A Project On

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
HISTORY
SUBMITTED TO: - Dr. Priya Darshini FACULTY: - HISTORY

CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Created by : Nidhi Navneet 1st year (1st semester) ROLL No.570 B.A.LL.B. (Hons)

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am feeling highly elated to work on the topic The Chola Administration under the guidance of my HISTORY teacher. I am very grateful to her for her exemplary guidance. I would like to enlighten my readers regarding this topic and I hope I have tried my best to pave the way for bringing more luminosity to this topic. I also want to thank all of my friends, without whose cooperation this project was not possible. Apart from all these, I want to give special thanks to the librarian of my university who made every relevant materials regarding to my topic available to me at the time of my busy research work and gave me assistance. And at last I am very much obliged to the God who provided me the potential for the rigorous research work. At finally yet importantly I would like to thank my parents for the financial support.

-----------Thanking you Nidhi Navneet C.N.L.U.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS
The project is basically based on the doctrinal method of research as no field work is done on this topic.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

The aim of the project is to present a detailed study of The Chola Administration through available texts and different writings, articles & sources. Through this project, the researcher is trying to know more about the administrative procedures of Cholas Empire, their functioning and government.

SOURCES OF DATA
The whole project is made with the use of secondary source. The following secondary sources of data have been used in the project1. Articles 2. Books 3. Websites

METHOD OF WRITING
The method of writing followed in the course of this research paper is primarily analytical.

MODE OF CITATION
The researcher has followed a uniform mode of citation throughout the course of this research paper.

TYPE OF STUDY
For this topic, the researcher has opted for Descriptive and Explanatory type of study as in this topic; the researcher is providing the descriptions of the existing facts.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction Sources of Information The Rulers of Chola Dynasty The Chola Administration 1. 2. 3. The Central Administration The Provincial Administration The Local Administration 4 6 8 11 11 14 15 18 21
24

Social, Economic & Religious Conditions of Cholas Conclusion

Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION
India, having a vast history ranging from ancient times to the modern time, have witnessed reigns of various dynasties from time to time and from one to another region. One of such empires of the Southern India were of the CHOLAS which was also called CHOLAMANDALAM or Coromandel, which emerged in the early medieval or later ancient period of Indian history. The Chola Dynasty was said to belong to the 9 th century AD but the historicity of the early Cholas is a bit doubtful. For the Chola period, there are many sources but mainly we get references from the Sangam texts 1 which is said to be compiled during 4th century BC and mainly refers about the administration and functioning of Chola government. Also we get references of chola empire in the works of Katyayan , in Ashokan inscriptions. The Periplus 2 gives us information about the ports and inland towns of the chola territory. The sources of information for this dynasty are going to be discussed in detail. The Chola Dynasty, a Tamil dynasty, ruled primarily in southern India until the thirteenth century. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. It laid north and south between the two rivers, PENNAR and VELLARU. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. The history of the Cholas falls naturally into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Chalukya Chola dynasty of Kulothunga

1 2

K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 106 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Ancient History source book).

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Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century.3 Karikala Chola4 stands as the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I ruled as notable emperors of the medieval Cholas. The Cholas reached the height of their power during the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The notable cities of the Cholas were Tanjore, Trichanapolis, Kumbakonam. The capital of the Chola empire was Gangaikondacholapuram which was built by Rajendra-I who took the title of Gangaikondachola which means the conqueror of Ganga. This capital is said to have existed between 11 and 12 century AD. The two centres of this period which depict the very evidence of the Chola rule was PUHAR on the coast and the PURAIYUR island. In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India came, for the first time, brought under a single government5, when a reform movement attempted to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and commerce. The Chola rule witnessed a large scale development in all spheres of life. Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples, literature and monuments speak much about the social, economic and religious life of the people during the Chola period. The Chola kings followed a highly systematised and efficient system of administration. The people of the Chola Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration. The administration of the Chola empire is going to be described in the subsequent chapters.

The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to a bloody end with the assassination of Virarajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I a distant relation to the main Chola line through marriage ascended the throne in 1070. 4 Majumdar, p 137 5 The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence occured during the Vijayanagara Empire (13361614)

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Sources of Information
About the Cholas, we came to know with the help of different kinds of Sources. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple, monuments and copperplate inscriptions. In detail, they are-

Historical Sources
History of any society or kingdom can be written only with the help of available relevant source materials. Lot of inscriptions, archaeological and literary sources are available for the study of the history of the Cholas. Literature: Great literature like Mahavamsam6 talks about the early Cholas. Foreign visitors like Megasthenes, give useful information about the early Cholas. The inscriptions of Ashoka and many contemporary sources talk about the early Chola rule. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea present brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce. Periplus represents a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81 96 C.E.) and contains minimal information of the Chola country. Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolem7y gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Inscriptions: Inscriptions are the main sources of information for the history of the Chola period. Inscriptions were placed on the walls of the temples and pillars. This is amply illustrated in the Brahadeeswarar temple at Tanjore known as Big temple. Many important inscriptions are found in Cuddalore, Villupuram, Trichy, Tanjore, Chidambaram, Kumbakonam and Nagapattinam, The stone inscription gives us useful information about the administration of the Chola rulers. Thiruvandhipuram inscriptions speak about the reign of Rajendra III. The Uttaramerur inscriptions give informations about the kudavolai system, village administration, taxation and land revenue. Meikirthis are also found in inscriptions Anbil plates, the Kanyakumari stone inscription, Karanthai

Wilhelm Geiger, THE MAHAVAMSA 6th Century B.C.E. to 4th Century AD, translated from the Palilakdiva.org. 7 Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form Khaberis) - Proceedings, American Philosophical Society 122 (6) (1978).

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011

plates and Thiruvalangadu copper plates give useful informations about the Cholas. Monuments: Monuments are useful source of information of the Chola empire.The Brahadeeswarar temple of Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, Airavateesvarar temple of Dharasuram and the Kambagareswarar temple in Thirupuvanam are some of the important monuments of the Cholas.

Numismatic Sources
The Chola kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Specimen of gold coins is extremely rare. Silver and copper coins are found in plenty. Figure of tiger was engraved as the Chola emblem on every Chola coin issued during that period. Names of the Chola Kings are also engraved on chola coins. Chola Coins is useful to fix the chronology of the Chola rulers. Coins are also useful to study the social and economic condition of the Chola period.
An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas

Literature
Literature sources are very useful for the study of both Sangam Cholas and later Cholas. Sekkilars Periyapuranam deals with the life of Saiva devotees. Sekkilar was a contemporary of Kulothunga II Kalingathuparani of Jayamkondan, three Ulas and the Kulothungan pillai tamil of Ottakoothar give useful informations about the Cholas. Other literary works like Veerasoliyam. Sthalapuranam. Navachola charitham and Cholavamsa charitham speak about the early Cholas.

Foreign sources
Mahavamsam the Ceylon literature talks about the relationship between the early Chola country and Ceylon kingdom. European traveler Marcopolo and foreign writer Megasthanese give interesting informations about the Cholas. Alberuni a Muslim historian writes about the Cholas.

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The Rulers of Chola Dynasty

There are descriptions of various rulers belonging to the Chola Dynasty, there is a long lineage but many of them didnt get much recognition. The Sangam literature also testifies the rule of several Chola rulers. The first ruler is said to be the feudatories of Pallavas of Kanchi, he was Vijalaya Chola.

Vijayalaya: (850-870 AD). In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya8 founded the

dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the conflict between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his capital and thus, was also called the master of Tanjore. He was succeeded by his son Aditya-I.

Aditya-I: He defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana,

the Kongu ruler.He was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I.

Parantaka-I: He ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached

supremacy under his reign. He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon conquered the Vadumbas. He swept away all the traces of Pallavas power, but received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.

Sunder Chola: He ruled between 957-973 AD. Not much information is

available about him. He is succeeded by Rajaraja-I.

Rajaraja Chola: (985-1014 AD). He was the one of the imperialistic and
greatest rulers of South India. He was known as Rajaraja, the Great. Under the rule of Rajaraja, the Chola kingdom grew into an extensive and well knit pire. It maintained diplomatic ties with countries as distant as Burma (now Myanmar), China and Malaysia across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja I with the help of his able son Rajendra conquered nearly the whole of the present Madras Presidency. He defeated the eastern Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas of Mysore. He was an able administrator and also a great builder. Rajaraja chola built a magnificent temple at Tanjore, which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.
8

The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna.

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Rajendra-I9: He ruled between 1014-1044.He built a new capital
Gangaikondacholapuram and hence acquired the title of Gangaikondachola. He set up Vaishnava centre and the Vedic college for teaching Vedas. He had a friendly relationship with the China emperor, and had a peaceful reign of 32 years. He extended the territory inherited from his father, and subdued the power of Pandyas and Keralas. During Rajendra Chola reign the kingdom was called the "Golden Age of Cholas." After his death the Chola kingdom began to decline. His successors were weak and so the kingdom started disintegrating. The next ruler Rajendra-II (1052-1064 AD) just managed to maintain the Chola empire though he had to struggle with the troubling Chalukyas.

Vira Rajendra: Vira Rajendra (1064 - 1070 AD) was the elder brother of
Rajendra-II. He succeeded his brother to reign for the next seven years. He met the invasion of Chalukya King and defeated the Chalukya ruler. He reconquered Vengi and foiled the efforts of Vijayabahu of Ceylon who was trying to drive the Cholas out of Ceylon. Soon after the death of Vira Rajendra in 1070 AD, there was a contest for the throne and Adhi-Rajendra, the heir apparent took the throne.

Kulottunga-I: Rajendra-II succeeded Adhirajendra under the title Kulottunga

Chola. Pandyas and Chera's attack were put down by Kulottunga10. The southern Kalinga revolt were put down too. In about 1118 AD, the Viceroy of Vengi the Vikramaditya VI took control of Vengi from Chola and thus succeeded in separating the Cholas from the Eastern Chalukyas. Gangavadi and Nolambavadi were lost to Hoysala's Vishnuvardhana.

Vikrama Chola: (1120-1135 AD). The next successor, the son of

Kulottunga-I restored the Chola power by reconquering Vengi and by taking control of part of Gangavadi. His reign was somewhat peaceful to his subjects though there were floods and famines in the South Arcot. The Hoysala expansion took control of Chola power slowly and subsequently. The last rulers namely Kulottunga - II, Rajaraja - II, Rajadhiraja - III could not stop the Hoysalas annexation of Chola Kingdom. Cholas hold on
9

Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V prisoner. See Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 194210. 10 a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India

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Pandyan kingdom had already weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava chief declared independence. The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire ceased to exist for ever.

THE GENEOLOGICAL TABLE

Vijayalaya

Aditya-I

Parantaka-I

Rajaditya-I

Arinjaya

Parantaka-II

Aditya-II

Rajaraja-I

Rajendra-I

Dau. Kundavva

RajadhirajaI

Rajendradeva-II

Virarajendra

Dau. Ammangadevi

Rajamahendra

AdhiRajendra

Rajendra-III

Rajaraja

MummadiChola

Vira Chola

Vikrama Chola

Kulottunga chola

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The Chola Administration

The Chola kings followed a highly systematised and efficient system of administration. The details of this administration were based primarily on literary sources. The form of government was usually hereditary which was occasionally modified by the ruling kings choice as Yuvaraj. The coronation was celebrated with pomp and show at different places like Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, and other places. The entire Tanjore district, parts ofTrichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of the Chola Mandalam. Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire embraced the entire south Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier. Although Vengi had a separate political existence, its intimate connection to the Chola Empire extended, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion to the banks of the Godavari river11. Tanjore was the capital of the Cholas. The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central Government, Provincial Government and Local Government . The efficient Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many historians and rulers.

1.

The Central Administration

The Central Government remained under the headship of the King. Administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical12. The king was a benevolent dictator and the supreme commander. He issued oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. In the tasks of administration and in executing his orders a powerful bureaucracy assisted the king. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of Central Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower officials were called Siruntaram. The justice of the orders of the King depends on the goodness of the man and in his belief in a sense of righteousness. UDAN-KUTTAM were the high officials of the state and they served as the intermediaries between the king and the regular Bureaucrats. KANKANIS were the supervisors who are the agents of central department of control and audit.
11 12

Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 448 Kulke and Rothermund, p 104

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They also served as a check on the officers of various departments in each locality. As regards the methods of appointment including the promotions of these officers, we have very less information.

Role of the King in Chola Administration

The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queens were considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The Chola kingship was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle that eldest son should succeed the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs enjoyed enormous powers and privileges. The Chola kings took up titles like Chakrvartigal (or Chakravarti). which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. The palace servants were called as Vellams and they were settled in separate quarters in the city. Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth13. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community14. All handles and levers of the administration were controlled by King as he enjoyed absolute power. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of Central Government. The Chola administration system was a highly centralised one. The feudal chiefs were kept away from administration. The government had a direct link with the peasants instead of the feudatories. The Chola kings had adopted the Yuvaraja during kings rule. The orders of the kings were written and copies of it would be sent to respective departments and officers. The royal priest was the reliable advisor of the King.

Law and Order Under Cholas

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. The Chola king was the chief justice. The Chola kings gave enough care for the judicial administration. Justice was administered through village courts, royal courts and caste panchayats. Minor disputes were settled at the village level. Village assemblies exercised large powers in deciding local disputes. Punishment was in the form of fines or donation for some charitable purpose. Crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or confiscation of property. Disputes were
13 14

Vasudevan, pp 2022 Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. Keay, pp 217218

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settled with proper evidences. Punishments were awarded by the judicial officers.

Military Administration of Cholas

The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola army consisted of elephant, cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training. Commanders enjoyed the ranks of NAYAKS and SENAPATHIS. KARUMIGAL and PANI-MAKKAL are the general terms given to the officials. The exact functions of the officials are not given in the records. The army was divided into 70 regiments. The Chola army had 60,000 elephants. The Chola kings defeated the Cheras at Kandalur salai. The kings of Ceylon and Maldives were also defeated. The Chola navy was formidable one in South India. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled Coromandal and Malabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola lake. The Chola army and navy together had 1,50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary chieftains also joined Chola army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was led by the King or Yuvaraja. The king was the commander of army and navy which acted under his instructions. They helped the king in temple protection and revenue collection other than participating in a war.

Revenue System under Cholas

The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola Government. Proper land survey was made. PURAVU-VARI-TINAIKKALAM, this is the term given for Land Revenue Department, which is mentioned in the literary evidences. Agriculture was the principle occupation of the people, the land tax was termed as IRAI-KUDIGAL. The taxes were collected in cash or kind which was the chief source of revenue. Lands were classified as taxable land and non taxable land. There were many grades in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed according to these grades. Generally 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in cash or in kind or both according to the convenience of the farmers. Besides land revenue, there were some other sources of income like customs and tolls. Taxes on mines, ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax and house tax were also collected. Many other taxes were levied. Tax burden was more on the society. State revenue was utilized in public works, in construction, maintenance of institutions and temples. In the village and town, the residential part of the village , temples, tanks, burning grounds and others were exempted from all taxes. Many irrigation projects were undertaken by the Chola kings like dam construction. Lake Cholagangam was an artificial reservoir build during the

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Chola rule. The village assemblies were responsible to the central government for the payment of the land revenue.

Foreign trade
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the ninth century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, possessing parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, stood at the forefront of those ventures. A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country15. The inscription dated 1088, indicating an active overseas trade during the Chola period. Local organisation of merchants were called as NAGARAM. The rate of interest on loans was usually twelve and a half percent per annum, though, fifteen percent in many cases was also known.

2.

The Provincial Administration

Chola kingdom was divided into provinces (mandalam), their being generally eight or nine of these. Each MANDALAM was divided into VALANADUS (or districts). These in turn were subdivided into groups of villages, variously called KURRAM, NADU, or KOTTAM. Occasionally a very large village would be administered as a single unit and this was called TANIYUR. The administrative unit was the village and to that extent there was a little significant difference between Chola administration and that of the Guptas. However, the nature of the village administration was certainly of a very different order. The degree of autonomy at village level was something quiet remarkable for the times. Chola officials participated in village affairs more as advisors and observers than as administrators. The basic assumption in the type of village autonomy emerging at this period was that each village should be administered by the villagers themselves. For the purpose a village assembly was formed, and authority was vested in this assembly.

General Assemblies
15 a b

Kulke and Rothermund, p 118

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The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three categories: the UR consisted of the tax paying residents of an ordinary village; the SABHA was restricted to the Brahmans of the village or else was found exclusively in villages gifted to Brahmans; and finally, the NAGARAM was found more commonly in trade centers. In some villages the Ur and the Sabha were found together. Very large villages had two Urs if this was more convenient for their functioning. The working of these assemblies differed according to local conditions. The Ur was open to all male adults of the village but in affect the older members took a more prominent part, some of them forming a small executive body for routine matters. The Sabha had the same system and in addition had the power to constitute smaller committees of any size from among its members. Generally mandalams or provinces were named after the original names or the titles of the Chola kings. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close relatives of kings were appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant touch with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from the king. They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had a large number of officials to assist them in the work of administration. There were officials of various grades organized in higher and lower ranks. Every village was a self-governing unit. The general assembly was classified into tax paying villagers, Brahmins and traders. The central government officers examined accounts and supervised the work of the tax paying villagers. The village assemblies received gifts from rich men or from king for developmental activities. The feudatories were unable to impede in the village management. Their job was very clerical in the sense it was a mere collection of taxes and passing the share to the King. The land revenue was core of public finance, thereby assessment of revenue being done carefully. Rajaraja I had introduced periodical land surveys. Tax exemptions were carefully noted. The village as a whole was responsible for payment of entire tax of a village. The other revenue sources were professional tax, salt tax, tax on goods and so on.

3.

Local Administration

The most important feature of the Chola administration was the local administration at districts, towns and villages level. Uttaramerur inscriptions speak much about the Chola administration. Village autonomy was the most unique feature of Chola administrative system.

Nadu

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Nadu was one of the important administrative units of the Cholas. Nadus had representative assemblies. The heads of the nadus were called Nattars. The council of nadu was called nattavai. Representatives of the Nattavais and nattars promoted agriculture. They also took care of the protection of the people and tax collection.

Village administration
The lowest unit of the Chola administration was the village unit. The entire responsibility of the village administration was in the hands of the village assembly called Grama Sabha. The village assemblies looked after the maintenance of peace, tanks, roads, public ponds revenue collection, judiciary, education and temples. The village assemblies were in charge of the payment of taxes due from the villages to the treasury. They regulated public markets and helped people at times of famine and flood. Assemblies provided provisions for education. The village assemblies possessed absolute authority over the affairs of villages. They maintained law and order in every village. Brahmin settlement was called Chathurvedi mangalam.

Variyams
Village Assemblies carried on village administration effectively with the help of variyams. Male members of the society were the members of these variyams. Composition of these variyams, qualification and durations of membership differed from village to village. There were many variyams in every village. Niyaya variyam administered justice, Thottavariyam looked after flower gardens. The Dharma variyam looked after charities and temples. Erivariyam was in charge of tanks and water supply. The pon variyam was in charge of the finance. The Gramakariya variyam looked after the works of all committees. The members of these varivams were known as Varivaperumakkal They rendered honorary service. The village officials were paid salary either in cash or in kind. Good functioning of these variams increased the efficiency of the local administration of the Cholas.

Kudavolai System
Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about Kudavolai system. This system was a very notable and unique feature of the village administration of the Cholas. There were 30 wards in each village. A representative for each ward was elected through Kudavolai system. Names of the contestants from whom one could be chosen were written on palm leaf tickets. These palm leaves were put into a pot and shuffled. A small boy picked up palm leaves one by one from the pot. Persons whose name tickets were picked up by the boy were declared elected.

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Like that 30 members for thirty wards were elected. This kind of peculiar election system was called kudavolai system. Out of the thirty elected members, twelve members were appointed to the Annual committee, twelve members were appointed as the members of the Garden committee and six members to the Tank committee. Members of the standing committee and a Gold committee were also elected. Qualification of the members was given. A person who could be chosen through Kudavolai system must have age from 35 to 70. He should possess one veli land and of a house built in a taxable land on his own site. He should have knowledge about vedas and mantras. Persons who killed brahmins or women or cow or children were disqualified. Thieves, drunkards and people who had undergone punishments were also disqualified from contesting election from kudavolaisystem. The people of the Chola Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration. Historians like K.A.Neelakanda Sastri appreciates the administrative efficiency of the Chola kings. The best aspects of the Chola administration were followed by the rulers of the later period.

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SOCIAL, ECONOMIC and RELIGIOUS conditions of Cholas

The Chola rule witnessed a large scale development in all spheres of life. Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples, literature and monuments speak much about the social, economic and religious life of the people during the Chola period. Professor K.A.Neelakanda Sastri writes about socio economic and religious life of the people of the Chola period. Economic prosperity, the benevolent attitude and religious faiths of the Chola kings were the main factors which contributed more for these developments.

Social Condition
The Chola society was peaceful one. There were different sections in society. At the same time, the society was based as Varnasrama. According to the Varnasrama, society was divided into four major divisions namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The poor and unprivileged people lived in slums. Bonded laborers were also there. Professionals like carpenters, weavers, blacksmiths, masons, goldsmiths also lived there. Slavery also existed. There were several grades among the slaves. The details about the sale of slaves are recorded in the inscriptions. Greater social freedom prevailed among the upper classes.

Valangai and Idankai groups

Valankai and Idankai caste groups were also there. 98 castes formed part of Valangai (right hand) group and there were 98 castes in the Idangai (left hand) group. There were disputes among these groups. Valangai group enjoyed more concessions from the Government and privileges in the society. They had the privilege of using palanquins. Women of Valangai group rounded the upper cloth across the right shoulder. The Idangai group was considered socially inferior. They did not enjoy any rights. They paid heavy taxes. In spite of these social divisions there was social harmony.

Education
Chola Kings gave importance for the development of education. There were Veda padasalas, Buddha viharas and Jain pallis. During the reign of Rajendra I, two colleges were there at Rajarajachaturvedi Mangalam and

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Tribhuvanam. The mutt of Thiruvavaduturai had run a school of medicine. Apart from the medical and religious education, general education was also imparted. Scholarships were given to students.

Status of Women
Women were given high status and freedom in the Chola society. Chastity and modesty were considered important. The women of upper classes enjoyed the right to property. Some queens were associated with the admimstration of the kingdom. Queens gave liberal donations to temples. Queen Sembian Mahadevi and Kundavai were patrons of temples. Monogamy was prevalent in society. Less skilled jobs were given to female laborers. During the Chola period Sati was commonly practiced among the women of royal family. Women were also appointed as officers in the Chola Government. There were child marriages among the higher castes. Women who were talented in music and dance were attached to the temples. They performed programs during festival times. There were also women slaves. Writings of Morcopolo and some inscriptions speak about the position of women during the Chola period.

Economic Conditions Under Cholas

The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and commerce. Income through agriculture yield, land tax, trade tax and other taxes were main revenue of the Government. King was the owner of all public land. Special officers were appointed to look into the income and expenditure of the state. Government money was spent on public works, defense, justice, education, temples, irrigation, police, king and his households, secretariat etc., The Chola kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Merchant guilds were functioning to take care for the welfare of the merchants and commerce. The Chola economy mainly depended on agriculture and trade. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. The ownership of the land had a high social value. The landlords were members of the village administrative units. Generally the economic condition of the people during the Chola period was good.

Foreign Trade
According to informations given by writers like Ibin Batuta and Morcopolo, the Cholas had trade relationship with China and other South East Asian countries. Elephants, cardamom, cotton, textile were exported. Arabian horses were imported. Mahabalipuram, Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai were Chola ports which were useful for foreign trade. The liberal taxation policies of King

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Kulothunga I encouraged both internal and foreign trade. Internal and foreign trade led to the economic, cultural and religious developments in Chola territory.

Religious Conditions Under Cholas

Chola kings were saivites. They worshiped Lord Siva. They built many Siva temples. Parantaka I, Rajaraja I, Rajendra King Gandraditya and his queen Sembiyan madevi contributed more for the development of Saivism and Bakthi literature. Parantaka I covered the Siva temple with gold at Chidambaram. King Rajaraja I Built Brahadeeswarar temple (big temple) at Tanjore. Rajendra-I Constructed Siva temple at Polonaaruva in Ceylon and Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Lands, Jewels and vessels were donated to these temples. Chola Kings were tolerant towards other religions. Vishnu worship was also there. Chola rulers supported the spread of Vaishnavisim Saint Ramanujar was the contemporary of Chola Kings. Thiruvalangadu copper plates. Karanthai plates and Anbil plates talk about the religious conditions of the Chola period. Masimaham Mahamaham, Karthigai, Thaipusam Sivarathri, Chithiraivizha, Aipasivizha were important festivals celebrated during the Chola period. Tanjore, Kumbakonam, Avudaiyarkoil, Kalahasti Tirukadaiyur and Kanchipuram were important temple cities. Bakthi songs were sung in all temples. Some people followed Buddhism and Jainism Temples acted as centers of learning also. Temples helped the development of painting dance and music. Nambi Andar Nambi compiled the hymns of Saiva saints Nathamunigal compiled the hymns of Vaishnava saints. Scenes of Periyapuranam portraits of Lord Siva were themes of the paintings on the walls of temples. Bharatha natyam and Kathakali dances were performed in temples at the time of festival times. The economic prosperity and religious contributions increased the standard of life and aloes of the Chola society. By building many temples and mutts, the Chola kings contributed for the development of culture, art and architecture. The royal patronage increased the influence of Hinduism more. The temples and festivals of the Chola period will ever speak about the glory of the Cholas.

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CONCLUSION
The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamil-nad since the first century A.D. Towards the middle of the ninth century, one of them conquered the region of Tanjore (the heart of Tamil-nad), declared himself the ruler of an independent state, and sought to establish his status by claiming descent from the Solar race. With the passage of time because of weak successive rulers, the chola power rapidly declined. The power of the Cholas declined around the twelfth century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end towards the end of the thirteenth century. From the 4th to the 9th century, the cholas played a very marginal but effective part in the South Indias history. The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings avidly built temples, envisioned them in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralized form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. They were known for their trade practices and land surveys done by Rajaraja-I and Kulottunga-I. Also, their administrative policies were known for their effectiveness at both the central and provincial level. The local self government was known as the best part of Chola Administration. Chola political system was the only one which still maintained contact with the cultivator on a wild scale, and retained characteristics of a centrally organized administration. The Chola government during the imperial period (850-1200 CE) was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness. Cholas were the first dynasty who tried to bring the entire South India under a common rule and to a great extent succeeded in their efforts. Although the form and protocols of that government cannot be compared to a contemporary form of government, the history of the Chola empire belongs to a happy age in their history and great things were achieved by the government and the people. Development of local self

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government was one of the most striking features of administration of the Chola dynasty. The villages were given autonomy despite centralised system of governance.Elaborate and complicated mechanisms were the attributes of Chola administration. Revenue, justice, governance and military were given prior importance and supervised in a matured manner. The Chola kingdoms witnessed a disciplined bureaucracy. Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many historians and rulers. There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. Its remarkable sculptures and bronzes sets the Chola period apart. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the eleventh and twelfth centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of that appears in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. In the Chola period too, caste remained the basis ofsocial organisation and each caste regulated the social and economic activities of its members. But, hereditary didnt remained as a bar there and people can do change their profession. Condition of women was good in the society as upper class women did own property. In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. It was seen that there was a heavy burden of taxes imposed on the

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people as they had to pay different taxes and custom tolls along with the land tax which was the main source of revenue. Still the people were happy with the administration as the Chola period is somewhere attributed as the golden period. Because of the paucity of authentic and elaborative sources which could give detailed information, not much can be said about the Chola empire. But with the help of the available sources, it could be said that Cholas managed to operate their empire with efficient local, provincial and central level administration.

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Bibliography
List of sites1. http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html 2. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho la_local_administration.php 3. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho la_administration.php 4. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chola_Dyn asty 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty

List of books1. A History of South India, K.A. Nilakanta Shastri 2. Ancient India, V.D. mahajan 3. An advanced history of India, R.C. Majumdar, H.C.Raychaudhuri & Kalinkinkar Dutta 4. A History of India, Burton Stein 5. Indias Ancient Past, R.S. Sharma

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