into the tissue surrounding the new growths. Should this tissue turn black and soft with rot, it must be removed from the pseudobulb with tweezers. Care should be taken to avoid injury to dormant eyes or roots at the base of the growth. If rotted tissue is not promptly removed, the entire lead may be destroyed. There has been much discussion of virus disease in orchids, but all too little is known for any certainty. A virus is apparently responsible for the mottled or marbled appearance occasionally noticed in blooms. It seems to be a disturbance of the pigment and is in no way related to the 'watermarks' made by thrips. Plants suspected of virus infection should be isolated. As so little is known about the cause or cure of virus infection, it may be wise to destroy doubtful plantsthe loss of one or two specimens is certainly preferable to infestation of the entire house. Considering the prevailing ignorance about virus, it is a good idea to isolate and watch any plant in poor condition for an unknown

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reason. There is a theory that a virus may be responsible for the blackening of tissue around the newly formed bulb. All rot should be cut away from the affected leaf or bulb and the injury cauterized with flowers of sulphur or corrosive sublimate, neither of which should be allowed to touch the roots. The tool used in removing rot should be sterilized before being used again. Some growers attribute the frequent appearance of dry or blackened flower sheaths, and the consequent loss of blooms, to a virus but there is no conclusive proof of this. The consensus of opinion is that the condition is a result of a lack of air, or sudden chilling while damp. The dry sheath may be removed by slitting both side 'seams' and pulling each half toward the leaf with a quick jerk. This procedure may save the buds. Infrequently it will be found that buds have succumbed to wet rot inside an apparently healthy sheath. It is likely that this condition results from steaming caused by the 'sweating' of an excessively heavy sheath that has been subjected to too much heat. Many growers make a practice of cutting off the tops of such very heavy sheaths as soon as the buds show at the base. Cattleya Mossiae has a habit of forming the sheath months before the bud appears. This sheath very frequently dries up and turns black, but the buds usually survive. D.D.T. has been mentioned several times in this chapter. The discussion of pests and diseases cannot be closed without more detailed consideration of this boon to pest control. D.D.T. has been available for just the years since the war, but experimentation has taken place rapidly with excellent results. We reiterate that the amateur must use caution in handling D.D.T. mixed with oil; spraying every three to six months with a suspension of 50% wettable D.D.T. in water, one tablespoon to the gallon, is a safe, easy, and effective control. Many commercial growers have been using D.D.T. over a period of years with success, but they keep their formula secret. Ernest N. Cory, writing in the American Orchid Society Bulletin, says that, correctly used and compounded, D.D.T. emul-

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sions have been proved specific for thrips, Dendrobium beetle, and many types of scale, and that the treatment need not be more frequent than once in six months. At the U. S. Botanical Gardens an emulsion of Xylol-Triton has been used on certain species of orchids for a period of two years without harm. An emulsion of 20% D.D.T., zo% Triton B 1956, and 60% Xylol in a concentration of 80 cc. to a gallon of water is the formula recommended by Mr. Cory. He advises controlled experimentation with a few plants before adoption for general use. D.D.T. may be used safely in a duster in powder form. It is harmless to plants when suspended in water, but is difficult to use this way, because constant agitation is required to prevent precipitation. Some type of spreader makes the use of D.D.T. easier and more effective, but also more dangerous. Oil gives D.D.T. a penetrating quality that powder alone does not have. Oil is harmful to Miltonias, perhaps less so to Cattleyas, and apparently not at all to Phalaenopsis. If the use of oil as a spreader is necessary, washing the plant with a fine mist of water about 20 or 30 minutes after spraying will counteract the harm in some measure. The spray should not be allowed to roll back into the crowns or axils of the plant. Sometimes, while harmless in themselves, D.D.T. and a spreader in combination may be injurious to plants. Camellias and hibiscus have been damaged by a combination of Volck and D.D.T. This is reason enough for the grower to experiment, if he must, on a small scale. In brief the rules for control of pests and diseases are: (1) absolute cleanliness; (2) plenty of air and bench space, with no crowding of plants; (3) immediate isolation of infected or suspected plants; (4) proper control of humidity with no chilling while the house is wet; (5) a routine system of spray with a noninjurious insecticide, perhaps alternated with fumigation by burning nicofume; (6) removal of armored scale by brush or fine mist spray under pressure; and (7) sponging fungus-infected spots with corrosive sublimate or copper sprays and dusting injured parts with sulphur to check the spread of rot.

8o The grower who keeps his plants in good health, providing the most favorable environment for vigorous growth and repotting at the proper time with fresh potting material, will cut to a minimum his troubles with pests and diseases. Plants with healthy bulbs, leaves, and roots are remarkably pest- and disease-resistant. We again emphasize the necessity of handling all insecticides with extreme care. Exact attention should be paid to the precautions advised by the manufacturers, such as wearing a mask and rubber gloves when using the insecticide. The definite toxic effect of many of the new discoveries is still a mystery.

8
Growing Orchids from Seed
THE growing of orchids from seed is so difficult a process that only the most persevering amateur should be encouraged to make the effort, and then only after he has had considerable experience with adult plants. The possibilities are tempting, but frequent failures and high mortality of seeds may make the whole experience discouraging and expensive. Diligence, meticulousness, and, above all, patience are the qualities required of the experimenter. The primary obstacle arises from the fact that the orchid seed, unlike most other seeds, contains no stored nourishment and, furthermore, has no means of converting outside food to its use. The grower is forced to find a means of compensating for this deficiency. Under natural conditions orchid seeds grow at the base of the parent plant or in the immediate vicinity. Early experimenters, attempting to propagate orchids in an artificial environment, had success only when they planted the seeds at the base of an adult plant, where, in a way mysterious at the time, the seeds germinated and grew, although pests and fungi took an exceptionally heavy toll. In 1909 Bernard in France and Burgeff in Germany independently came to the conclusion that the orchid seed was dependent on a friendly fungus called Rhizoctonia. They reported that this fungus seemed indispensable to germination. Their discovery, although the exact nature of the relation between Rhizoctonia
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and the orchid was still not clear, led to the 'pure culture' or symbiotic method of planting orchid seed in a sterilized peat (sterilized to kill deadly fungus), and then inoculating it with the fungus found in ground-up roots of adult plants. This method, although wasteful, was used by growers, notably Charlesworth of England, with fair success over a period of years. Seed inoculated with the Rhizoctonia germinated, that without the inoculation did not. But loss from pests and unfriendly fungi persisted. The true relation between the orchid and its aiding fungus remained a mystery until in 1922 Dr. Lewis Knudson of Cornell University made an important discovery. Dr. Knudson demonstrated that Rhizoctonia was not necessary for the germination of orchid seed if artificial feeding took its place. The function of the fungus was to make up for the seed's inability to supply its own food prior to root development; the Rhizoctonia acted as 'middle man' between the seed and the medium. Knudson developed the now-famous formula for germinating and feeding baby orchids, 'Solution B,' which is essentially that used by orchid growers all over the world, although it may be altered in some respects to suit individual conditions. Recently Knudson has announced a new formula, 'Solution C,' which he feels has some advantages over the earlier one. Planting with artificial feeding is called asymbiotic planting. A second obstacle to the growing of orchids from seed is the fact that the conditions most conducive to the germination and growth of orchid seeda warm, moist, rather close atmosphereare also those most favorable for harmful fungi. Absolute and antiseptic cleanliness will cut down the mortality in growing seed. The attainment of this antisepsis may be difficult for the average amateur unless he is a scientist or doctor. Perhaps the most discouraging factor to the amateur is that the time required for the maturation of seedlings and the eventual production of bloom is exceedingly long. It takes from nine months to a year (sometimes longer) for Cattleya seed to mature in the pod. Five to seven years are required from seed to bloom.

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Some orchids take less time; others take more. Phalaenopsis are said to have bloomed in eighteen months. Some Vandas, although precise information is lacking, are supposed to take from twelve to eighteen years. Many experiments trying to reduce this long maturation period are under way, but no conclusive results have been announced. Experiments in the field of nutrient culture give hope, however, that a method for shortening the period will be discovered. The grower who, after a realistic appraisal of the difficulties, decides to try to raise orchids from seed will find it wise to concentrate his time and energy on reproducing orchids from only suitable parents. In the analysis of the suitability of a plant for parenthood it is a good idea to check on its popularity for hybridizing and the results of its use. Laeliocattleya Princess Margaret, for example, is a plant with many quality offspring. The hybridizer should have some definite goal, such as improvement of size, shape, and color of bloom, better quality of plant, or change in the blooming time. Hybridizing solely for increase of stock may be a slow and tedious process, culminating in disappointment. Many hybrids show no improvement over the parents and are often inferior to them. A knowledge of genetics helps in determining the probability of certain results. Genetic scientists find the life cycle of most orchids too long for practical experimentation and usually confine themselves to plants that reproduce quickly. The plant to be used as pod parent should be well established with good root growth in fresh medium before seed bearing is risked. To bear a seed pod is hard on the mother plant and often jeopardizes its life. The planned end-result should be worth this risk. Having well in mind the purpose of crossing, and the parent plants for this purpose selected, the grower must settle the matter of proper procedure. Both parent flowers should have been on the plant long enough to be well matured, although the flower on the pod parent may mature further after crossing. If the pollen flower

84 has not matured, the crossing will be sterile. Many growers make the mistake of thinking that aseptic methods need begin only with the planting of the seed. Precautions should begin at the very beginning, with the parent flowers, for contamination may occur at the time the pollen is collected. A sharpened stick or toothpick is sometimes used to remove ripe pollen from the male flower and place it in the stigmatic cavity of the female. If the pollen is touched by the hand, unfriendly fungi may very likely be introduced. The preferred method of collecting pollen is to use a sharpened glass rod or a platinum wire that can be quickly sterilized and cooled. It is better to use pollen immediately, but when expedient it can be saved for a flower blooming at a later date. The pollen may be placed first on a piece of clean white paper and then in a sterile vial or plastic capsule, which may be kept in the electric refrigerator for some months. The vial should be corked but not too tightly sealed, to prevent condensation and the entrance of fungus. Some hydra ting agent, such as calcium chloride, may be used in the container. The pollen should be suspended over, not touching, the crystals. After pollination the plant should be dried out a bit and removed to a more sheltered part of the greenhouse. If the pollinated flower begins to droop and the petals curl protectively over the vital organs, fertilization has probably taken placealthough sometimes wilting results from a disturbance of the stigmatic cavity. If fertilization has taken place, the ovary (behind and slightly below the flower) will begin to swell. The wilted petals will probably continue to dry and eventually drop off. If the petals become wet, however, they may rot and should be trimmed off. The seed-bearing plant should be treated moderately, but with particular care in watering to avoid chilling at night. If the plant is healthy and well established, with good root growth in fresh medium, it should survive the ordeal. The drain of strength on the pod-bearing plant may be obviated by supplementary feedings of a very weak well-rotted manure solution or one of the chemical

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formulas. There seems to be a phosphorus deficiency at this time. Any supplementary feeding should be done cautiously; some experienced growers advocate that it be done not more than once a month. Cattleya seed takes from nine months to a year or longer to mature. Experience shows that the longer the pod takes to mature the more virile and fertile the seed. Maturation of the pod before nine months usually indicates infertile or poor seed. As the fruit or seed pod approaches maturation it becomes yellow and dry in appearance, the ribs begin to stretch at the seams, and, when fully dry, the pod bursts and the seeds are ejected. The grower should watch these signs and, at the proper time, tie a paper bagnot wax, which may cause condensationlightly over the pod to catch the seed and protect it from contamination. Fertility of the seed may be determined microscopically, although there are other means of determination. Fertile seed, under the microscope, appears browner than infertile seed and reveals dark blurs. Fertile seeds will also separate while the infertile ones cling together in a cottony mass. It is best to plant seed immediately, although it is possible to keep it under refrigeration, in the same manner as pollen, for a more convenient planting time. Cattleya seed has been reported to have been stored in this way for two or three years. A shorter period is probably more safe for other orchids. Absolute cleanliness should be the rule in planting. Hands and tools should be washed in a 20 per cent Clorox solution. If possible, seed should also be sterilized, as contamination is invariably easier to prevent than to cure. Seed may be sterilized with a fair degree of success in 3 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide. A much stronger solution (30 per cent) has been used without damage to seed, but this is too tricky for the layman's use. Most growers prefer calcium hypochlorite, 10 gm. to 140 cc. of distilled water, filtered. Seed may be exposed to this solution for fifteen to twenty minutes without harm, but a longer exposure will yellow the seed. Rapid whirling or shaking of the container holding seeds and ster-

86 ilizing agent will make certain that the solution washes over each seed. Several new sterilizing procedures have recently been suggested. Walter Carter of Hawaii, writing in the Brazilian journal Orquidea, reports success in sterilizing seed by wetting with Valsol OT (1-1000) and then using 1-2500 bichloride of mercury in the vial. K. L. McAlpine, in Orchid Review, recommends adding 1.0 cc. of hydrogen peroxide C.P. 30 per cent to 1000 cc. to the adjusted medium prepared for planting. After this is thoroughly mixed no further precautions seem necessary. Antiseptic containers should be provided after sterilization is completed. Test tubes are satisfactory in a number of respects. Medium is placed in the tubes and the tubes laid on their side to provide more planting surface. The advantages of the small tubes are that part of the seed may be saved for separate planting in case contamination spoils one planting and, since the tubes are on their sides while planting takes place, that there is less opportunity for fungus spores to fall into them. A major disadvantage is that a small tube may not hold enough medium to nourish the seed over a protracted period. Erlenmeyer flasks, also widely used, provide generous planting surfaces. Whatever the container, it should have been sterilized in a pressure cooker or autoclave for thirty minutes at fifteen pounds pressure. Oven sterilization over a period of three successive days will kill dormant spores if the pressure method is not practicable. There is wide variation in the kinds of planting enclosures used, the choice often being determined by practical considerations. Some growers find a case with a glass front both satisfactory and economical. Such a case, with armholes at the sides so that work can be done under aseptic conditions, prevents contamination from air or breath and yet gives good visibility. Such elaborate precautions may be obviated by the sterilizing procedure suggested by McAlpine. It is still advisable, however, to spray lightly if an ordinary room is used. Fungi spores travel on dust particles floating in the air, and spraying causes them to fall to the floor.

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New methods of air-conditioning and electronic dust removal will simplify this problem in the future. The planting medium must next be provided. A wide choice of media is available. Orchid magazines carry names of firms that sell the necessary chemicals as well as prepared products. Some of the media available, such as Difco Bacto Orchid Agar, require only the addition of water. Many growers, however, prefer to make their own mixtures. Among formulas that can be used the following are reliable and highly satisfactory:
Knudson's Solution 'B' Calcium nitrate, Ca(NOs)24H 2 O 1 gm. Monobasic potassium phosphate, K2HPO4 0.25 gm. Magnesium sulfate, MgS0 4 + 7H 2 O 0.25 gm. Ammonium sulfate, (XH 4 )2SO 4 0.50 gm. Ferric phosphate, FePO 4 + 411*0 .0.025 gm. Sucrose (cane sugar) 20 gm. Agar 15 gm. Distilled water 1 liter Add 0.1 normal hydrochloric acid (HC1)enough to bring solution to a pH of 4.8-5.2. Knudson's Solution 'C Calcium nitrate, Ca.(NO3)24H 2 O 1 gm. Monobasic potassium phosphate, K2HPO4 0.25 gm. Magnesium sulfate, MgSO 4 + 7H 2 O 0.25 gm. Ammonium sulfate, (NH 4 )oSO 4 0.50 gm. Ferrous sulfate, FeSO 4 + 7H 2 O 0.025 gm. Manganese sulfate, MnS0 4 + 4H 2 O 0.0075 gm. Sucrose 20 gm. Agar 12-15 gm. Distilled water 1 liter Add 0.1 normal hydrochloric acid (HCI)enough to bring the pH up to 4.8 to 5.2.

The agar should be cut into strips (it may come that way) and dissolved in a small amount of water in a double boiler. It should be watched and stirred to avoid burning. The nutrients should be dissolved in a small amount of distilled water and then added to the remainder of the water. While this mixture is kept just below the boiling point, the agar and sugar should be added. The whole

should be mixed thoroughly, tested for pH, and poured into the waiting flasks or tubes. Use of a funnel will prevent the mixture from adhering to the mouth and sides of the receptacle. The flasks or tubes are then sterilized in the autoclave, pressure cooker, or oven. It is wise to test the pH again after sterilizing. If the medium is then too acid, a few drops of o.i normal sodium hydroxide will provide proper compensation. Tests for acidity may be made with indicator strips of nitrazene papers, a potentiometer, or a La Motte Block Comparator. The materials are now ready for the final operation of 'planting.' A platinum needle or loop, which may be readily sterilized in flame, is ideal, but a long-handled spoon, a pipette, or an eyedropper are all satisfactory. Sterilized seed is floated in a vial containing a bit of distilled water. The seeds (so tiny that they have the appearance of powder) are taken up with the tool and scattered over the planting surface in the flask or tube. A rolled stopper of cotton (flamed to kill fungus) should have been kept in the mouth of the flask, being removed only long enough to permit the seed to be placed inside. It may be necessary to rotate the flask rapidly to spread the seed evenly in the medium. Seed should not be allowed to fall on the sides of the flask, and crowding should be avoided. After the seed has been introduced, the cotton stopper should again be flamed over a Bunsen burner and the mouth of the flask and the stopper wrapped lightly with paper. The flasks should be kept at an even temperature of not lower than 650 F. nor higher than 8o F. A temperature of somewhat above the 65 minimum is most desirable. The flasks should be kept by themselves in some kind of an enclosure (a Wardian case in the greenhouse is excellent) where they may be protected from sun and excessive moisture and moved as little as possible. This stage of culture will last from eight months to over a year. When incipient roots up to a quarter of an inch long appear, the seedlings are ready for repotting. Polypodium seems a very congenial medium. A mixture of shredded Polypodium and ver-

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miculite is ideal. This is patted damply and firmly (although extremes in both are to be avoided) into two- or three-inch pots. The tiny plants can be shaken onto a clean Turkish towel or into a saucer of clean water, separated gently from remaining agar, dried slightly, and placed in some regular order in the pots. Small holes may be prepared in the medium by using a small, sharpened stick or tweezers. The root end is placed in the hole and the medium gently pressed around it. Each pot will accommodate from twenty to twenty-five baby orchids. As the seedlings do best in the company of others, we have the 'community pot.' These pots may be put in a shaded part of the warm greenhouse, although some cautious growers prefer to seclude them in a Wardian case. Community pots in the greenhouse may be covered lightly with a pane of glass, but simple protection from the sun appears to be sufficient. They must not become chilled or too wet, for they will damp off. It is disastrous, however, to allow them to dry out, as dried-out seedlings will disappear overnight. As the seedlings are delicate, naturally all precautions against snails, slugs, thrips, and aphis must be taken. From this point on, success with the seedlings lies in keeping them moving right along. They should be repotted at least every eight months. The second potting may take them directly to an Osmunda medium in either thumb pots or other community pots containing ten to fifteen plants. When this move has been completed, they may be treated like adult plants, with only a bit more attention to watering, potting, and air conditions. Growing orchids from seed is an arduous task, but growers who have had the experience will attest that blooms so produced bring a feeling of accomplishment unique in orchid culture.

9
Artificial FeedingGravel Culture
THE ability of the apparently inadequate root system of the orchid to procure its necessary life-giving minerals from the most improbable sources is a minor but happy miracle. These minerals are nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, and carbon. Combined, by photosynthesis, with proper amounts of hydrogen and oxygen, these minerals sustain all plant life. The areas where orchids are usually found seem to provide these minerals only in the most minute quantities, which are slowly released. The exact sources vary with the type of orchid. Orchids, as we have seen, are divided into groups defined largely by the method of securing food. The two major groupings are terrestrial and epiphytic. There are sub-divisions into semi-terrestrial and semi-epiphytic, but in a consideration of feeding we need be concerned only with the major groupings. The terrestrial group, as the name indicates, grow in soil. Many North American orchids are found in shadowy, marshy, rich ground or in springy mountain meadows near streams. Cypripediums, Spiranthes, and Habenaria are among this group. They are exquisite even when tiny, but resist all efforts to domesticate them. Tropical Cypripediums are also terrestrial but are successfully grown under greenhouse conditions. Cymbidiums, native to many areas of the Far East, make up a large and valuable portion of the terrestrial group. They are often found on trees or logs, a
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position that really classifies them as semi-terrestrial. Wherever found, they send out long, searching roots into the leaf mold at the base of the tree or under the log. When fed richly, their heavy, round, corky roots attain great size and length. The soil in which they thrive varies exceedingly and it is comparatively easy to satisfy them under cultivation. Growers who disagree on all other points of culture see eye-to-eye on the advisability of supplementary feeding of Cymbidiums. The epiphytic group includes Cattleyas, Phalaenopsis, Vandas, Dendrobiums, Laelias, and Oncidiums. Large numbers of epiphytic orchids, which obtain sustenance from chemicals in the moisture of the air, are found perched like nesting birds in the crotches of jungle trees. They usually send out two types of roots: one flat and straplike, that wind around the host for support and cling so tightly that they must be broken to release the hold; and the other, more flexible, that dangle in the air or penetrate the accumulated debris of dust, rotting leaves, and bird lime in the tree crotch. Frequent tropical rains slowly release available food materials and frequent drying winds aerate the roots and prevent any unhealthy chemical development. Plentiful sunshine steps up the process of photosynthesis and the orchid thrives until the dry months bring an enforced rest period. Not all epiphytic orchids are good subjects for supplementary-feeding experiments. Cattleyas grow so well in greenhouses on a simple diet of Osmunda and Polypodium that, as long as they are properly repotted every two or three years, any need of extra nourishment is unlikely. Phalaenopsis, on the other hand, grow and bloom so prolifically that they soon exhaust their food supply. Since they do not respond well to repotting, there is a real need for artificial feeding. The slowness of orchid growth, the long periods of plant inactivity, and the difficulty of raising orchids from seed long ago led growers to experiment with artificial feeding. The results were often confusing and, more frequently, discouraging. There were hopes that the growth rate could be speeded up, the rest period dispensed with, and the production of flowers increased if a proper

adjustment between minerals, moisture, aeration, and light could be worked out. Although if some of the wilder hopes have been dimmed, there is still reason to believe that much can be accomplished. The peculiar roots of the orchid permit absorption when food and moisture are available, and prohibit an excess of transpiration during drought. The adjustment of artificial feeding to these roots seems to be a problem for the scientist with a knowledge of chemistry and a feeling for growing plants. But amateurs have successfully invaded the field. They have shown that one of the most important factors of artificial feeding is an intelligent application of conclusions drawn from close observation of the effects of such feeding. Some of these conclusions are that a plant that has plenty of light but whose leaves remain yellow probably needs iron; that too much nitrogen produces a beautiful green growth but may slow down flower production; and that precipitation of chemicals in the medium will injure the plant after a short period of well-being. As has been shown, the feeding of terrestrial orchids is not complicated. Food may simply be added to the potting material as needed. Foods commonly used are bone meal, blood meal, leaf mold, rat's nest, manure (well-rotted and carefully used to prevent burning), and any of the nutrient formulas (such as Knudson's 'B' or 'C') or the commercial preparations specifically recommended for orchids, such as Plant-Chem. Mr. Robert Casamajor of Southern California has worked out an elaborate calendar for Cymbidium feeding.1 He feeds regularly every two weeks, using a stronger solution during active growth than after flower growths appear, and maintaining a pH 4.9-5.0. Artificial feeding of epiphytes is a much more complex problem. After first being discouraged by the great casualty rate among tropical orchids that were treated like earth plants, early growers hit upon the very successful method of potting them in Polypo1

Orchid Digest, March-May 1946.

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dium, Osmunda, tree fern, or English peat. It is doubtful if they knew why these media were good. The alternate watering and drying out of the potting material released the stored food and dried out the roots, preventing rotting. In other words, the roots were aerated and could breathe. The conditions of their native habitat were sufficiently approximated. As it is the nature of man never to be satisfied, however, growers still felt that supplementary feeding might accelerate growth and flower production, but found in the experiment that Osmunda and Polypodium are no longer ideal media. They break down rapidly and become sour. Roots begin to rot and the plant suffers. Eventually there is a concentration of chemicals, which even frequent flushings with clear water will not wash away. The very special technique of gravel or Haydite culture may be the answer to this problem of feeding epiphytes. Both are inert and form a good base for the roots that support the plant. They have the added advantage of providing excellent drainage and aeration. Well-washed quartz gravel has been used in many sizes. Many growers use large gravel at the bottom of the container with a layer of fine gravel on top to provide a better clinging surface for roots. Haydite is a shaly deposit that has been subjected to heat at high pressure and has expanded and become porous. Both gravel and Haydite have their advocates. No conclusive results have been published on gravel culture of adult Cattleyas. Growers who have experimented do not seem sure of the results and are inclined to hedge when asked about them. Many commercial growers have tried gravel with Cattleyas and then abandoned the idea. It is not known whether this is because the plants did not thrive or because the practice did not bring results commensurate with the labor and expense involved. Cattleyas do so well in Osmunda that further experiment may be pointless. More positive results have been noted with Cattleya seedings and Phalaenopsis. The latter, with their flat strap-like roots and spreading habit of growth, do particularly well in gravel or Haydite.

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Recent experiments, performed under the direction of Dr. R. A. Davis at the University of California at Berkeley, have been undertaken to clarify the needs of the orchid plant under cultivation. The orchid, while highly evolved in many respects, is singularly weak in two important factorsthe seed and the roots. The orchid root is very inefficient as compared to that of plants like rye or wheat. These inadequate roots must not only provide nourishment but also air. Controlled experiments revealed the following:
Experimental condition Roots placed in aerated tubes with 1" of solution, root tips just above the solution Roots in tubes filled with solution and vigorously aerated. Roots immersed Root tips just above solution level in filled unaerated tubes Roots in tubes filled with solution. Roots im mersed, unaerated Average growth after 5 weeks 21.5 cm. 17 cm. 4.4 cm. 3.4 cm.

The conclusion is that the root needs air as much as food, and that a medium allowing access to both is ideal.2 Haydite or gravel culture may be the answer. Many other state universities, as well as the Missouri Botanical Garden under Dr. David Fairburn and Orchid Research under Dr. Henry Eversole, have been doing interesting and valuable work on the problem of orchid nutrients. The results of the work of Dr. Fairburn may be summarized as follows:3 1. Hybrid Cattleya seedlings grow well in most nutrient solu tions. 2. Haydite was superior to cinders and Meramec gravel as a rooting medium. 3. Seedlings damped off or rotted if the gravel, cinders, or Hay dite were kept too wet (the need of the root to breathe, again).
Orchid Digest, winter 1946 and March-April 1947. See particularly Dr. David C. Fairburn, 'Gravel Culture of Orchids,' Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin, October 1944.
s 2

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The greatest success in Dr. Fairburn's experiments was with seedlings, particularly Cattleyas. Adult Cattleyas were found to make good root growth but poor top growth. Seedlings made two, three, and even four growths per year, apparently taking no rest and with the plant healthy and vigorous. Roots were extended and strong. Seedlings bloomed one to two years earlier than check groups in Osmunda. Pests did not bother the gravel-cultured plants. Perhaps most important was that root breakage, seemingly unavoidable in potting and repotting plants in ordinary media, was entirely lacking in gravel potting, and this seemed to be a major factor in the uninterrupted growth of the plants. The formula used at the Missouri Botanical Garden was that for flask culture of orchid seed, except that the iron content was increased to 0.25 gm. to each liter and a pH of 5.0 was maintained by the addition of phosphoric acid. Plants were placed in a metal tank carefully painted with two coats of asphaltum (Grade A) paint, as chemical reaction on metal in the tank or from pipe or fittings can upset the balance of the formula and may harm the plants. Tanks were filled with Haydite, one-fourth- to onesixth-inch grade. Cattleya seedlings, flooded with the solution every other day, responded magnificently. Gravel, tried later, was felt to be better because it was less absorbent than Haydite. Later work at the Garden has shown success in transplanting seedlings directly from flasks into five-inch bulb pans with coarse, well-washed Haydite in the bottom of the pans and a topping of very fine granite or Haydite put through a one-eighth-inch mesh screen. Filled pans are sterilized in a pressure cooker to kill any fungus that might attack the tiny seedlings. Plantlets are placed in the fine gravel about a half-inch apart. These community pots are then placed in a ventilated Wardian case and sprayed whenever the gravel becomes dry. Water should be acidified, if no peat is used, to pH 5.0 by adding phosphoric acid. Pans are watered once a week with nutrient solution. After remaining in the community pot for six months to a year, they can be transplanted to either gravel or Osmunda.

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W. B. Olsen of Berkeley, California, an experienced grower who has been particularly successful with artificial feeding of Phalaenopsis, reports that he does not add iron to the original formula, but, if plants need it, one dram or teaspoon of soluble ferric phosphate is added to fifty-five gallons of the formula.4 Usually the formula picks up enough iron from the pipe or fittings. In order to keep his formula balanced, once a month Mr. Olsen adds one-half of the chemical formula to the solution in the storage tank. Every three months he empties gravel from the containers, repaints with two coats of asphaltum paint, replaces gravel and plants (choosing a bright day to insure no set-back to the plants), and flushes the containers to within one inch of the top of the gravel. The solution is left in the containers for three or four hours and is then drained off and returned to the storage tank. Water is added to the storage tank to compensate for evaporation. The formula is flushed through the containers whenever the gravel seems dryabout every seven to ten days in spring, every three days in summer, and every two or three weeks in late fall and winter. This time would vary according to climatic conditions in the area. This grower has used Knudson's solutions, the Missouri Botanical Garden formula, and Plant-Chem, but modifies all of them by using calcium sulphate instead of calcium nitrate and ammonium phosphate instead of potassium phosphate. Success in the gravel culture of orchids requires: 1. A well-balanced nutrient solution. 2. A well-aerated inert medium such as gravel or Haydite in which plants can find firm footing. 3. Inert containers. Clay pots or cement or metal tanks may be used. Metal must be painted with inert material such as asphaltum paint to prevent chemical reactions between metal and nutrients. 4. Proper account must be taken of the possibility of pipe or fittings freeing too large a concentration of iron, copper, man ganese, or other metal, thus upsetting the balance of the formula. 5. Means of washing out the gravel at regular intervals must be 4 Orchid Digest, May-June 1948.

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provided to prevent the building up of chemical concentrations harmful to the plant. 6. Ability to adjust pll and balance of the nutrient to suit light conditions. This ability will have to be based on observation and experience. 7. Careful checking of pH and formula balance at regular in tervals. 8. Heat and moisture modulated by air conditions to the needs of the species involved. 9. Close observation of the effect of the solutions on the plant as evinced by texture and color of leaves and strength and growth of the roots. The grower who watches the response of plants to the methods employed will be well rewarded. Success in growing orchids depends on finding the method of culture best suited to utilize the inadequate root system to the highest possible degree. To date, gravel culture seems to be that method of culture.

IO

Hybrids of the Orchid family

BY DEFINITION hybrid means the offspring of two animals or plants of different races, varieties, species, or genera. The reproductive processes of the orchid are such that, with few exceptions, the genera do not intermingle readily, so the generic lines remain uniquely pure. It has been observed that in the few cases where, under natural conditions, members of the same orchid genus united the resulting hybrid was usually superior to either parent. An example of this is Cattleya Dowiana crossed with Cattleya gigas resulting in Cattleya Hardyana, a fine round flower of gigas mauve enriched with the iridescence of the Dowiana (yellow with dark red lip). The purposes of the grower in developing hybrids have been to increase the stock, to increase the size and number of flowers, to change and improve the color of flowers, to improve the growth habits of the plant, and to throw strength into a weak line. Constant experimentation in the production of hybrids has been going on for many years. Some genera have been found to be definitely incompatible, but many others are cross fertile and can be made to produce interesting, often remarkable, flowers. The crosses between genera are referred to as bi-generic. The most famous bi-generic cross is important for purely historic and horticultural reasons, having no commercial value. This cross was Epiphronitis Veitchii (Epidettdrum radicans, scarlet species of Mexico) with Sophronitis grandiEora (bright orange species of
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Brazil), recorded by Veiteh and judged by the Royal Horticultural Society to be the outstanding hybrid of 1890, receiving the First Class Certificate (F.C.C.). Crosses of three genera are tri-generic. The most popular and famous is the hybrid of much commercial value, the Brassolaeliocattleya, combining the crisp texture of the narrow-petaled Laelia with the more rounded Cattleya and adding the only outstanding feature of Brassavola, a very full, showy lip. Even four-generic crosses have gone into some hybrids. The combination of names in such cases is so unwieldy that coined names are used: e.g. Potinara referring to the hybrid of Brassavola, Laelia, Cattleya, and the brilliantly colored Sophronitis. As has been noted, certain genera will not cross with others. The failure of a plant to produce fertile seed when crossed with another plant may be the result of a difference in chromosome number, although there are many other possible causes. Many inquiries are under way in this highly technical field of research, but published information is very limited. 1 The failure of a genus to cross with another does not, however, entirely rule out hybridization. Cymbidiums do not combine with other genera, but crosses within the genus have come in for their share of glory, the progeny being much improved in form, shape, texture, and clearness of color. Hybrids between species of the same genera, such as the Cymbidium crosses, are called interspecific hybrids as distinct from the intergeneric variety. Calanthe Dominyi, the first orchid hybrid produced under greenhouse conditions, a union of C. Masuca and C. furcata, was developed in 1853 by a grower for Veiteh and Sons at the suggestion of John Harris, an Exeter surgeon. The production of hybrids has, since that time, attained such proportions as to make listing and classification a task of the first magnitude. Sanders 7
1 Dr. Gustav Mehlquist, of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, has published cytological findings on Cypripediums and is now reported working on Cymbidiums. Dr. Robert Duncan has published articles on chromosome numbers in Cypripediums in Amer. Jour. Bot. 32:506 and Orchid Digest, Sept.-Oct. 1947-

10O

Complete List of Orchid Hybrids, published in 1947 under the sponsorship of the American Orchid Society, requires 566 pages to list registered hybrids through 1 January 1946. There was no space in that fat volume for description or data on culture. The interested grower must compile his own records. Material may be obtained from personal observation, from conversation with fellow growers and experts, and from bulletins of the many orchid societies and occasional articles in horticultural bulletins such as those issued by the Missouri Botanical Gardens and New York Botanical Garden. Much information may also be derived from the catalogues of commercial orchid establishments. As one of them has commented, most growers 'are too busy growing orchids to find time to write,' but the exceptions to this rule give some insight into the problems for which a solution is sought through hybridization. Everest McDade has published interesting material on changing the blooming period of certain genera, particularly the Cattleya and allied groups, so that the popular whites come in the busy season from Christmas through June rather than from July to December.2 His conclusion is that, if the blooming season in the hybrid is to be influenced, it is necessary to choose parents with a known, dependable, dominant blooming season. Cattleya Mossiae, commonly called the Easter orchid, has the tendency to postpone summer blooms till fall and winter blooms till spring. Cattleya Mossiae Reineckiana, white with a colored lip, or some of its more available hybrids is of value as a parent because it can be depended upon to bloom in May or June. Cattleya Mossiae Wagnerii, the pure white form, or certain of its hybrids pulls progeny toward May and June. Cattleya gigas is used to advance reluctant bloomers to the desirable season from December to June. The securing of yellow color is another problem that has been tackled through hybridization. Yellow is desirable in an orchid flower but difficult to obtain. The pollen of yellow-flowering or2 See Orchid Digest, July-Aug. 1947, and the American Orchid Society Bulletin, May 1948.

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chids is frequently infertile, and even many of the yellow hybrids seem lacking in some vital element, producing crippled growths. Yellow color derives chiefly from Cattleya Dowiana aurea, which is of clear golden tone, with a rich velvety maroon or crimson lip and splashy gold stripes in the throat. Also used are Cattleya bicolor, a greenish-bronze species of Brazil, and Laelia tenebrosa, with purplish-brown sepals and petals and a purple lip. The latter in some instances gives a bronzy sheen or coppery overlay to a dominantly purple flower, he. luminosa aurea (Cattleya Dowiana aurea x Laelia tenebrosa), by Charlesworth in 1901, has been frequently used in hybridizing with a pleasing iridescent result. Perhaps the greatest triumph of the hybridizers has been the Brassolaeliocattleya. The Cattleya had been found to cross most readily with Brassavola Digbyana, insignificant except for an extralarge frilled lip, to produce well-shaped flowers with a full, fringed lip. The Brassocattleya, in spite of size and beauty of lip and color, frequently has the disadvantage of 'starry,' narrow sepals and petals as well as poor texture, so that it does not keep well. It also rarely blooms with more than one flower, although there are outstanding exceptions, such as Be. Mme Charles Maron (B. Digbyana x C. gigas). By adding Laelia to the Brassocattleya perfection was reached. The Laelia stands firmly erect, and its influence was to strengthen the weak dorsal of the simpler cross. The size of the resulting Brassolaeliocattleya is enormous and the color range wide. Many of the modern Brassolaeliocattleyas are so full and round that the hand can be hidden by a single flower. The grower will be enabled to work toward those qualities he most values by keeping careful records of his hybrids. In compiling such a record the following suggestions may prove of value. 1. On first receiving a choice hybrid, record the name, par entage, grower, and, if possible, the hybridizer and the date of hybridizing. 2. From personal observation record the date of blooming, quality, color, texture, and number of flowers. 3. By comparing notes with other growers, note possible varia tion in color and blooming time.

1O2

An exciting phase of orchid study is the tracing of the family tree of any given hybrid. Occasionally the direct antecedents of a hybrid cannot be determined, but usually the original species' parents can be ascertained and will provide a useful key to the future of the hybrid, its appearance, habits, and successful culture. There are several types of family tree. These examples should give the reader an idea of how a family tree might be prepared in any particular instance. The family tree of the primary hybrid is rather simple.
Epiphronitis Veitchii Epidendrum radicans (Tiny spray type of flower, growing weed rank, bright red.) Veitch, 1890 x Sophronitis grandiflora (Flowers 3 (Small, bright, orangeinches, scarlet, scarlet flower.) orange-yellow lip, one-flowered.) Cattleya Dowiana (Flower golden yellow, large, Cattleya Fabia maroon-red lip, velvety.) Veitch, 1894 x Cattleya labiata (Flower mauve, large, (Large, round, dark purple with iridescent round petals and sepals, good lip.) sheen.)

Secondary hybrids are more complicated.

P. amabilis (Large, white, yellow keel and spotted red on lip.) x P. Gilles Gratiot P. Rimestadiana (var. of amabilis, Phalaenopsis La Canada stronger, blooms all year.) X P. Gilles Gratiot Orchid Research (Large, round, white.) x .P Jeanne a"Arc P. Rimestadiana C. insigne (Flowers whitish, C. Dryad flushed, lined and spotted with red.) Cymbidium Zebra X x Sanders, 1925 C. Parishii Sanderae (White flower (Pink and shades of 4 inches, lip 2 yellow keels, cenrose.) c insigne ter yellow, richly marked with purple.)

The pedigrees of some famous plants read like lines of royalty. Cymbidium Swallow, descended from the very distinguished C. Alexanderi, Westonbirt var. (F.C.C., R.H.S.) and the equally

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distinguished C. Pauwelsii, Comte d'Hemptinne var. (F.C.C., R.H.S.), has a bewildering number of excellent qualities. Among them are its variation and purity of color, whether it be cream, flush-pink, or yellow-pink, or fine whitethe latter surprising in view of the fact that the Pauwelsii is intensely colored. The shape and texture are round and crisp. The habit of growth is strong. Cymbidium Alexanderi, the first parent, was developed in 1911 by Sir George Holford of Westonbirt (home of many famous crosses), Tetbury, Gloucester, England. Cymbidium eburneoLowianum, hybrid of eburneum (white and creamy-white, deep yellow disc on lip), and Lowianum (yellowish-green with cream lip, rich crimson border) were combined with insigne (whitish, suffused pink, lip dotted dark crimson, and all flushed crimsonpurple) to form a parent of such outstanding worth that it is world famous. Cymbidium Pauwelsii, developed by Pauwels in 1911, while of simpler pedigree (insigne x Lowianum), is also widely known as a satisfactory parent. A third type of family tree is more complicated, as illustrated by the ancestry of one of the Brassolaeliocattleya.
Brassolaeliocattleya Emilia H. G. Alexander, 1940 (Flower, sepals, petals, and lip, mauve, double-frilled lip, large, crisp texture) Blc. Ursula Brassavola Digbyana (Flowers small, greenish-white, extremely large
lip)

Lc. The Moor Lc. Sargon Lc. Canhamiana ' C Mossiae -

Purpie but with spidery petals.)

(Rlch

C. Hardyana C. Dowiana (Gold with mauve throat.) C. gigas (Mauve, fine shape, darker lip.)

Lc. Lustre C. Lueddemaniana Lc. Callisloglossa (Amethyst with white lip.) ,__________ . _________ , C. gigas L. purpurata

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Some specific developments in the hybrid field are interesting enough to merit brief review. A great deal has been done in the development of fine Phalaenopsis hybrids. They are not of great number but are of outstanding quality. Gravel culture has been responsible for the growth of large round Phalaenopsis of complicated parentage. Phalaenopsis Altadena (P. La Canada x P. Psyche) and P. Winged Victory (P. Elizabethae x P. La Canada), by Orchid Research of California in 1946, are whites of extreme size, leathery texture, and round shape. Phalaenopsis Reve Rose (P. Algers x P. Schilleriana), by Veitch in 1932, is capable of producing flowers of dusky rose, lacking the veining considered unattractive in the pink Schilleriana. Phalaenopsis Gilles Gratiot (P. amabilis x P. Rimestadiana), by Dr. Gratiot in 1920, is a primary hybrid found in the background of many later hybrids. Among the hybrids showing great promise of improvement over the parents are the Odontonias. Odontoglossum crispum and its hybrids are spray flowers of outstanding texture, color, and beauty, but for some growers they present a problem in blooming. Similarly, Miltonia is a plant of fragile characteristics and difficult for some growers to treat successfully. Miltonia blooms, with the distinctive butterfly mask around the lip and throat of the pansy face, are of delicate beauty and unsurpassed color. The Odontonias resulting from the union of these two species retain the beauty of both and in some way have their life and growth habits strengthened so as to grow successfully in the Cattleya house. The Odontonias bloom from April to May. Many of the hybrids are sterile and, owing to the delicacy of the parent plants, seed is difficult to grow, so the plants are rare. Among the outstanding Odontonias, with parent plants and growers listed, are: Odontonia Avril Gay (M. Duchess of York x O. Serapis). Rosymauve to crimson-purple on white ground. Charlesworth. O. Arima (M. Nesta x O. Purple Queen). Sepals and petals chocolate-red; lip red and white with golden disc. Charlesworth. O. Alexandra (M. Merope x O. Crethus). Sepals and petals purple; lip white spotted with red. Charlesworth.

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O. Cardinalis (M. Lyceana x O. Purple Queen). Petals cardinal red tipped with white; lip white with red spots. Charlesworth. O. Tyana (Odtna. Nesta x O. St. James). Petals mahogany-red, tipped and spotted white; white-dusted lip. Black and Flory. O. Olga (Odontonia Thisbe x O. crispum). White with chestnut-red lip. Charlesworth.

Appendix A
A LIST OF ORCHIDS

A survey of Sanders' Orchid Guide, L. H. Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, B. S. Williams' Orchid Grower's Manual, and Schlechter's Die Orchideen produces the following list of important orchids, compiled for ready reference by the amateur. The aids to pronunciation are given to facilitate the study. There are other accepted pronunciations; ideas on such subjects differ as widely as do those on methods of culture.
Cattleya Dowiana (catt'lee-a dow'ee-an'a or dow'ee-ay'na). Habitat Costa Rica, a warm, moist region. Blooms July to September. Parent of many gorgeous hybrids with its golden-yellow sepals and petals flushed crimson; rich, deep red-purple lip flushed and striped with gold. Imparts a sheen to its progeny, prominent among which is C. lustre. C. Gaskelliana (gas-kell-ee-an'a or ay'na). Habitat Venezuela, up to 6000 feet. Blooms July, August, September. Similar to Mossiae. Decided touch of yellow at the throat. Fragrant. C. gigas (jl'gas), also named Warscewiczii (war'see-wick'see-ee or eye). Habitat Colombia. Blooms June, July, or later. The prima donna of the genus in its desirability, but temperamentally difficult to bloom (an inherited characteristic of the progeny). Extra-fine, large flowers, all shades of orchid with a deeper crimson-purple lip. The large white spots in the throat, like eyes, are a dominant factor in the hybrids and enhance their beauty. Very prolific. C. Hardyana (hard'ee-an-a or ay-na). Habitat Colombia. Blooms August. Natural hybrid of C. gigas and C. Dowiana var. aurea. Lacks the crimson flush in the petals and sepals and has more gold in the throat than the
107

io8 species. A fine handsome flower; lip marked with the gigas eyes and the vivid magenta and gold of Dowiana aurea. The hybrid is written thus: C. gigas C. Hardyana x C. Dowiana var. aurea C. labiata autumnalis vera. Habitat Brazil. Blooms in the fall months. Flowers very large, rose-lavender; with rosy-purple lip, frilled, with yellow at the throat. C. Mendellii (men'dell-ee or eye). Habitat Colombia. Blooms April to June. Large flowers of lavender shades; darker lip. C. Mossiae (moss'ee-ee or eye). Habitat Venezuela. Blooms April through August. Large flowers, varying through the orchid shades, tinged yellow; some white in the throat. Has a characteristic mottled coloring in the throat, which is predominant in many of the progeny. Has many fine varieties, including: C. Mossiae var. Wagneri. Pure white; frequently used as a fine parent. C. Perdvaliana (pur'see-val'ee-an-a or ay-na). Habitat Venezuela, 8 to 14,000 feet in elevation. Blooms in December. Lavender sepals and petals; lip fringed and deep red-purple; with handsome gold markings in the throat. This latter characteristic is predominant. Flowers are not large but prolific. C. Schroederae (shrow'der-ee or eye). Habitat Colombia. Blooms March to April. Similar to Trianae but with darker, frilled lip and yellow throat. Fragrant. Many fine varieties. C. Trianae (tree'an-ee or try'ay-nee; named after Dr. Triana, it really should be Trianaei, but the awkward pionunciation has brought Trianae into common usage). Habitat Colombia, up to 8000 feet in the Andes. Blooms December through March. Famous as the 'Christmas bloomer.' Flowers large, ranging through the orchid shades; frequently yellow tints at the throat. Has handsome alba variety. C. Warneri (war'ner-ee or eye). Habitat Brazil. Blooms June and July. Resembles labiata autumnalis vera in all but time of flowering.

Although the labiates are much sought for their breeding possibilities, the remainder of the Cattleya genus, although usually producing smaller, less showy flowers, are attractive and interesting also. The following are desirable in any amateur collection.
C. bicolor (buy'color). Habitat Brazil. Blooms September. Flowers pale green; purple lip and pink throat. C. Bowringiana (bow'rin-gee-an'a). Habitat Central America. Prolific. Similar to Skinneri. C. citrina (si-tree'na or si-try'na). Habitat Mexico. Blooms any time from May to August. A clear lemon-yellow, edged with white. Grown on a

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raft, it has a drooping (pendulous) habit of growth. The flower never opens beyond half-open bud shape. Spicy fragrance. C. Forbesii (forbes'ee-ee or eye). Habitat Brazil. Blooms June to September. Flowers greenish to yellow, whitish outside; yellow lip touched pink. Intermediate house. C. Loddigesii (lod'di-gez-ee or eye). Habitat Brazil. Blooms August, September. Four flowers to a stem, pink lavender; whitish outside lip, rose, flushed yellow. C. Skinneri (skin'ner-ee or eye). Habitat Costa Rica and Guatemala. Blooms March to June. Flowers not large; many on a spike; striking, brilliant rose-purple. Intermediate house. Laelia anceps (lee'lee-a or lie-leea an'seps). Habitat Mexico. A valued and variable species. Used frequently and satisfactorily with Cattleya as parent. Blooms December and January. Flower large, slenderly graceful, and of delicate but durable texture. Many lovely varieties, including alba. L. autumnalis. Habitat Mexico. Bloom late fall and early winter. Showy, fragrant, prolific. Lavender; white throat flushed pink, spotted purple with a touch of yellow. L. Gouldiana (goold'i-an'a). Habitat Mexico. A more brilliant autumnalis but considered a separate species. L. grandiflora (gran'di-flor-a), or majalis (ma-hal'iss). Habitat Mexico. Blooms June, July. Dwarf plant with startlingly large flowers for its size, sometimes six inches across. Pink lavender; lip marked mauve. L. purpurata (purr'purr-a-ta). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms May to July. Flowers large, with narrow, pink-lavender sepals; petals also narrow, darker, and rich dark purple; lip veined purple; decided yellow at throat. Good parent because of vigorous growth and strong color. Many fine varieties. Alba variety is pure white or has purple lip. L. superbiens (su-per'bi-ens). Habitat Mexico and Guatemala. Blooms December to February. Many blossoms to a stem; large sepals and petals rose fading at the base; lip veined with deep crimson and lined with yellow and deeper crimson. L. tenebrosa (ten'e-bro-sa), also called L. grandis var. tenebrosa. Habitat Guatemala. Blooms June, July. Flowers large, purplish-brown; deep purple lip. Used in hybridizing, this plant imparts a rich iridescent sheen to its progeny. L. xanthina (x-an-theen'a). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms June, July. Flowers large; sepals and petals clear yellow; front of throat white, flushed crimson-purple. Brassavola Digbyana (brassa-vo'la or bras-sav'o-la dig'bi-an'a). Habitat Honduras. Blooms during the winter months. Large flowers with spreading

110
petals and sepals of chartreuse green; elaborately fringed cream-white lip tipped with purple. The lovely large lip makes it a desirable parent. B. glauca (glaw'ka). Habitat Mexico and Guatemala. Blooms February, March. Plant compact with glaucous leaves (having the sheen of a light coat of whitewash or the iridescence of a plum). Flowers with greenish-yellow sepals and petals; lip expanded and pure white, with red streaks in the throat. Very fragrant. B. nodosa (no-dose'a). Habitat Central America. Flowers entirely white; narrow sepals and petals; heart-shaped lip. Has been used infrequently as a parent, Sanders listing it only four times.

The warm-growing evergreen Dendrobes include the following, to be accommodated in the warm house:
Dendrobium atro-violaceum (den-dro'bi-um atro'vee' or vie'o-lay'see-um). Habitat New Guinea. Blooms April, May. Flowers creamy-white, leathery, spotted deep purple; rich violet throat; greenish outside. Should be hung up to be seen properly. D. bigibbutn (bi-gib'bum). Habitat Australia. Blooms October to December. Handsome flowers rosy-purple, with broad petals. D. densiflorum (dense'i-flor'um). Habitat India, Moulmein. Blooms March to May. Similar to thyrsiflorum; flowers slightly larger and all orange-yellow. D. Farmeri (farm'er-ee or eye). Habitat India. Blooms April, May. Flowers delicate yellow, flushed pink. D. thyrsiflorum (thur'si-flor-um). Habitat Moulmein. Blooms spring. Flowers like Chinese hanging lanterns of gold and white.

The second division of the evergreen group of Dendrobiums coming from a higher elevation includes:
D. Dearei (dear'ee-eye or ee). Habitat the Philippines. Blooms July to September. Flowers pure white, tinged green at the throat. D. Formosum (for-mo'sum). Habitat India. Blooms August, September. Flowers large, with spade-shaped lip, white with rich gold at the throat. D. infundibulum (in-fun-dib'u-lum). Habitat Moulmein. Blooms June through August. Flowers large and white, with a touch of yellow at the throat. D. Jamesianum (james'ee-an-um). Habitat Moulmein. Blooming time varies. Nigro-hirsute (having dark hair-like projections on the stem) like infundibulum and Formosum. Flowers white, with, red streaks in the throat. D. Phalaenopsis (fay'len-op-sis or fay'lay'en-op-sis). Habitat the Philippines. Various blooming seasons. Flowers bloom singly along the stem; pinklavender tinged with purple; base of lip drawn in to form a sort of claw.

The following belong to the group of deciduous Dendrobiums and may be accommodated during resting in a cooler spot:

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D. aureum (or'ee-um). Habitat India, Assam, Ceylon, Java. Blooms October to March. Flowers golden, enhanced by velvety brown at the throat. Very fragrant. D. nobile (no'bill-eh). Habitat India and China. Blooms prolifically January to June. Flowers striking; white sepals and petals, ivory-shaded; rosypurple edges; a dark-red velvety spot in the throat. D. superbum (su-per'bum). Habitat the Philippines. Blooms spring. Flowers a warm purple. Fragrance of raspberry jam or rhubarb. D. Thwaitesii (D. Ainsworthii var. splendidissima grandiflorum x D. Wiganiae). A lovely golden hybrid with the velvety brown spot in the throat, having both aurem and signatum (a pure yellow species) in the background to bring out the richness of color. D. Wardianum (war-di-an'um or war-di-aye'num). Habitat Burma and Assam. Blooms May. Flowers white tipped with deep amethyst blotches; yellow disc on the lip; two dark red blotches at the throat. Oncidium candidum (on-sid'i-um can'dee-dum). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms August to November. The plant very small, bearing six flowers to a stem; white, tinted pink. O. crispum (crisp'um). Habitat Organ Mountains, Brazil. Blooms various times. Pseudobulbs on creeping rhizome bear two olive-green leaves and stout erect stems with 20 to 50 flowers, shiny brown, flecked yellow and red at the base. O. flexuosum (flex-u-o'sum). Habitat Peru. Blooms fall months. Very long scapes (stems) crowded with golden-yellow flowers, flecked brown. O. Kramerianum (kramer-i-an'um). Habitat Ecuador. Blooms similar to papilio but showier, the flowers being heavily margined in brown, the side sepals and bottom petal very wavy, the dorsal sepal and two side petals elongated to resemble butterfly feelers. O. Lanceanum (lance-ee-an'um). Habitat Trinidad and Guiana. Blooms summer. No pseudobulbs. Leaves very large, stiff, rough-textured, tending to spot; scapes bearing flowers in stiff bunch at the end; petals and sepals delicately waved and greenish-yellow, heavily barred with rosy-brown; lip deep violet. O. macranthum (ma-kran'thum). Habitat tropical America. Blooms spring and summer. Scapes up to 12 feet long; perhaps 75 flowers about 4 inches across. Crisp, wavy sepals, yellowish-brown; bright yellow petals; triangular purple lip. O. ornithorynchum (or'nith-or-in'kum). Habitat Mexico and Guatemala. Blooms summer. Many tiny, jewel-like flowers, rose-lavender; darker lip, crested yellow. Fragrant. O. papilio (pa-pill'i-o). Habitat West Indies. Blooming time varies. Many species of orchids lend themselves to descriptive names, like fly, dove, spider, et cetera; none is more fitting than this 'butterfly.' The pseudo-

112 bulbs are very compressed, mottled purplish, bearing a long scape, a flower appearing at the end as a preceding one dies. The sepals and petals are reddish-brown, barred yellow; lip canary-yellow. Long feelers add to the illusion of a gorgeous tropical insect. O. splendidum (splen'di-dum). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms autumn. Flowers 3 inches across, yellow-green with broad brown bands; kidney-shaped lip yellow. O. varicosum (var-i-co'sum). Habitat Brazil. Blooms autumn. Prolific with large flowers; petals and sepals dull green with brown bands; ornate, bright yellow lip. O. varicosum var. Rogersii (roj'ers-ee or eye). Most handsome and popular of the Oncidium genus. The lip is sometimes 2% inches across; coloring as in the type.

Native North American slippers include:

Cypripedium acaule (sip'ree-pea'dee-um a-call'ee). Habitat Minnesota. Blooms late spring. Flowers large; sepals and petals dark red-purple; lip veined rose-red. State flower. C. CaHfomicum. (cal-i-forn'i-cum). Habitat California Mountains. Blooms summer. Flowers yellow and brown; lip white, flushed and spotted brown. C. candidum (can'di-dum). Habitat eastern North America. Blooms May to June. Flowers small, bright green with an overtone of brown: lip white, with an inner pink flush. C. parviflorum (par-vi-flor'um). Habitat eastern North America, as far north as Newfoundland and as far south as Georgia. Blooms May to June. Flowers brown with golden-yellow lip. Fragrant. C. pubescens (pew-bess'ens). Habitat eastern North America. Blooms May to June. Flowers fairly large, greenish-brown; with a yellow-green lip, often softly flushed. C. spectabile (speck-tab'ill-eh), sometimes called Reginae (re-gen'eye). Habitat eastern North America, as far north as Canada and as far south as North Carolina. Blooms May to June. Flowers handsome and large, pale pink; darker rose lip with brighter spots. The beauty and charm of the species make a trip to their habitat one of delightful discovery. However, for the most part they do not survive transplanting and perish after a year or two. It is better to enjoy them in their swampy marshes and meadows.

The following are mottled-leaved species and require hot-house culture:

C. barbatum (bar-ba'tum). Habitat India and the Malay Peninsula. Blooms February to August. Flowers have broad dorsal, white with purple and green stripes; purple petals with a row of dark, hairy, warty excrescences, and a brown slipper pouch.

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C. bellatulum (bel-lat-yeu'lum). Habitat Siam. Blooms spring. Plant very dwarf, having creamy-ivory flowers shell-shaped, heavily spotted with dull, dark purple. C. callosum (cal-low'sum). Habitat Siam and China. Blooms March to July. Large handsome flowers with white dorsal shading into green and flushed at the base with purple, and marked dark crimson; petals pale green shading into purple; lip brown-purple. One of the parents of C. Maudiae (C. callosum var. Sanderae x Lawrenceanum var. Hyeanum), a regal alba hybrid with glistening white dorsal, veined pale green; pale-green petals and pouch. C. Fairriaenum (fair-i-an'um). Habitat Assam. Blooms July to September. Dwarf plant with small graceful dainty flowers having broad, greenishwhite dorsal heavily lined with purple; curved white petals striped and margined with purple; and large brownish-green lip with purple network of veins.

The following lack the markings in the leaves and grow in cooler regions, and so require cool house conditions:
C. insigne (in-sig'nee). Habitat Assam. Blooms October to March. Favorite with amateurs, being prolific and easy to grow. Flowers medium with brown, shaded-green dorsal, dotted with brown-purple, and white at the apex; petals yellow-green, shaded brown-purple; lip similar. A fine parent, C. Leeanum (lee-an'um) being one of its prominent and popular progeny. Has many fine varieties of which Harefield Hall is outstanding; var. Sanderae. Primrose-yellow with the upper half of the dorsal white; var. Sanderianum. Considered the true albino, with dorsal colored white and petals and pouch chartreuse. C. Leeanum (C. insigne x Spicerianum). C. Spicerianum (spl-ser-ee-an'um). Habitat Assam. Blooms October to February. Flowers pale green dotted with purple; brown-purple lip; with dorsal pure white, tinged green at the base and a broad purple stripe down the center. C. villosum (vill-o'sum). Habitat Moulmein. Blooms November to May. Very large flowers, iridescent red, green, and purple, with green dorsal. Many fine varieties. Much prized as a parent, having been used for over two thousand hybrids.

Cymbidiums require, without exception, lath-house, outdoor, or cool-house treatment, 'feet cold, head warm.'
Cymbidium ebumeum (ee-bur'nee-um). Habitat India. Blooms February and March. Flowers white dorsal petals and lip with a golden band down the center of the throat. Has been of tremendous importance as forerunner of some of the finest whites. Scarce and very difficult to grow.

The first hybrid, made in 1889, C. ebumeo-Lowianum, F.C.C.1a primary hybrid of eburneum crossed with Lowianumhas in turn become a famous and successful parent. Outstanding among the progeny is C. Mexanderi (C. eburneo-Lowianum x C. insigne Sanderi). C. erythrostylum (erythrow'style-um). The name means 'red column.' Habitat Annam. Blooms August to January. Flowers gleaming white with pink dots sprinkled at the base of dorsal and petals; lip more of a cream-white and lined with rose. The fact that the flowers do not open wide gives a nun-like modesty to their appearance. Chief virtue is passing on to hybrids the characteristic of early blooming. Scarce. C. giganteum (jl-gan'tee-um). Habitat north India. Blooms September to October. Flowers yellowish, striped with dark red; and lip spotted with scarlet. Keeps poorly and clouds color of brighter Cymbidiums when used as one parent. C. grandiflorum, also called Hookerianum (hooker-i-aye'num or an'um). Habitat Himalayas. Blooms November. Flowers large, but frequently refuse to mature; clear green, spotted with crimson and purple. Parent with Lowianum of nearly all the green hybrids. C. insigne (in-sig'nee), also called C. Sanderi. Habitat Annam. Blooms March to May. Flowers broad-petaled, white to pink-lavender; lip heavily spotted with darker lavender; with touches of yellow at the throat. C. I'Ansoni (lan'son-ee or eye). Habitat Burma and Annam. Blooms May, June. Flowers similar to both Lowianum and Tracyanum, but obviously not a hybrid but a distinct species. Crossed with C. insigne produces the lovely pink, sometimes almost red, Ceres. Scarce. C. Lowianum (low'ee-an-um). Habitat India. Blooms February and March. Has eighteen to twenty flowers on a stem; dorsal and petals yellowishgreen with dark lines; cream lip flushed with yellow and maroon; blotch in throat. Compares favorably with its hybrids in beauty and ease of culture, its flowers having fine keeping qualities. The hybrid C. Pauwelsii (C. insigne Sanderi x Lowianum) ranks with Mexanderi as a parent of many fine seedlings. C. Parishii. Habitat Moulmein. Blooms July and August. Flowers fragrant; dorsal and petals ivory; lip ivory, largely spotted dark purple; touches of gold in the throat. Fine variety Sanderae has more flowers and better shape. Received F.C.C. C. Schroederi. Habitat Annam. Blooms March and April. Not outstanding; similar but inferior to Lowianum and giganteum. C. Tracyanum. Habitat Burma and Siam. Blooms October to November. Flowers large, fragrant, yellowish-green, spotted with crimson; front of petal cream, spotted crimson. Has unfortunate habit of dulling the color when crossed with Cymbidiums of more brilliant hue. Progeny C. Doris
1 The Royal Horticulture Society, England, presents deserving orchids with A.M. (Award of Merit) and F.C.C. (First Class Certificate).

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(C. Tracyanum x insigne) seems to have overcome this failing to a certain extent and is valued as an early bloomer.

While Vandas will grow with Cattleyas, they respond amazingly to warmer conditions.
Vanda bicolor, also called V. lamellate var. Boxalli (la-mel-lay'ta box'all-ee or eye). Habitat north India. Blooms March to May. Flowers brownish with darker, checkered markings; lilac at the throat. V. coerulea (see-rule'ee-a). Habitat Assam, north India, Burma. Blooms October to December; infrequently earlier; sometimes twice in three years. The famous 'heavenly blue' orchid. Sepals equal and spread; very small lip; the whole pale blue, overcast with a network of darker blue veins. The heavier the veining the darker blue the flower appears. The texture is exquisitely fragile and glistening; the quality deceptively lasting. V. concolor (con'color). Habitat China. Blooms January to April. Flowers about 2 inches across, yellowish-brown, white outside; lip white with rosy spots. Very fragrant. V. Sanderiana (san'der-i-an'a), called 'Euantha' (you-an'tha) by Schlechter and 'Esmeralda' (es'mer-al'da) by Williams. Habitat Mindanao, the Philippines. Blooms sometimes late summer, but usually October and November. Flowers spreading and flat as in coerulea and with the same crystalline texture, but usually much larger and slightly pansy-shaped. In beauty unsurpassed, flowers continue to grow after breaking from the bud, lavender in shade, blushing till by maturity they are a soft rose, shading toward the base of the very large petals into a muted olive-green; lip vividly crested, yellow reminiscent of green. Flowers not infrequently 5 inches across and 6 inches deep. Long-lasting, but unfortunately difficult for amateurs to grow. V. Sanderiana hybrids prove of much stronger growth. V. suavis (swa'vis). Habitat Java. Blooms different times. Flowers with sepals and petals oddly twisted away from the lip; white, spotted red-purple and flushed; lip rose to purple. Fragrant. V. tricolor (Sanders says this species is probably a variety of suavis, while Schlechter lists suavis as a variety of tricolora further example of how even experts differ on information about orchids). Habitat Java. Blooms various times. Similar in habit and appearance to suavis; flowers more yellowish with bright dark-purple blotch at the throat.

Phalaenopsis, like Vandas, seem to appreciate slightly warmer conditions than Cattleyas.
Phalaenopsis amabilis (a-ma'bill-is). Habitat Malaya. Blooms throughout the year. Flowers large, white; red at throat. Frequently used as a parent. Many fine varieties, among which are:

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P. amabilis Rimestadiana (rime'stad-ee-an-a). Habitat Java. Blooms all the year. More vigorous than the type and crosses with it to form the fine hybrid P. Gilles Gratiot. P. grandiflora (gran-di-flo'ra), according to Schlechter the same as amabilis, to Sanders a variety of amabilis, and to Williams a separate species; important in any classification. Habitat Java and Borneo. Blooms October to January. Flowers larger than the type; yellow, not rose, at throat. P. amabilis var. aurea (or'ee-a). Habitat Malaya. Blooms different times. Flowers larger than the type, having a deep golden flush at the throat and over the curling tendrils of the lip. P. cornu-cervi (kor'noo ser'vee). Habitat Moulmein. Blooming time varies with the location, frequently May to September. In sunny location loses leaves and requires long rest; in shade grows continuously and retains leaves, blooming even during the hot dry season. Flowers greenish-yellow, barred brown; lip claw-shaped and incurved, whitish in color. P. Lueddemanniana (loo'dee-man-ee-an-a). Habitat the Philippines. Blooms according to the location, usually May to June. Flowers white, barred amethyst and cinnamon-brown; lip pale, with deep violet at the base. Dwarf plant. P. rosea (rose-ee'a). Habitat the Philippines. Blooms different times. Small flowers, white flushed pink; rose-violet at throat. P. Schilleriana (shill-er-i-an'a). Habitat the Philippines. Blooms different times, frequently February to May. Flowers about 3 inches across, very prolific, pale pink-lavender; darker lip; yellow at throat; leaves mottled green.

Epidendrum adapts itself to any home and may be grown outdoors, except in extremely cold climates.
Epidendrum atropurpureum (atro-purr-purr-ee'um). Habitat tropical America. Blooms April to May. Flowers greenish-brown; lip white; with crimson at the throat. E. cochleatum (coke'li-aye-tum). Habitat tropical America. Blooming time varies, usually throughout the year. Flowers resemble cockleshells, yellowgreen; with purple-black lip; veined and whisker-like side sepals. Smooth, clear green pseudobulbs. E. evectum (ee-veck'tum). Habitat Colombia. Blooms throughout the year. Flowers rosy-purple, with heavily fringed lip. E. fragrans (fray'granz). Habitat tropical America. Compressed pseudobulbs; flowers white; lip streaked with crimson. Chiefly interesting because of pervasive and exquisite perfume. E. Ibaguense (ee-ba-gwen'see). Habitat Colombia. Blooming time varies. Flowers with gold petals and sepals, and yellow fringed lip.

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E. Lambeauanum (lam'bow-an-um). Habitat Brazil. Blooms different times. Flowers, sepals, and petals dull white; wine-red lip margined with lighter color. Dwarf plant. E. polybulbon (polly-bul'bon). Habitat Central America. Blooms winter months. Dwarf plant, creeping rhizome. Flowers infinitesimal and myriad; starry, brownish sepals and petals; heart-shaped white lip, fragrant, showering from the many tiny bulbs. E. radicans (rad'i-cans). Habitat Mexico. Blooms throughout the year. Plant has very straggling, vine-like habit of growth; no pseudobulbs; leaves in pairs. Tiny flowers, prolific and starry; with serrated (tooth-edged) lip all one colorbright orange-scarlet. With E. evectum, parent of showier hybrid E. O'Brienianum. E. Tampense. Florida representative of renosum (Mexico). Profusion of bulbs and tiny pink-brown, green flowers. Very sweet and lasting. E. vitellinum (vi-tell-in'um). Habitat Mexico. Dwarf pseudobulbous plant. Sepals and petals one to one and one-half inches, showy cinnabar-red; yellow lip. Sophronitis grandiflora. Habitat Organ Mountains, Brazil. Plants pseudobulbous. Flowers large, broad-petaled, cinnabar-red or deep crimson; lip yellow, streaked with red. The red is dominant in the progeny. Many fine varieties. S. grandiflora var. coccinea (coach'i-nee'a). Habitat Brazil. Rare. Flowers large for size of plant and brilliant rose-red; blooms in the winter. S. grandiflora var. rosea. Habitat Brazil. Rich purple, flushed rose. Epiphronitis Veitchii (veetch'ee-ee or eye). Hybrid of E. radicans x S. grandiflora. Won the F.C.C. 1890. The combination reduced the size and roving habit of Epidendrum and increased the size of the flower.

Odontoglossums must have cool, shaded conditions.

Odontoglossum ardentissimum (O. crispum x O. Pescatorei). Has been much used as a parent of fine hybrids. O. eximium (O ardentissimum x O. crispum) is also a fine parent. O. citrosmum (si-tros'mum). Habitat Mexico. Blooms May to June. Flowers on pendulous racemes, so should be hung above bench at least while flowering. Flowers pale lavender; lip flushed rose (sometimes flowers blush a real pink); touches of yellow at throat. Album variety is pure white; lip crested yellow. O. crispum. Habitat Colombia, elevation 7000 to 8000 feet. Blooms February to April. The pseudobulbs are very compressed; the flowers borne on racemes, crisp in texture; wide sepals and petals wavy and tapering to a point, white, sometimes flushed; hp white and frilled with deep gold spots. Long-lasting. It is easily and deservedly the favorite species. An excellent parent. Many fine varieties:

118
O, crispum var. aureum. Deep gold in color; sepals spotted brown; and two brown spots at throat. O. crispum nobilius (no-bill'i-us). Strangely blotched with reddish-brown. O, crispum roseum. Flushed with rose-lavender and spotted brown. O. crispum Stevensii. Spotted; flowers 3 inches across (large for spray orchids). O. crispum Veitchianum. Large flowers richly colored with crimson-brown spots. O. crispum virginale. Pure white form; no spots; large flowers; yellow at throat. O. grande (gran'dee). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms October to December. Very large 5-inch to 7-inch flowers with very long, rather narrow sepals and petals. The lip has a formation resembling a tiny Chinese doll, giving rise to the nickname 'baby orchid.' The texture is shiny 'patent leather,' colored with bands of alternating chocolate-brown and bright yellow. O. grande var. magnificum. Flowers larger, more prolific, and brilliant than in the type. O. Uarryanum. Habitat Colombia. Blooming time varies. Flowers very colorful, reddish-brown, striped in contrasting bars of yellow and dark purplishmauve; sepals broader than the petals. Crossed with O. crispum to produce O. crispo-Harryanum. O. laeve (lev'ee). Habitat Mexico and Guatemala. Blooms April to May. Flowers in panicles (bunches) on tall, erect stems. Flowers large, yellowishgreen, barred with chocolate-brown; pale violet lip. O. laeve var. Reichenheimii. Similar to type; prolific; lip varies from light to dark purple. O. odoratum (odor-a'tum). Habitat Venezuela. Blooms March to May. Flowers golden-brown, blotched chocolate-brown. Very fragrant. O. Oerstedii (erstead'ee or eye). Habitat Costa Rica. Blooms spring. Dwarf plant with small 2-inch white flowers crested yellow, sweetly perfumed. O. Oerstedii var. majus. Flowers larger than in the type. O. Pescatorei, called by Sanders nobile. Habitat Colombia. Blooms March to May. Undulating white flowers flushed rose; lip flaring to fullness at the bottom, white, spotted rose; crimson lines leading to touches of yellow at the throat. Blooms freely and has many fine varieties: O. Pescatorei var. leucoxanthum (loo-cox'an-thum). Alba variety crested yellow. O. Pescatorei var. melanocentrum (mell-an'o-cen'trum). Habitat Colombia. Magnificent white flowers; sepals washed with lilac- lip black-purple, crested yellow; with black at throat. O. Pescatorei var. Veitchianum. Habitat Colombia. Blooms spring. Flowers handsomer than in the type; transversely spotted with dark red-purple. O. Schlieperianum (schleep'er-i-an-um). Habitat Costa Rica. Blooms summer. Flowers similar but not so large as grande.

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O. Uro-Skinneri (you'ro skin'ner-ee or eye). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms July to September. Pseudobulbs spotted purple, bearing 2-inch scapes with many 3-inch flowers, olive-green and rich purplish-brown, spotted white; lip white, crested gold. O. Uro-Skinneri var. album. Sepals and petals pale green-yellow; lip pure white. O. ~Wyattidnum (wy-at-ti'an-um). Habitat Peru. Blooms January to May. Flowers golden-brown with purple and brown at the center; very long, broad isthmus lip (having column exposed); trumpet-shaped. Stanhopea ehurnea. Habitat Venezuela. Blooms June, July. Large, fragrant flowers, ivory-white, spotted purple. S. ecornuta (ee-kor-nu-ta). Habitat Central America. Blooms June, July. Flowers ivory-white, spotted purple; lip lacking horns, but canoe-shaped and fleshy. S. insignis (in-sig'nis). Habitat Brazil, Peru. Blooms July to September. Large, creamy flowers spotted with purple eyes; lip spotted and flushed purple on drooping spikes. S. oculata. Habitat Mexico. Blooms July to November. Free-flowering; lemonyellow thickly spotted with violet; dark brown spots or 'eyes' in the throat; canoe-shaped lip with two fleshy horns. (In some species these horns are so exaggerated as to resemble ornate napkin rings.) Fragrant. S. tigrina (tee-grin'a). Habitat Mexico. Blooms July to September. Flowers very large, 8 inches, frog-shaped, golden-yellow barred red-purple; lip yellow, spotted purple. Pervasive odor, of either vanilla or chocolate. S. Wardii (ward'ee-ee or eye). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms June, July. Flowers very sweet, shimmering and brilliantly colored; golden-yellow, spotted purple; paler lip and velvety violet spots at throat. Miltonia Bluntii (M. Clowesii x M. spectabilis). Natural hybrid. Creamy flowers; with butterfly marking typical of Miltonia, crimson-rose. M. Clowesii (clow'see-ee or eye). Habitat Brazil. Williams says it blooms September to December; Sanders, in the spring. Flowers reddish-brown, barred yellow as in Odontoglossum; lip pointed and violet at the base. M. cuneata (ku-ne-a'ta). Habitat Brazil. Blooms February. Startling coloring; petals and sepals dark brown, tipped with green-yellow; and the lip clawshaped and white, with chocolate spots in the throat. M. Endressii (enders'ee-ee or eye). Habitat Central America, particularly the Cordilleras of Costa Rica. Blooms irregularly. Flowers white, flushing to deep crimson at center; crimson on lip; yellow at throat. M. Roezlii (rotz'lee-ee or eye). Habitat Colombia. Blooms October to November. White flowers very large and flat, with purple and gold butterfly. M. spectabilis (speck'ta'bill-is). Habitat Brazil. Blooms August. Creamy-white flowers, very large and flat with rose butterfly; dark lines on the out-

12O

spread lip leading into the throat, edged in pink. Coloring varies from white to dark purple. M. vexillaria (vex'il-lar'i-a). Habitat Colombia. Blooms May to June. Large, flat, pansy-shaped flowers, rosy-pink, marked with fine red lines. Many fine varieties: M. vexillaria var. Memoria G. D. Owen. Flowers sometimes 4 inches across, richly colored and characterized by the butterfly marking in the center. Variety alba white delicately tinted pink at the throat. M. vexillaria var. Princess May. Large white flowers; sepals faintly pink and the butterfly gold. M. vexillaria var. Sanderiana. Magnificent flowers, pink, with deeper rose butterfly and crimson lines radiating from the center. Phaius Cooksonii. (P. Wallichi x P. tuberculosus). Handsome hybrid. P. grandifolius, called by Schlechter from Bletchly 'P. Tankervilliae.' Habitat China, the Malay Peninsula, Australia. Blooms May to July. Flowers showy, chocolate-brown inside, white outside; lip curled or trumpetshaped, long, white, with crimson lines leading into the yellow throat. P. grandifolius var. superbus. Inside of the petals and sepals a brilliant chamois; lip bright amaranth, margined with rose. P. Humblotti. Habitat Madagascar. Blooms June to July. Flowers large, rosy, showy; lip not tubular, but open and winged, with spreading basal lobe and white center, startlingly red. P. maculatus, also called flaws. Habitat China, Australia, Malay. Blooms April to May. Large pseudobulbs; leaves dark green, flecked with yellow. Bears ten to twelve flowers, yellow with chocolate-brown rolled lip. P. tuberculosus. Habitat Madagascar. Blooms May to June, according to Schlechter; winter, according to Sanders. Odd tubular lip gives name. Flowers large, up to 2% inches across; white sepals and broad white petals; lip yellow, spotted dark rose. P. Wallichi (wall'eech-i). Habitat Ceylon, India. Blooms various times. Flowers typical, white outside, orange-yellow, or buff; flushed amethyst inside. Calanthe rosea (ka-lan'thee). Habitat Moulmein. Blooms winter. Flowers bright rose-pink. C. Turneri. Habitat India. Blooms late winter, early spring. Flowers white, with deep rose eye. C. Turneri var. nivalis. Pure white. C. Veitchii (C. rosea x C. vestita). Flowers very large, bright rose. Has magnificent white variety. C. vestita. Habitat Moulmein, India. Blooms October to February. Flowers creamy-white, with light yellow eyes. C. vestita var. luteooculata (ok'u-la-ta). White with yellow eyes.

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C. vestita var. Regneirii (rain'er-i-eye). Habitat Cochin China. More erect than var. rubro-oculata; flowers white, with rose lip. C. vestita var. rubro-oculata. Striking; 2 inches across; white with rich crimson eyes. Coelogyne asperata. Habitat Borneo, Malacca, Sumatra, Java. Blooms April to July. Large flowers, pale creamy-yellow; lip striking with bright orange spot, marked with bronzy veins. C. Burfordense (C. Pandurata x C. asperata). Receives its rich coloring from asperata; larger and more strikingly marked; similar to Pandurata. C. citrina. Lemon-yellow. C. cristata (kris'ta-ta). Habitat the Himalayas. Blooms January to April. Most popular of the genus in cultivation. Flowers of tissue-paper texture, pure white with touches of yellow and tiny hairs in the throat. Very prolific. One fragrant variety. C. cristata var. Hololuca. Pure white. C. cristata var. lemoniana. White lip crested citron-yellow. C. Massangeana (mas-sange'ee-an-a). Habitat Assam. Blooms June to July. Vigorous; free-flowering, sometimes twice a year; easy to grow. Flowers light yellow; lip chocolate-brown, veined with bright yellow, edged with white, and having three yellow crests. C. Pandurata. Habitat Borneo. Blooms August to October. Many flowers on a gracefully curving stem; slender longish petals and sepals, clear applegreen; with a gold beetle-shaped spot on the elongated lip, black-striped and with fine black hairy crests. Lycaste aromatica (lie'caste-ee). Habitat Mexico. Blooms April to May. Small flowers, deep, rich orange, and fragrant at certain times of the day. Small, compact, and attractive plant. L. Candida (can-dee'da). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms December to March. A miniature plant of dainty beauty; flowers with pale green sepals; white petals flushed rose; white lip spotted rose. L. cruenta (crew-en'ta). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms March to April. Flowers similar to but larger than aromatica, with red spot at the throat. Leaves are large and handsome; sepals yellow inside, green outside; petals yellow; short, open lip divided into three lobes, spotted red, with bloodred spot at the throat. L. Deppei (dep'ee-eye). Habitat Mexico. Blooms throughout late winter and early spring. Flowers with green sepals dotted chocolate-brown in even stripes; white petals; tri-lobed yellow lip with red spots. L. Locusta var. Sanders. Habitat Peru. Blooms April to May. Fine green flowers; with white-fringed lip, flushed with yellow. L. Skinneri. Habitat Guatemala, the alba variety being the national flower and its export forbidden. Blooms October to December. Flowers very

122 large, 4 inches to 5 inches across; the plant low and dwarfed. A real pink. L. Skinneri var. Armeniaca. Flowers flushed apricot. L. Skinneri var. delicatissima. Sepals flushed white; petals pink with creamywhite lip. L. Skinneri var. purpurata. Sepals and petals white, flushed pink with deep purple lip. Maxillaria jucata (max-il-lar'i-a few-ka'ta). Habitat Ecuador. Blooms May to July. Reichenbach said of its flowers, 'I could not help remembering some Harlequins I had seen, with paint not quite washed off their faces.' Flowers large; sepals white with purple in the middle and yellow dotted red at the edges, and so formed that the throat resembles a polka-dot bow-tie. M. Sanderiana. Habitat Ecuador, Peru. Blooms late winter, early spring. Finest of the species according to Sanders. Flowers sometimes attain size of 5 inches to 6 inches across; petals and smaller sepals white with red spots and yellow crests in the throat. Cycnoches chlorochilon (sick-no'keys klor-o-ky'lon). Habitat Venezuela, Colombia. Blooms June to July. Flowers are all shades of green, going through several tints to deep black-green at the base of a creamy-white, waxy lip. They mature very slowly, remaining in tight-bud form for days, but lasting weeks if kept dry. The plant produces male and female flowers, some of them sterile, some of them perfect. C. ventricosum (ven'tri-co-sum). Habitat Guatemala. Blooms August. Fragrant flowers with broad greenish-yellow sepals and petals; white lip with a black callous at the throat (Darwin believed that insects are attracted to feed on this callous). Trichopelia coccinea (try-ko-peel'i-a coach'in-e'a). Habitat Costa Rica. Blooms April to May. Flowers large; sepals and petals brownish-green; white lip slenderly curving, orange-brown inside. T. coccinea var. crispa. Wavy or undulate sepals and petals, crimson, edged with white; and white lip, frilled and edged with dark red. T. coccinea var. marginata. Large flowers, light purplish-red, edged white; white outside of tubular lip, dark red sides, richer crimson inside, edged white. T. suavis (swa'vis). Habitat Central America. Blooms March to May. Pseudobulbs rather compressed; flowers large and sweet; ivory-white sepals and petals dotted pink; white lip also dotted pink, but yellow at throat. Has an alba variety. T. suavis var. grandiflora. Flower more expanded than in the type and more richly colored. Sepals and petals white; lip splashed with crimson; deep orange throat.

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Chysis aurea (ky'sis or'ee-a,. Habitat Venezuela. Blooms May to June. Flowers yellow with crimson markings. C. bractescens (brack-tess-ens). Habitat Mexico. Pseudobulbs approaching the cane-like stems of Dendrobium. Usually two-flowering; white sepals and petals; lip yellow inside, white outside, and marked with fine crimson lines. Renanthera coccinea (ree-nan'ther-a). Habitat Burma and Cochin China. Blooms at different times. Flowers may be 2 inches to 4 inches across; sepals and petals bright crimson, splashed with yellow; small red and yellow lip. R. Imschootiana (im'shoot-ee-an-a). Habitat Burma. Blooms April to May. Dwarf plant, flowering profusely with bright red flowers. Vanilla lutescens (loo-tess'ens). Habitat Venezuela. Blooms July to August Flowers 6 inches across, sulphur-yellow. V. planifolia (plan-i-fo'lee-a). Habitat Central America. Blooms July to August. Flowers greenish-white.

Appendix B
PRIZE-WINNING HYBRIDS MANY orchid societies give local awards for outstanding plants, but it is the British Royal Horticultural Society that is internationally recognized as setting the standards of orchid breeding. The following is a list and brief description of hybrids that have received the First Class Certificate (F.C.C.) or Award of Merit (A.M.) of the Royal Horticultural Society from the latter part of 1946 through early 1948. In going through any list of prize-winning plants, the reader will note the frequent appearance of 'var. so and so.' When a seedling proves to be of really outstanding merit, it is customary to dignify it with a varietal name, e.g. he. Jervis Bay, var. Our King. Perhaps one plant from a batch of seedlings will prove unusual and it will receive a varietal name. Although any hybridizer is free to give varietal names, certain names, given by growers of genuine discrimination, have been generally recognized. Sir George Holford of Westonbirt has produced flowers of such excellence and renown that Westonbirt as a varietal name is a badge of quality. Another such name is Gatton, home of Sir Jeremiah Coleman. In the following list of awards there are the names of such famous English hybridizers as H. G. Alexander, Ltd., Black and
124

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Flory, McBean's Orchids, Ltd., Baron H. B. Schroder of Dell Park, and Baron de Rothschild of Exbury. Under Sanders, a name to conjure with among orchidists, we find Sanders of St. Albans, England; Sanders of Watford, England; and Sanders et Fils of Bruges, Belgium. Vacherot and Lecouffle of France and Clint McDade of Chattanooga, Tennessee, complete the international roll call for this period. The difficulty of transporting plants doubtless accounts for the fact that many meritorious hybrids do not appear among the prize winners.
Brassocattleya Roger Sander (C. Omar, var. splendidum x Be. Vilinoriniana, var. Zeecrabbe). Large mauve flower; apricot lip edged with mauve. Sanders. A.M. Brassolaeliocattleya Denham, var. Majestic (Be. G. MacDonald x Lc. Brittania). Lilac sepals and petals; golden throat veined with purple. Clint McDade. A.M. Blc. Crusader, var. Radiant (Blc. Queen Elizabeth x Lc. Trivanlwe). H. B. Schroder. F.C.C. Blc. Nugget (Blc. Palmyre x Lc. luminsa). Golden with red lip. Nugget may come crippled, with isthmus lip, but is lovely when perfect. Sanders. A.M. Blc. Norman's Bay, var. Royal Bride (Lc. Ishtar x Be. Hartland). Large flower of fine shape; rosy lilac hue; lip fringed and tinted orange; petals fringed. Stuart Low. A.M. Cattleya Gloriette, var. Richmond (C. Hardyana, var. Warneri x C. Tityus). Clint McDade. A.M. C. Bow Bells (C. Edithiae x Suzanne five). Clint McDade. A.M. C. Enid alba, var. Rivermont (C. Mossiae Reineckiana x C. gigas). White with colored lip. Clint McDade. A.M. Laeliocattleya Michael, Westonbirt var. (C. labiata, var. Cilmourine x Lc. Schroederae, var. alba). H. G. Alexander. F.C.C. Lc. Talana (C. Eleanore x Lc. Schroederae). Schroder. F.C.C. Lc. Golden Ray (C. fulvescens x Lc. Golden Gleam). H. G. Alexander. A.M. Lc. Jervis Bay, var. Our King (Lc. Crowborough x Lc. Windermere). Lt. Col. F. S. Griggs. A.M. Lc. Eastern Queen (Lc. Trivanhoe x C. Shimadzu). Schroder. A.M. Lc. Princess Ishtar, var. Mary (Lc. Sargon x Fabia). Rich dark purple. Clint McDade. A.M. Lc. Fiesta (Lc. Canberra x C. Dowiana). Clint McDade. A.M. Lc. Anaconda (Lc. Pallas x C. Dowiana). Schroder. Lindley Award for culture. Lc. Golden Radiance (Lc. Fulva x Lc. Golden Gleam). Sepals and petals golden orange-yellow; large frilled lip brighter yellow with deep gold markings. H. G. Alexander. F.C.C.

126 he. Erato (he. Aconcagua x he. Schroederae). White with crimson lip. Schroder. F.C.C. Cymbidium Swallow, var. Oriole (C. Alexander!, Westonbirt var. x C. Pauwelsii magnificum). Guy P. Harben. F.C.C. C. Swallow, Exbury var. Edmund D. Rothschild. F.C.C. and Lindley Award for culture. C. Starlight (C. Jason x C. hetty). H. S. Tufton. F.C.C. C. Bodmin Moor, var. Grace (C. Alexanderi, Westonbirt var. x C. Erica Sander). Clint McDade. A.M. C. Imbros (C. howianum x C. Rosanna). Read. A.M. C. Nefertiti, var. Celeste (C. Pervaneh x C. Alexanderi, Westonbirt var.). H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Queen Elizabeth, var. Enchantress (C. Olympus, var. Rex x C. Flamingo, var. Nobilior). H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Inamorata, var. hycaste (C. Dante x C. Rosanna). Black and Flory. A.M. C. Mem S. G. Alexander (C. Rosanna, var. Regina x C. Pharos, var. Paragon). Lemon yellow; lip fading to pink and spotted brown. H. G. Alexander. F.C.C. C. Remus (C. Regulus x C. Joyful). Dusky rose of coppery sheen, with crimson markings on lip. Schroder. F.C.C. C. Ruskin, Colbury var. (C. Ceres x C. Pearl, var. magnificum). Buff with overlay of rose; white lip marked with maroon. Guy P. Harben. A.M. C. "Vulcan (C. Pocahontas x C. President Wilson, Westonbirt var.). Coppery background; white lip marked brownish red. H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Radak (C. Claudette x C. Pearl, var. magnificum). Light green; pinkish lip with crimson spots. McBean. A.M. C. Bullfinch, Exbury var. (C. Garnet x C. Alexanderi, Westonbirt var.). Blush white, with deeper markings on lip. De Rothschild. A.M. C. Adele Sander (C. St. Alban, var. Princess Beatrice x C. Alexandri, Westonbirt var.). Golden yellow; maroon on lip. Sanders. A.M. C. Aton, Westonbirt var. (C. Baldur, var. Golden Beauty x C. Pearl, var. magnificum). Ivory with darker sepal and crimson on lip. H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Flare (C. Edzell, var. John hinford x C. Rio Rita, var. Radiant). Bright rose; creamy lip marked red. Schroder. A.M. C. Irish Melody (ancestry not given). Ambrose Congreve. A.M. Cypripedium Hellas, Westonbirt var. (C. Desdemona x C. Tania). H. G. Alexander. F.C.C. C. St. Swithin (C. Rothsehildianaum x C. Philippinense). Sanders. A.M. C. Whitehall, var. Pleiades (C. Mrs. J. Branch x C. Conference). Sanders. A.M. C. Blanchory, Dukes Edge var. (C. Grace Darling x C. Dickler). N. W. Jensen. A.M. C. Hermaches, var. Golden Radiance (C. Gwen Hannen x C. Chardwar, var. C. Scheve). H. G. Alexander. A.M.

APPENDIX B

127

C. Golden Moon (C. Hancar x C. Gold Mohur). Honey-yellow dorsal; petals and sepals tawny. H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Snow Bunting var. Muriel (C. Florence Spencer x C. F. C. Puddle). White dorsal dusted with purple; white petals pale green at base; lip ivory, round and smooth. H. G. Alexander. A.M. C. Joyce Ruck (C. Botoni x C. Ballet Girl). Sanders. A.M. Lycaste Sunrise, var. Fiona (L. Skinneri alba x L. imschootiana, var. bellissima). McBean. A.M. L. Barbara Sander (L. Skinneri, var. Mrs. Hamilton Smith x L. Balliae). Petals and sepals bright crimson rose; white lip speckled with rose. Sanders. A.M. Miltonia Rear Admiral (M. H. T. Pitt x M. pulchra). S. Fames. A.M. Miltonioda Carol (Mda. Lillian x M. pulchra). Reddish-purple sepals and petals, edged white; broad lip; whitish with dull-orange butterfly mask. Charlesworth. A.M. Odontioda Dovedale (Oda. Dovere x Odontoglossum Sheila Stephenson). McBean. A.M. Oda. Wedding Bells (Oda. Topa x Oda. Chantos). Medium to bright crimson; lip crimson fading to white at apex. Charlesworth. A.M. Oda. Eudacis (Oda. Ads x O. Eudora). H. S. Warton. A.M. Odontoglossum Mary (O. triumphans x O. Brimstone Butterfly). Lt. Col. Griggs. F.C.C. A.M. Odontonia Cephalia (Odtna. Celius x Odtna. Ophelia). Charlesworth. A.M. Odtna. Amphia Vanguard (Odontoglossum Clovis x Odtna. Duchess of York). Sanders. F.C.C. Oncidium hanceanum St. Albans, var. Ms. Sanders. (No other information given.) Phalaenopsis Marmouset (P. Schilleriana x P. Ninon). Vacherot and Lecouffle. A.M. P. Katerine Siegwart, var. Etna (P. amabilis x P. Gilles Gratiot). A. F. Knight. A.M. Potinara Media (Sic. Cleopatra x Blc. Beatrice). H. G. Alexander. A.M. Sophrocattleya Peach Blossom (Sophronitis grandiflora x C. Remy Chollet). Flower salmon-peach; deeper color inside lip. Sanders. A.M. Sic. Cecily Watson (he. St. Gothard x Sic. Vulcan). Broad-petaled flower, dark; with velvety lip; orange at base. Black and Flory. A.M. Note: Mr. Farmer is the grower for Baron Schroder, and is so listed on all the Schroder plants receiving awards. Mr. B. Hills is the grower for Baron de Rothschild, Mr. Rathbone for Guy P. Harben, C. F. Potts for Ambrose Congreve, and Mr. Cheyney for H. S. Tufton.

Index
Aerides, 7, 11 Angraecum, 7, 10; sesquipedale, 4 Asymbiotic planting of seed, 82-9 Backbulbs 9, 14, 56 Balance for growth, 26, 27, 28, 40-49; see ^so Damping, Heat, Spraying, Sunlight, Ventilation, Watering Bee Ophrys, 8 Brassavola, 16, 65, 99,
101

Brassolaeliocattleya Calanthe (Cont.) (Cont.) vestita, var. rubroCrusader, var. Kadioculata, 121 <*"*> 125 Calopogon, 8 Denham, var. Majes- Calypso bulbosa (boretic, 125 alis), 13 Emilia, 103 Catasetum, 8, 24 Norman's Bay, var. Cattleya, 6, 9, 12, 14B de 12 5 JS, 18, 20, 21, 82, N *lf 2" ' 1 SPECKS, '107-9 P almyre,% Q ugen Elizabeth> bicolor> 101> lo8 Bowringiana, 108 12? UrsuZa, 103 cirrina, 108 Bulbophyllum foetidum Dowiana, 98, 100, (putridum), 8 102, 103, 107, 108,
125

Digbyana, 101, 103, 109 glauca, 110 nodosa, 110 Brassocattleya, 16, 101 G. MacDonald, 125 Hartland, 125 Mrae Charles Maron, 101 Roger Sander, 125 Vilinoriniana, var. Zeecrabbe, 125 Brassolaeliocattleya, 16, 99, 101, 125 Beatrice, 127

Calanthe,

73, 120-21 Dominyi, 99 furcata, 99 masuca, 99 rosea, 120 Turneri, 120 Turneri, var. nivalis, 120 Veitchii, 120 vestita, 120 vestita, var. luteooculata, 120 vestita, var. Regneirii, 121

22-3,

Forbesii, 109 Gaskelliana, 107 gz'gas, 39, 64-;, 98, 100, 101, 103, 107, 108, 125 Hardyana, 98, 103, 125 labiata, 15, 102 labiata autumnalis vera, 108 labiata, var. Gilmourine, 125 Loddigesii, 109 Lueddemaniana, 103 Mendellii, 108

129

130 Cattleya (Cont.) Mossiae, 78, 100, 103, 108 Mossiae, var. Reineckiana, 100, 125 Mossiae, var. Wagneri, 100, 108 Percivaliana, 108 Schroederae, 108 Skinneri, 109 Trianae, 108 Warneri, 108 Warscewiczii, see gigas HYBRIDS, l6, 99, 100, 126 Bow Bells, 125 Edithae, 125 Eleanore, 125 Enid alba, var. Rivermont, 125 Fabia, 102, 125 fulvescens, 125 Gloriette, var. Richmond, 125 Omar, var. splendidum, 125 Remy Chollet, 127 Shimadzu, 125 Tityus, 125 culture of, 38, 42, 44, 46, 64-5; gravel, 93, 94, 9? housing of, 15, 38, 44 pests and diseases of, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79 potting of, 54, 5;, 58, 59, 60, 61 Christmas orchid, see Cattleya Trianae Chysis, 25 aurea, 123 bractescens, 123 Cochlioda, 22 Coelogyne, 6, 12, 23,
121

Coelogyne (Cont.) cristata, 23, 54, 55, 67, 121 cristata, var. Hololuca, 121 cristata, var. lemoniana, 121 Massangeana, 121 Pandurata, 23, 121 Corallorhyza, 13 Coryanthes, 7 Crown, 10, 11, 58 Cryptostylus arachnitis, 8 Cycnoches, 23, 67 chlorochilon, 122 ventricosum, 24, 122 Cymbidium, 6, 9, 18, 66, 90-91, 92, 99
S P EC IES , II314

asperata, 67, 121 Burfordense, 121 citrina, 121

eburneum, 113 erythrostylum, 114 giganteum, 114 grandiRorum, 114 insigne, 102, 103, 114 TAnsoni, 114 Lowianum, 114, 126 Parishii, 103, 114 Schroederi, 114 Traceyanum, 114 HYBRIDS, 19, 126, 127 Adele Sander, 126 Alexanderi, 'Westonbirt var., 102, 103, 126 Aton, Westonbirt var., 126 Baldur, var. Golden Beauty, 126 Bodmin Moor, var. Grace, 126 Bullfinch, 126 Ceres, 126 Claudette, 126 Dante, 126 Doris, 114 Dryad, 102 eburneo-Lowianum, 103

Cymbidium (Cont.) Edzell, var. John Linford, 126 Erica Sander, 126 Flamingo, var. Nobilior, 126 Flare, 126 Garnet, 126 Imbros, 126 Inamorata, var. Lycaste, 126 Iris/z Me/ody, 126 Jason, 126 Joyful, 126 Letty, 126 Memoria S. G. Alexander, 126 Nefertiti, var. Celeste, 126 Olympus, var. Rex, 126 Pauwelsii, Comte d'Hemptinne var., 103 Pauwelsii, var. magnificum, 126 Pearl, var. magnificum, 126 Pervaneh, 126 Pharos, var. Paragon, 126 Pocahontas, 126 President Wilson, Westonbirt var., 126 Cjueen Elizabeth, var. Enchantress, 126 Radak, 126 Regulus, 126 Remus, 126 Rio Rita, var. Radiant, 126 Rosanna, 126 Rusftin, Colbury var., 126 Sf. Alban, var. Princess Beatrice, 126 Starlight, 126 SwaHow, 102

INDEX

131

Cymbidium (Cont.) Swallow, var. Oriole, 126 Swallow, Exbury var., 126 Vulcan, 126 Zebra, 102 culture of, 43, 44, 46 housing of, 35, 38 pests of, 70, 71, 73 potting of, 54, 60, 61 Cypripedium, 8, 9, 13, 17-18, 47, 61, 66, 90 NORTH AMERICAN SLIPPERS, 112 acaule, 8, 112 Californicum, 112 candidum, 112 parviflonim, 112 pubescens, 112 spectabile, 112
MOTTLE-LEAVED, HOTHOUSE SPECIES, 112-13

barbatum, 112 bellatulum, 113 callosum, 113 Fairriaenum, 113

GREEN-LEAVED, COOLGROWING SPECIES, 113

Cypripedium (Cont.) Golden Moor, 127 Grace Darling, 126 Gwen Hannen, 126 Hancar, 127 Hellas, Westonbirt var., 126 Hermaches, var. Golden Radiance, 126 Joyce Rucfc, 127 Maudiae, 38, 44 Mrs. /. Branch, 126 Philippinense, 126 Rothschildianum, 126 Sf. Swithin, 126 Snow Bunting, var. Muriel, 127 Tania, 126 Whitehall, var. Pleiades, 126 culture of, 38, 39, 43, 44, 47, 66 housing of, 18, 38, 44 pests and diseases of, 73, 77 potting of, 54, 61 Damping, 45, 48 Dendrobium, 10, 12, 16-17, 42, 43, 44, 47, 59, 64, 65, 66,
91, 110-11 WARM-GROWING, EVERGREEN SPECIES

Dendrobium (Cont.)
COOL-GROWING, DECIDUOUS SPECIES

aureum, 66, 111 nobile, 59, 66, 111 superbum, 59, 66,
111

Thwaitesii, 111 Wardianum, 66, 111 culture of, 39, 42, 43, 44, 47, 65, 66 housing of, 17, 38 pests and diseases of, 72, 73 potting of, 59 Diseases, see Pests and diseases Dormancy, 63-9 Easter orchid, see CattZeya Mossiae Epidendrum, 20, 68 atropurpureum, 116 cochleatum, 116 evectum, 116 fragrans, 116 Ibaguense, 116 Lambeauanum, 116 polybulbon, 116 radicans, 20, 98, 102,
116

insigne, 113 Leeanum, 113 Spicerianum, 113 villosum, 113

HYBRIDS, 126-7 BaZZet GzrZ, 127

Blanchory, Dukes Edge var., 126 Botoni, 127 Chardwar, var. Scheve, 126 Conference, 126 Desdemona, 126 Dickler, 126 F. C. PucZdZe, 127 Florence Spencer, 127 GoZd Mohur, 127

atro-violaceum, 110 bigibbum, 66, 110 densiRorum, 66, 110 Farmeri, 66, 110 thyrsiHorum, 66, 110
COOL-GROWING, EVERGREEN SPECIES

Tampense, 116 vitellinum, 117 Epipactus latifolia, 7 Epiphronitis, 20; Veitcftii, 98, 108, 117 Epiphytes, epiphytic orchids, 3, 12-27 passim, 34, 42, 52, 54, 58, 59, 62, 65-8 passim, 90-97 jbasFeeding, artificial, 82, 87, 90-97 Flask seedlings, 86-9; see aZso Seedlings

Dearei, 65, 110 Formosum, 66, 110 infundibulum, 66,

110

Jamesianum, 66, 110 Phalaenopsis, 65, 110

132 Flowers (petals, sepals, etc.), 3-8, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20-25 passim Fungi, 9, 75, 81-2, 86 Gravel culture, 90-97 Habenaria, 13, 90 Haydite, see Gravel culture Heat, 26, 27, 28, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 434, 45, 47; system for providing, 36-8 Housing, 15-25 passim, 26-39, 44; see a'so Heat, Sunlight, Ventilation 'Lady's slipper,' see Cypripedium Laelia, 6, 9, 12, 15, 16, 91, 99, ioi, 109 anceps, 109 autumnalis, 109 Gouldiana, 109 grandiflora, 109 purpurata, 103, 109 superbiens, 109 tenebrosa, 101, 109 xanthina, 109 culture of, 42, 44, 46 potting of, 54, 65 Laeliocattleya, 15, 1256 Aconcagua, 126 Anaconda, 125 callistoglossa, 103 Canberra, 125 Canhamiana, 103,
125

Laeliocattleya (Cont.) Golden Ray, 125 Jervis Bay, var. Our King, 125 luminosa aurea, 101 lustre, 103 Michael, 125 Pallas, 125 Princess Ishtar, 125 Princess Margaret, 83 St. Gothard, 127 Sargon, 103, 125 Schroederae, 125, 126 Schroederae, var. alba, 125 Shimadzu, 125 Talana, 125 The Moor, 103 Trivanhoe, 125 Windermere, 125 Leaf mold, 60, 61; see dfco Potting, media Lycaste, 23, 121-2, 127

Masdevallia. 24; fenestra, 7 Maxillaria, 8, 23 fucata, 122 Sanderiana, 122 Miltonia, 12, 22, 74, 79, 119-20, 127
SPECIES

Bluntii, 119 Clowesii, 119 cuneata, 119 Endressii, 119 Roezlii, 119 spectabilis, 119 vexillaria, 120 vexillaria, var. Memorid G. D. Owen,
120

vexillaria, var. Sanderiana, 120

HYBRIDS

Crowborough, 125 Eastern Queen, 125 Erato, 126 Fiesta, 125 Fulva, 125 Golden Gleam, 125 Golden Radiance, 125

Duchess of York, 104 H. T. Pitt, 127 Lyceana, 105 Merope, SPECIES 104 Nesta, 104 aromatica, 121 pulchra, 127 Rear Candida, 121 Admiral, 127 culture cruenta, 121 of, 43, 62, 68 pests Deppei, 121 and diseases of, Locusta, var. Sanders, 71 121 Miltonioda, 22 Skinneri, 121 Carol, 127 Skinneri, var. ArmenLilian, 127 iaca, 122 Skinneri, var. delica- Monachanthus viridis, 8 Monopodial growth, 10, tissima, 122 Skinneri, var. Mrs. 11-12 Hamilton Smith, Native habitats of or127 chids Skinneri, var. purpurAfrica, 13 ata, 122 Arctic Circle, 13 Skinneri alba, 127 Australia, 13, 16, 25, HYBRIDS 26, 27, 110, 120 Balliae, 127 Barbara Central America, 17, Sander, 127 24, 27, 42, 68, imschootiana, var. 108, 109, 1 1 1 , 122 bellissima, 127 Costa Rica, 43, 107, Sunrise, var. Fiona,
127 109, 118, 122

INDEX Native habitats of orchids (Cont.) Guatemala, 109,

111, 112, 118, 119, 121, 122 Honduras, 109 China, 16, 111, 113, 114, 116, 120 Cochin China, 121, 123

133

Native habitats of orchids (Cont.) Philippine Islands, 16,

43, 110, 111, 116; Mindanao, 115 Siam, 16, 113 South America, 4, 17, 27, 42, 43, 1 1 1 , 116

Odontoglossum (Cont.) crispum Veitchianum, 118 crispum virginalis,

118 HYBRIDS, PRIMARY

Brazil, 15, 42, 43,

108, 109, m, 112

Eastern Archipelago, 42 Borneo, 16, 116, 121 Java, 16, 111, 115, 116 Sumatra, 16, 121 India, 25, 42, 43,
110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 120 Annam, 114 Assam, 111, 113, 114, 115, 121 Burma, 16, 111,
] 14, 1 1 5 , 123

Colombia, 43, 107, 108, 116, 117, 118 Ecuador, 1 1 1 , 122 Guiana, 42, 111 Peru, in, 119, 121, 122

Venezuela, 42, 107,

108, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123 South

Pacific Islands,
13, 25 Trinidad, 1 1 1

Ceylon, 27, 111, 120

West Indies, 17 Nectaries, 4, 6-7 Neottis, 13 Nodes (dormant eyes),

10, 14-15, 17

Himalaya Mountains, 43, 114, 121 Moulmein, 110, 113,

114, 116, 120

North India, 114, 115 Sikkhim, 13, 16 Japan, 16 Madagascar, 41, 120 Malacea, 121 Malaya, 16, 112, 114,
115, 116, 120 Mexico, 15, 17, 20, 42, 108, 109, 111, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123

Odontioda Acis, 127 chantos, 127 Dovedale, 127 Dovere, 127 Eudacis, 127 lopa, 127 Wedding Bells, 127 Odontocidium, 21 Odontoglossum, 12, 21, 47, 117-19
SPECIES --- COOL, SHADE-LOVING

ardentissimum, 117 grande, 118 grande, var. magnificum, 118 Harryanum, 118 laeve, 118 laeve, var. Reichenheimii, 118 odoratum, 118 Oerstedii, 118 Oerstedii, var. majus, 118 Pescatorei, 118 Pescatorei, var. leucoxanthum, 118 Pescatorei, var. melanocentrum, 118 Pescatorei, var. Veitchii, 118 Schlieperianum, 118 Uro-Skinneri, 119 Uro-Skinneri, var. album, 119 Wyattianum, 119
HYBRIDS

Brimstone Butterfly,
127

Clovis, 127 Crethus, 104 Eudora, 127 Purple Queen, 104,

105

St. James, 105 Serapis, 104 Slieila Stephenson,

127

New Guinea, 110 New Zealand, 13, 16 North America, 13,

18, 112 California, 112 Minnesota, 112

citrosmum, 117 crispum, 104, 105, 117 crispum, var. aureum,

118

crispum nobilius, 118 crispum Stevenesii,

118

Thisbe, 105 triumplians, 127 culture of, 43, 44, 68 housing of, 35, 38 pests of, 73 potting of, 61, 62 Odontonia, 21, 104

134
Oncidium, 17, 21, 66, 9i candidum, 66, 111 crispum, 66, 111 flexuosum, 66, 111 Kramerianum, 111 Lanceanum, 66, 111, Phaius (Cont.) Polypodium, 53, 88, 91, grandifolius, var. su92, 93; see also perbus, 120 Potting, media Humblottii, 120 Potinara, 99; Media, 127 maculatus, 120 Potting, 50-62, 88-9, Tankervilliae, see 94, 95 grandifolius equipment, 53-5 media, tuberculosus, 120 52-3, 54, 55, 127 Wallichi, 120 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, mdcranthum, 66, 111 Phalaenopsis, 10, 11, 62, 88, 91, 92, 93 ornithorynchum, 111 20, 68, 79, 83, 91, overpotting, danger papilio, 111 splendidum, 93 of, 55 112 varicosum, 112 SPECIES --- WARMprocedure, 55-9 varicosum, var. Rogersii, GROWING, 115-l6 proper time to repot, 112 culture of, 42, 46 amabilis, 102, 104, 50-52, 59, 60, 62 pests of, 73 potting of, Propagation, 3-9, 10, 56 54, 60 Orchids 115, 127 amabilis, var. aurea, by backbulb, 9, 14, habitats of, see Na116 amabilis, var. tive habitats of or56 Rimechids by division, 9, 10, 61 stadiana, 102, 104, TYPES OF by plantlets, 10, 59, 116 deciduous, 10, 17, 18, 64 by seed, 6, 8, 9, cornu-cervi, 116 47, 59, 65, 66, 110 10, grandiflora, 116 epiphytic, see 81-9 Pseudobulbs, Lueddemaniana, 116 9, 12, 14Epiphytes rosea, 116 evergreen, 18, 21, 23, 18 passim, 20-25 Schilleriana, 116, 127 47, 65, 66, 110 passim, 40 monopodial, 10, 11HYBRIDS, 102, 104, Pterostylus, 7
12 127

saprophytic, 12 sympodial, 9, 10, 11,

12, 16, 18, 21, 23, 24

Algers, 104 Altadena, 104 Elizabethae, 104 Gilles Gratiot, 102,

104, 116, 127

terrestrial, 12, 13, 18, 22, 60, 61, 90, 92; semi-terrestrial, 12,
13, 18

Orchis, 7; maculata, 8 Osmunda, 53, 55-62 passim, 91, 93; see also Potting, media Pests and diseases, 7080 Phaius, 6, 22, 73 Cooksonii, 120 grandifolius, 120

Jeanne d'Arc, 102, 104 Katerine Siegwart, var. Etna, 127 La Canada, 102, 104 Marmouset, 127 Ninon, 127 Psyche, 104 ReVe Rose, 104 Winged Victory, 104 culture of, 42, 44; gravel, 91, 93 pests of, 73, 77 potting of, 54, 59 Pollination, 3-8, 24, 83, 84; cross- versus self-, 3-4, 6, 7, 8

Renanthera, 10, 25 coccinea, 123 Imschootiana, 123 Rhizoctonia, 9, 75, 81-2 Roots, 3, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 2 4, 67 Royal Horticultural Society, 124; awards,
99, 102, 124-7

Scale, 27, 73, 74, 79 Seed, see Propagation by seed Seedlings, 10, 89, 94, 95; see also Flask seedlings and Propagation by seed Shade, means of attaining, 30, 34, 39 Sobralia, 13

INDEX Sophrocattleya Peach Blossom, 127 Sophrolaeliocattleya Cecily Watson, 127 Cleopatra, 127 Vulcan, 127 Sophronitis, 6, 20, 21, 99 grandiflora, 98, 102, 117, 127 41-3, 44, 64-8 <2Ssim, 88, 89, 91, 92 Symbiotic planting of seed, 81, 82 Sympodial growth, 9,

135

V. Sanderiana, 44, 59, 68, 11; suavis, 67, 115 ieres, 67 tricolor, 67, 115 11, 12; see also culture of, 38, 42 Orchids, types of housing of, 38 pests and diseases of, Thrips, 22, 71, 72, 77, 73, 76 potting of, 59 79 Trichopelia, grandiflora, var. coc- 24 Vanilla, 8 coccinea, 122 cinea, 117 lutescens, 123 grandiflora, var. rosea, coccinea, var. crispa, planifolia, 123 117 122 Ventilation (aeration), Sphagnum, 53, 59, 60, coccinea, var. margi- 21, 26-9 passim, 34-5, 61; see also Potting, nata, 122 40, 42-6 passim, 58, 64-6 media Spiranthes, 13, suavis, 122 passim, 68, 69, 87, 90 Spraying, 45 47 suavis, var. grandi- 89, 9i, 93, 94, 96, 97 Stanhopea, 21, 68 flora, 122 eburnea, 119 ecornuta, Wardian case, 28 119 insignis, 119 oculata, 119 tigrina, 119 Vanda, 7, 10, 11, 19, Watering, 25, 47, 48, 46, 58, 67, 83, 91 53, 55, 58, 62, 64Wardii, 119 Sunlight, Agnes Joachim, 67 26, 27, 28, 30, 33-4, 9 passim, 89 bicolor, 115 coerulea, 39, 40, 54, 58, 67, Zygopetalum, 42 68, 115 concolor, 115