Anthropology Midterm 1 Study Guide:

History of Evolutionary Thought Carolus Linnaeus: o Taxonomy: the science of classifying and naming living things. o Botanist o Believed that each thing was completely different (no evolution) o Binomial nomenclature: Two-level genus-species labels. Naming system for all organisms, consisting of a genus and species label. Compte de Buffon: o Authored a 36 volume encyclopedia about all that was known about natural history in his day. o Mutability (change) of species. Animals that migrate to new climates often change in response to new environments. o Claimed animals of new world were weaker and smaller than their counterparts in the old world, a result of a generally less healthy and productive environment. Georges Cuvier: o Believed that organisms are so complex that they could not function if you changed any part of them o Believed that similarities among species were from similarities of common function. Nothing to do with their ancestry, etc. o Catastrophism: theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by great natural disasters such as Noahs flood. o First to propose that species went extinct o Homology and analogy Homology: similar characteristics in two animals that are a product of descent from a common ancestor rather than a product of a similar environment. SHARED COMMON ANCESTRY Analogy: shared common function Jean Baptiste Lamark: o Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics o Lamarckianism: all organisms make adjustments to their environments during their lifetime that could be passed on to their offspring, making them better adapted to their environment. Believed giraffes have larger necks because they are stretching to eat from trees and they have evolved longer necks. Elephant trunks. *this is not true. James Hutton: o Uniformitarianism: Theory that the same gradual geological process we observe today was operating in the past. o Studied geology. Saw clear evidence of past worlds through volcanism, plate tectonics, and the upcrust of the earth. Uniformitarian theory that the geological processes that drive the natural world today are the same as those that prevailed in the past. Gradual processes of nature are the same thing that occurred in the past. The weathering of rocks that occurred in the past is the same that we see now. Whats happening now is what happened in

the past. Lyell: o Principles of Geology. Theorized that the Earth is unimaginably old (at the time there was a belief that the Earth was not that old). He determined that it was old by looking at the geologic processes (ex: weathering). o Uniformitarianism o Argued that slow, gradual change was the way of the physical world. Thomas Malthus: o Observed that if left unchecked, human populations would grow rapidly, outstripping their resources and ultimately crashing because of famine. o Struggle for existence. Fierce competition for scarce resources. Production of food cannot keep up with population growth. Homology and Analogy o Homology: similar characteristics in two animals that are a product of descent from a common ancestor rather than a product of a similar environment. SHARED COMMON ANCESTRY o Analogy: shared common function Charles Darwin: o SS Beagle Trip: went on a mapping voyage where he witnessed tortoise shell adaptations and the famous Darwin finches with different beaks. When the rains slowed their beaks began to grow longer. o Adaptive radiation: large diversification of animals Darwins postulates: o 1) Individuals within a population vary; o 2) Some of this variation is passed on to offspring; o 3) More offspring are produced than can survive; o 4) Survival and reproduction are not random: individuals who survive and reproduce are those with the most favored variations. This process of differential survival is natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace: o Laid out exactly what Darwin had been proposing but hadnt yet published in its totality o Wrote to Darwin for advice as to whether the idea was sound and worthy of publication. Field biologists collecting plant and animal specimens in Indonesia. o Darwin saw this and decided he needed to publish his own work (priority of publication). They had both concluded the same thing, so Darwin wanted to publish it first. Genetics Cell components o Cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, DNA, nuclear membrane, nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum o Prokaryotes: single-celled o Eukaryotes: cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus

Structure and Function of DNA o DNA has to replicate, make proteins, and direct development. o DNA Structure I: The Molecular Level Basic unit of DNA is a nucleotide (which consists of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base) o DNA Function I: Replication DNA molecule divides into two separate strands (because of the weak hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are broken). Each of the strands serves as a template for the assembly of a new complementary strand of DNA. o DNA Function II: Protein Synthesis: Proteins such as hemoglobin bind to oxygen and transport it throughout the body, and other proteins facilitate the movement of molecules across cell membranes. o DNA Structure II: Chromosomes and Cell Division Mitosis: somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells. Start off with a parent cell, and the end result is the cell is an exact copy of the parent cell. Meiosis: cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova. Goes through two forms of replication o Basic structure of DNA Double-stranded helix Strands with sugar and phosphate, with bases in the middle that lock together. 4 Bases TA (compliments) GC (compliments) o Base: variable component of the nucleotides the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. o Watson and Crick: Race to find DNA structure DNA Functions: replication and protein synthesis o Self-replicates (makes a copy of itself) Double-helix unwinds/unzips Complimentary bases come in and forms two sides (Synthesis underway) Zips back up, two doubles then (synthesis complete) o Protein synthesis o Mistakesmutations o 20 amino acids 8 to 9 essential amino acidsessential to the human body Each of these acids is coded/known by a codon (a DNA triplet) 64 possible different codons that can be builttheres a lot of

replication/overlap that can be done o A gene is any link of DNA that codes for a specific protein o Protein synthesis Transcription The two DNA strands separate/unzip at the site of a gene Translation (1) When mRNA binds to the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis. As each codon is read, a tRNA brings the corresponding amino acid to the ribosome. Translation (2) The mRnA is read by the ribosome codon by codon. Translation (3) As each codon is read, tRNA transports the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome where it can be added to the growing protein chain. o Transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell, while translation (protein synthesis) occurs in the cytoplasm. Mutations o Create new alleles o Source for recessive alleles o An alteration in the DNA, which may or may not alter the function of a cell. If it occurs in a gamete, it may be passed from one generation to the next. Most mutations are neutral, favorability or unfavorability determine by context of point mutations. o Ex: sickle-cell Amino Acids o 20 amino acids 8 to 9 essential amino acidsessential to the human body Each of these acids is coded/known by a codon (a DNA triplet) 64 possible different codons that can be builttheres a lot of replication/overlap that can be done Chromosomes o Discrete structures composed of condensed DNA and supporting proteins. o Humans have 46 individual chromosomes, 23 pairs o Chromosomesmany terms Chromatin: loose aggregate of DNA in the nucleus. Occasionally it will condense to form chromosomes. Diploid, Haploid o Diploid: 23 pairs, haploid: 23 chromosomes (sex cells) o Diploid number: Full complement of paired chromosomes in a somatic cell. In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs of different chromosomes).

o Haploid number: The number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing one of each pair found in a diploid somatic cell. In humans, the haploid number is 23. Heterozygous: having two different alleles at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes) Homozygous: having the same allele at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes). Meiosis: goes through 2 forms of replication. Cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova (gametes). It creates 4 sperm cells or 1 egg and 3 polar bodies. Mitosis: somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells. This happens in every cell in your body. Start off with a parent cell, and the end result is the cell that is an exact copy of the parent cell. Gregor Mendel o Garden peas o 1900 that Mendel was rediscovered and given credit o monk o common garden pea o Demonstrated the nonblending particulate nature of heredity (particulate inheritance). He studied peas and his conclusions can be found using the punnet square with gamete formation. o He made a number of crosses with his pea plants. Only looking at 7 traits. Traits: seed coat (round or wrinkled), seed color (green or yellow), pod shape (full or constricted), pod color (green or yellow), flower color (violet or white), stem form (axial or terminal), and stem size (tall or dwarf). Discrete traits: one or the other, as opposed to continuous. Nothing in between, no blending. Green parents and yellow parents True breeding parents: same color, no blending Green + Yellow Yellow + Yellow Green + Yellow + Yellow + Yellow 3:1 relationship, 3 yellow for every green o Mendels postulates (in parenthesis is the book definition, regular is from notes) Hereditary characteristics determined by 2 particles, one from each parent; Hereditary characteristics are controlled by particulate unit factors that exist in pairs in individual organisms When there are two potential factors responsible for trait, only one is expressed; i.e., one is dominant and the other is recessive; When an individual has two different unit factors responsible for a characteristic; only one is expressed and is said o be dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive. When gametes form, the paired unit factors (chromosomes)

segregate randomly, so that each sex cell receives one or the other in a random fashionlaw of segregation; During the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate, or segregate randomly so that each sex cell receives one or the other with equal likelihood. Mitosis and meiosis. Chromosomes are doubling, and will eventually end up in the daughter cells completely randomly. When gametes form, pairs of unit factors (chromosomes) for different traits segregate independently of one anotherlaw of independent assortment. During gamete formation, segregating pairs of unit factors assort independently of each other. Law of Independent Assortment o Mendels o Genes found on different chromosomes are sorted into sex cells independently of one another o When gametes form, pairs or unit factors (chromosomes) for different traits segregate independent of one another Mendels law of segregation o (when gametes form) The two alleles of a gene found on each of a pair of chromosomes segregate independently of one another into sex cells. Dominant, recessive o Genotype: AA (dominant) or aa (recessive). o Dominant: in a diploid organism, an allele that is only one of a pair of homologous chromosomes. o Recessive: In a diploid organism refers to an allele that must be present in two copies (homozygous) in order to be expressed. Mendelian trait o Either you have it or you dont, completely discrete traits not overlapping o Sicke cell, hemopilia, cystic fibrosis, eye color Autosomal recessive (diseases): A disease caused by a recessive allele; one copy of the allele must be inherited from each parent for the disease to develop. Autosomal dominant (diseases): A disease that is caused by a dominant allele: Only one copy needs to be inherited from either parent for the disease to develop. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Traits o Qualitative (Mendelian) traits Non-overlapping traits that are discrete. Nothing in-between. Ex: sickle cell, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, eye color (to some extent), tongue rolling o Quantitative traits Height Weight Skin color Human diseases (cancer, diabetes) Heritability o The proportion of total phenotypic variability observed for a given trait that

can be ascribed to genetic factors. o Heritability = VG / (VG + VE ) o Compare offspring with parent in a linear regression (statistical technique) Evolution by Natural Selection Postulate: indicates a statement or assumption that is agreed by everyone to be so obvious or self-evident that no proof is necessary, Deduction: form of inference such that the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. Modern Synthesis o Wedding genetics and natural selection Reproductive Success: Fitness Fitness: ability of an individual to survive and reproduce. Biological measure of reproductive success. Definition of Evolution: change in gene frequencies over generations. A change in a frequency of a gene or a trait in a population over multiple generations. Stabilizing Selection: Selection that maintains a certain phenotype by selecting against deviations from it. Selecting for the average. No change in the average between generations. Directional Selection: Natural selection that drives evolutionary change by selecting for greater or lesser frequency of a given trait in a population. When you are selecting for one of the extremes. Other mechanisms: o Genetic Drift: mechanism for evolutionary change. Random changes in gene frequency in a population. Urn example Very large urn. 50% black: 50% red Draw 10 balls at random 5:5 3:7 6:4 6:4 5:5 Ellis-van Creveld syndrome Dwarfism 6 fingers o Founder effect: A component of genetic drift theory, stating that new populations that become isolated from the parent population carry only the genetic variation of the founders. o Genetic Bottleneck: bottleneck severely reduces population size and genetic diversity. Temporary dramatic reduction in size of a population or species. o Sexual selection: Differential reproductive success within one sex of any species. o Intersexual: competition between the sexes Female choice Males can produce many more offspring during their lifetime. Females are much more limited.

Males are limited by number of available females, and females are limited by their resources. Males in competition with each other to gain access to the female. o Intrasexual: Males fighting amongst themselves for access to the females. Sexual dimorphism as a consequence for the male-male competition o Gene flow: Movement of genes between populations Beak depth Insures that theres homogenation of the genes within a species If we didnt have gene flowwould be the same range of variation of beaks Evolutionary Concepts Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: The theoretical distribution of alleles in a given population in the absence of evolution, expressed as a mathematical equation. o (p + q)2 = 1 Where p and q are the allele frequencies. o p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Where p2, pq, q2 are genotype frequencies. AA, Aa, aa If a population meets the H-W equilibrium, should be able to calculate the genotype frequencies directly from the allele frequencies. Hardy-Weinberg o Parental genotypic frequencies: freq (AA) = .40 freq (Aa) = .40 freq (aa) = .20 Then, allele frequencies are A = .6, a = .4 o If population is in equilibrium, we expect that allele and genotype frequencies will be unchanged in next generation. However Hardy-Weinberg o F1 (offspring) genotypic frequencies Freq (AA) = .36 Freq (Aa) = .48 Freq (aa) = .16 o BUT allele frequencies are still A = .6, a = .4 o Changes in genotype Gene (allele) Frequencies: o Adding up the amount of A and a in a distributed frequency o If Freq Aa = .40, AA = .40, and aa = .20 o Then the allele frequencies are as follows: A = .6, a = .4 o if population is in equilibrium, we expec that allele and genotype

frequencies will be unchanged in next generation Genotype Frequencies: o If the allele frequencies did not change, there was only changes in the genotype not in the genes Maintenance of Variation in a Population: Adaptation: traits that increase the fitness of an individual compared to others without the trait. Evolved phenotypic traits that increase an organisms reproductive success (produced by the natural selection in the context of a particular environment). Preadaptation: new use for a pre-existing structure. Pre-existing structure takes on a new function. Ex: Pandas thumb. Sixth finger used to husk bamboo. Expendable pad = thumb radial sesamoid making use of a pre-existing structure but elaborating it to take on a new function. Making use of something thats already there. Convergence: the acquistion of the same trait independently in different lineages. (analogous traits). Derived traits acquired independently. Similar form or function brought about by natural selection under similar environments rather than shared ancestry. o Homology (similarity due to common ancestry) and analogy (similarity due to similar function) Fossil Record: Biogeography: geographical distribution of marsupials ??? Vestigial Structures: (have no function) Blind cave fish. Forms the socket for the eye, but doesnt have the eye itself. Coccyx (tailbone) Goose bumps: due to arrector pilli muscles. Cause hair to stand on end. In chimp society, that hair erection is very importantsignal that something important is going to happen. Fossil record o Whales. Fully 4-limbed creature o Horses. Start to lose digits. Species definitions: o How we define a species: an interbreeding group of animals or plants that are reproductively isolated through anatomy, ecology, behavior, or geographic distribution from all other such groups. o Biological species concept: Species are groups of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other groups. These groups should be reproductively isolated from other groups. Gene flow within groups, but no gene flow between species. Formation of one or more new species via

reproductive isolation. Liger (male lion, female tiger). Tiglon (male tiger, female lion) o Phylogenetic species concept: Phylogeny is a tree of relatedness. Phylogenetic trees show relatedness of groups of organisms. Species based on unique characters that set them apart from other groups. o Evolutionary species concept: How similar they are through time. Identity through time. Defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique identity. o Morphospecies concept: Some animals are just going to look more similar than others. Some things just dont fossilize o Ecological species concept: Defining a species by their unique environmental niche. Selection is operating to keep these species a distinct species. Selection is operating against hybrids. Not used as widely. Defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche. o Drawbacks: used mainly by paleontologists. Lots of traits we talk about just dont fossilize---criteria just arent available. We just dont know. Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms: o Any factorbehavioral, ecological, or anatomicalthat prevents a male and female of two different species from hybridizing. o Premating isolating mechanisms Habitat isolation Temporal isolation Behavioral isolation Mechanical incompatibility o Postmating isolating mechanisms Sperm-egg incompatibility Zygote inviability Embryonic or fetal inviability Offspring inviability Offspring sterility Patterns of Speciation o Allopatric Speciation: Speciation occurring via geographic isolation. Gene flow becomes interrupted and over thousands of generations, random mutations accumulate in each population until each diff enough that they can be considered different species. Ex: Darwins finches. o Sympatric Speciation: Speciation occurring in the same geographic location. Speciation occurring in the same geographic location. One species divides into 2, not because of geographic separation. Occurs when multiple phenotypes exist in a species, some of which have greater reproductive success than others. Most common cases are found in plants, in which a single mistake made during reproduction produces a large-scale chromosomal mutation. o Parapatric Speciation: Speciation occurring when two populations have continuous distributions and some phenotypes in that distribution are more

favorable than others. Primate Taxonomy Phylogeny: Lines of evolutionary descent; family tree. An evolutionary tree indicating relatedness and divergence of taxonomic groups. Taxonomy: grouping animals not just by their evolutionary relationships but also giving a little more weight to certain characters. The science of biological classification.

PRIMATE taxonomy:

Systematics: construction of phylogenies. Branch of biology that describes patterns of organismal variation. Ancestral (primitive) vs. derived vs. convergent characters o Traits are shared and primitive the same o Traits are shared and derived traits that made it not look like the other two

o Convergence where the red eye cootie and the orange spotted cootie developed their red eyes independently their red eyes independently from each other and from their ancestors Parsimony: the simplest explanation that covers a case Interpreting Cladograms: o Phylgenetic tree that shows the ancestor and its descendants o Cootie diagrams Symplesiomorphy: shared primitive/ancestral trait Synapomorphy: shared derived characteristics what are primitive and derived????
Major primate groupings (as discussed in class): prosimian, anthropoid, strepsirhine, haplorhine, etc. Pongids vs hominids Do this with Steph because its gonna be a bitch

Also study: Labeling of Skeleton Taxonomy Chart Lab packet from museum Roberts study guide Book Class Notes