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Unit-I : Introduction
Topics Covered
Data Communication Networks The Internet Protocols and Standards Layered Tasks The OSI and the layers in the OSI Model TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Data Communication
It is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission media. For data communication to occur the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of combination of hardware & software.
2.
Delivery: System must deliver the data to correct destination. Accuracy: System must deliver data
accurately. Data that has been altered in transmission is unusable.
3.
4.
Components
Medium : It is the physical path by which a message Receiver :travels from sender to receiver. message. It is the device that receives the It can be a computer , workstation It can be twisted pair wire,co-axial , telephone handset ,video camera cable,fiber-optic cable,radio-waves..
Protocol : itis the device that sends the data message. Sender : ItItis a set of rules that governs data Message : is communication. the information to be communicated. ItIt can be computer ,workstation , telephone can be a text,pictures,sound,video. Without handset ,video devices may be connected but a protocol two camera not communicating
Data Representation
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3. 4.
5.
Data Flow
Network
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending or receiving data.
A link is a communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
Network Criteria
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3.
Security:
access.
Physical structures
Point-to-Point
Provides a dedicated link between two devices. Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Multipoint
More than two devices share a single link. Capacity of the channel is shared. If several devices can use the link simultaneously it is spatially shared connection. If users must take turns it is a timeshare connection.
Topology
Two or more device connect to a link. Two or more links form a topology. It is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. Physical Topology
describes the layout of the network describes how the data is sent across the network
Logical Topology
Mesh
Every device has a dedicated point-topoint link to every other device. There are
Every network must have n-1 input/output ports to be connected to other n-1 stations.
Advantages
Eliminate traffic problems Robust Privacy and Security Backup capabilities by providing multiple paths through the network.
Disadvantages
Star Topology
Each device has dedicated point-to-point link only to central controller usually called hub. The devices are not directly linked to oneanother. It does not allow direct traffic between devices. Controller (hub) acts as an exchange: if one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the other connected device.
Advantage
Less expensive than Mesh topology. Robustness, better performance. Isolation Of Devices. Lesser I/O ports required.
Disadvantage
High dependence of a system on central hub Performance & Scalability of network also depends on capabilities of hub. Network size is limited by number-ofconnections that can be made to the hub.
Bus Topology
It is multipoint One long cable acts as backbone to link all devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. As signal travels along the backbone some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore it becomes weaker and weaker as it has to travel farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support. Traffic generated by any computer will travel across the backbone and be received by all workstations.
Advantages
Ease of installation. Cost effective (Bus uses less cabling then mesh or star topologies.)
Disadvantages
If there is a problem with the cable entire network goes down Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic load The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin creating noise in both direction.
Ring Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either side of it Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches the destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to install and reconfigure Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and opportunity to transmit.
Categories of Networks
LAN ( Local Area Network ) MAN ( Metropolitan Area Network ) WAN ( Wide Area Network )
LAN
Local Area Network Links the devices in a single office building or campus. LAN size is limited to few Kilometers. Allow resources to be shared. Generally LAN uses only one type of transmission medium. Common LAN topologies are bus , ring and star. Data rate 4-16Mbps.
MAN
It may be a single network or it may be means of connecting number of LANs into larger network so that resources may be shared LAN to LAN.
MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company or it may be a service provided by public company.
WAN
Wide Area Network Provides long distance transmission of data,voice,image and video information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country,a continent or even whole world.
A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often referred to as an Enterprise Network
What is an internet?
An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.
The Internet is a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands interconnected networks. The Internet is a communication system that has brought information to our fingertips and organized it for use.
Protocols
It is a set of rules that governs data communication. It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is communicated. Key elements of protocol are
Syntax: structure or format of data Semantics: meaning of each section of bits. Timing: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent.
Standards
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
It is a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers. A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it.
OSI model
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3.
Layer 1,2,3 are the network support layers Layer 5,6,7 are the user support layers Layer 4 links the two subgroups
Encapsulation
Data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet (data & header maybe trailer) from level N. the concept is called encapsulation. Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and which part is header or trailer. For level N-1 the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one integral unit.
Physical layer
The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. Establishes and terminates connections to communication medium.
Physical layer
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Physical characteristics of interface and medium Representation of bits. Data rate. Synchronization of bits. Line configuration. Physical topology Transmission mode
The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities. To detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer. Layer 2 transmits data in the form of frames. It uses MAC address for transmission.
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2. 3. 4. 5.
Hop-to-hop delivery
A B E F B E
Network layer
It is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks (links).
Network layer
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Logical addressing: Every host in the network needs to have a unique address which determines where it is. Routing: Connecting devices route packets to delivery through intermediate routers.
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer
Transport Layer
Transport layer
Other responsibilities
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Service point addressing: process to process delivery Segmentation and reassembly Connection control Flow control Error control
Session layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Session layer
The Session Layer provides the mechanism for opening, closing and managing a session between end-user application processes.
Other responsibilities
1. 2.
Presentation layer
It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems
Presentation layer
The Presentation Layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of information to the application layer for further processing or display. Other responsibilities:
Translation: Conversion to bit streams. Encryption: for privacy. Compression: to reduce data size.
Application layer
Application layer
It enables the user, human or software, to access the network. It provides user interface and support for services such as
1. 2.
Summary of layers
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-tonetwork, internet, transport & application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Network Layer
4.
ARP Address Resolution Protocol RARP Reverse ARP ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol IGMP Internet Group Message Protocol
IP is the transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP It is unreliable It is connectionless Best effort delivery service IP transports data in Packets called datagram's each of which is transported separately Datagram's can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
RARP allows a host to discover its Internet Address when it knows only its Physical Address It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time.
ARP operation
ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to sender ICMP sends query and error reporting messages
Transport layer
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
It is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport protocol It is process to process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum, error control and length information to the data from the upper layer
TCP is reliable stream transport protocol (connection). A connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data. At the sending end of each transmission TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments. At the receiving end TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
SCTP provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features of UDP and TCP.
Addresses in TCP/IP
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Physical Address
It is also known as the link address. It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer It is the lowest level address
Logical addresses
Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical networks A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely regardless of the underlying physical network. Logical address in Internet is currently 32 bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.
Port address
The identifier of a port is the port address. Used in process to process communication. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is responsible for maintaining the official assignments of port numbers for specific uses. Eg. port 20- FTP data transfer
port 23- Telnet protocol
Specific Address
Addresses designed for a specific address. Eg- URL- universal recourse locator
Email address
End of Unit-1