Applied Energy 24 (1986) 91-126

Solar Ponds: Designs and Prospects

H. E. A. Abdel-Salam and S. D. Probert
School of Mechanical Engineering, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Bedford MK43 0AL (Great Britain)

SUMMARY The solar pond & likely to be the most cost-effective large-scale solarenergy collector. It also possesses the advantage of being its own heat store. The presented review considers the advantages and drawbacks of existing and proposed designs.

ABBREVIATIONS CSP: FSP LCZ NCZ R&D SSP SSSP UCZ VSSP Coffered solar pond. Floating solar pond. Lower convecting zone: this is the main energy store. Non-convecting zone. Research and development. Saturated solar pond. Salt-stratified solar pond. Upper convecting zone. Viscosity-stabilized solar pond.

GLOSSARY Fetch The distance from the considered point in the pond to its nearest solid boundary, in the direction of the strongest and most prevalent locally-occurring wind.
91

Applied Energy 0306-2619/86/$03.50 Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd,

England, 1986. Printed in Great Britain

92

H. E. A. AbdeLSalam, S. D. Probert

Halocline Halophilics Hydrogen-ion concentration

Hypolimnetic layer Ion

Limnology Meromictic lake Molar solution Mole

Molecular weight Molecule

Pycnocline Thermal efficiency of a solar pond Thermocline

Vertical density gradient in a salt-stratified solar pond--see also pycnocline. Species of algae, which live and grow in salt water. The concentration of hydrogen ions in solution when the concentration is expressed as gramionic weight per litre. The hydrogen-ion concentration is expressed in terms of the negative logarithm of this concentration, which is called the pH value. Water at 25C has a concentration o f H + ions of 10 -7 and of O H - ions of 10 - 7 moles per litre. Thus, the pH value of water is 7 at 25C. Lowest level of water in a stratified lake. This is an atom, or group of atoms, that carries a positive or negative electric charge. Positive ions are formed when neutral atoms or molecules lose valence electrons: negative ions are those which have gained electrons. The study of lakes. A saline lake that exhibits increases of both temperature and density with depth. This contains one mole or gram molecular weight of the solute in one litre of solution. Mass numerically equal to the molecular weight. It is most frequently expressed as the gram molecular weight, i.e. as the weight of one mole expressed in grams. The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in the considered molecule. The smallest unit quantity of matter which can exist by itself and retain all the properties of the original substance. Density gradient of a salt-water lake with respect to its depth. The ratio of the actual rate of thermal gain of the LCZ to the rate of insolation incident upon the surface of the pond. Vertical temperature gradient in a solar pond.

Solar ponds: designs and prospects

93

THE FOSSIL-FUEL PROBLEM: THE SOLAR P O N D OPTION The educated population is well aware of how dependent its quality of life has become upon the rapidly depleting fossil-fuel reserves of the world. So solar power is now regarded by these individuals as one of the more attractive, long-term, vast sources of energy. It is non-polluting. Also, the Earth (at ground level) receives from the Sun approximately 5.4 x 102j/year, which is equivalent to about 10000 times the total energy used annually in the world at present.1 However, the scientific and technological difficulties associated with harnessing and using solar power efficiently are enormous. The two fundamental constraining limitations with respect to actively employing solar energy, namely, low energy-density and intermittency, discourage its widespread collection. The low energy-density means that collector systems have to be large enough to capture adequate quantities of solar energy needed for the activities of modern society, whilst its intermittent nature requires that some form of energy storage has to be used if a continuous energy output is needed. The most popular solar energy conversion system is the low-temperature thermal converter, of which the flat-plate collector is an example. However, this device is used normally only for small collector systems of, at most, a few thousand square metres collector area. 2 Above this limit, it is not, as yet, viable economically and so, for this purpose, solar ponds have been employed. THE S O L A R - E N E R G Y H A R N E S S I N G POND CONCEPT A solar pond is an enclosed volume of water, in which convection is inhibited. Part of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed and converted to heat, which is stored especially in the lower regions of the pond. So solar ponds are employed both as solar-energy collectors as well as heat stores. An operating salt-gradient solar pond--see Fig. l--consists of three zones: (i) The upper convecting zone (UCZ), of almost constant low salinity and temperature.

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H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert

(ii) The non-convecting zone (NCZ), in which both its salinity and temperature increase with depth. (iii) The lower convecting zone (LCZ), of almost constant, relatively high, salinity and temperature. The presence of the UCZ is inevitable in operating ponds due to: the variations in the rates of heat input and loss via the surface, especially between day and night; the wind-stimulated mixing action; evaporation; and surface flushing. Typically, this layer will be approximately 0.3 m in thickness. 1 However, it should be kept as thin as is practically possible by wave suppressors and maintenance operations. Allowing the thickness of the UCZ to exceed significantly the design limit may well prevent the pond operating economically. The NCZ provides the thermal insulation. The vertical salt-gradient in it inhibits convection. The temperature gradient is formed due to the absorption of insolation and the conduction of heat between the hot and cold regions. The depth of this zone determines the insulation provided for the storage zone (i.e. the LCZ), and therefore it influences the thermal efficiency of the pond. The LCZ serves as the heat store, and should be capable of supplying energy continuously throughout the year. Its depth determines the annual variations in operating temperature and thermal capacity. As the depth increases, the variations (with respect to time) of temperature decrease and the thermal capacity increases. However, the use of large depths incurs greater initial capital costs. The solar pond is used preferentially for collecting solar insolation over large areas (of the order of square kilometres). It overcomes the problems of low energy-intensity and the intermittent nature of the

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Schematic vertical section t h r o u g h a salt-stratified non-convecting solar pond.

Solar ponds: designs and prospects

95

insolation. However, scientific and technological problems need to be solved in order to exploit more fully the considerable potential of solar ponds.

SOLAR P O N D C L A S S I F I C A T I O N Several types of solar ponds--see Fig. 2--have been suggested since the early 1900s. 3 They can be grouped under three main headings.

'Non-convecting' solar ponds

Many techniques have been considered in order to suppress natural convection in an enclosed volume of water, thereby creating the conditions necessary for a solar pond. The three important methods used are as follows.

(i) Salt-stabilized solar ponds Salt-stratified non-convecting solar ponds. These are primarily insolation collectors with built-in seasonal heat-storage capabilities. Ideally, a salt-stratified non-convecting solar pond is an aqueous salt solution JSOLARPONDS] I I NN-ENv~CTINI I CO~VEET~N~ t

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Fig. 2. Characteristics of the variety of available or proposed solar ponds.

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H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert

with a NCZ, which insulates thermally a lower convecting heat-storage stratum--see Fig. 1. Part of the incident insolation is absorbed by the salt solution and converted to heat. The salinity increases with depth in the NCZ until the LCZ is reached: the highest salt concentration occurs uniformly throughout this region. Here the solar radiation will heat the highly saline water, but, because of its high relative density (due to its salt content), this hot salt water will not rise into the lower salinity layers. Thus, the heat is stored, yet inhibited from being transferred by convection. Above the NCZ, there is a convecting layer known as the UCZ. Chemically stable salts, as well as any natural brine, can be used to establish a salt-stratified solar pond. The selection of a particular salt for this purpose should be based on the following considerations: (i) It must be safe to handle: disposal problems associated with toxicity and ground contamination must be carefully evaluated. (ii) It should be cheap and readily available. (iii) The chosen salt should not reduce significantly the insolation transmission characteristics of water: salts which enhance the rate of organic growth or those which simply colour the water should be avoided. (iv) The salt solubility should be temperature dependent in order to reduce the upward diffusion of heat. Sodium and magnesium chlorides satisfy the first three criteria, but their solubilities are not highly temperature dependent--see Fig. 3. Other salts, which possess more suitable solubility-temperature dependencies, do not satisfy the remaining necessary conditions. Thus, despite its almost constant solubility, sodium chloride is the most popular choice. 5 Some of the early designs of saline non-convecting solar ponds employed membranes. 6 These controlled the horizontal boundaries between the pond zones and prevented, or at least reduced, the upward diffusion of the salt. Figure 4 shows an example of the membraned pond, which contains a horizontal partition to separate the LCZ from the NCZ, and another one slightly below the surface of the pond to limit the depth of the surface convecting layer. This stratified, membraned, non-convecting solar pond has the merit of no salt diffusion occurring through the boundaries of the three main zones. However, it suffers from the serious drawback of having to have membranes present and this can be a major maintenance problem, especially for large ponds.

Membraned salt-stratified solar ponds.

Solar ponds." designs and prospects

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Sophisticated techniques are needed to introduce the membranes either after or before the onset of stratification. Fixing and tightening the membranes to the pond's walls can be difficult. The choice of the most suitable membrane material, that complies with the demands of strength, clarity and cheapness, will add to the complexity of the design. Although maintenance and cleaning the top membrane (with respect to dirt and sediments) seem to be relatively easily achieved by flushing with water and using simple scavenging tools, the corresponding operations for the lower membrane are more difficult. However, if not done, the deposits and sediments will gradually reduce the transparency of the system, thereby lowering the pond's thermal efficiency.

'Floating' solar ponds. This type was first suggested by Assaf v as a result of his theoretical assessment for converting a salt basin into a solar lake. He recommended transforming the Dead Sea to form a solar pond by developing a halocline ( ~ 1-4 m in height) near its surface with a ~ 15% salinity top layer. The lowest stratum of the system would be

98

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Schematic operation of a membraned solar pond.

that of the Dead Sea itself, which is, on average, of 26% salinity. It was not clear from Assaf's scheme how the temperature and density of the lowest region of the LCZ (i.e. that immediately above the unconfined Dead Sea water) could be controlled. However, he regarded the floating solar pond as a possible small-scale application of his scheme. In 1981, Tabor a clarified the concept of the floating solar pond (FSP): he defined the FSP as a conventional solar pond 'floating' on a large saline lake and enclosed by thermally insulating walls. In the enclosure, the uppermost few metres of the water have an imposed salt-concentration gradient, with a reverse gradient in the lower depths. This contradicted the conclusions from the Assaf study inasmuch as the 'reverse gradient in the lower depths' no longer existed, and the lower region was of constant salinity ( ~ 26%). To avoid the problem of controlling the density and temperature of the lower region of the LCZ in the bottomless FSP, a bottom membrane has been introduced. Crevier and Moshref 9 suggested two designs which depend on the idea of creating a conventional salt gradient above a normal convecting layer, which need not necessarily be of salt water. Intermixing is prevented by a horizontal flexible membrane, which is held in place by a combination of buoys and weights--see Figs 5 and 6. Equilibrium liquid columns have been employed to equalize the pressures on both sides of the membrane.

Solar ponds." designs and prospects

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In the University of Hawaii design--see Fig. 7--the membrane separates the bottom of a conventional three-zone pond and the lagoon water underneath. The main body of this FSP is enclosed in a large thermally insulated steel pipe. Although the FSP possesses the advantage of avoiding the costs for the land and its excavation, the uncertain behaviour of the boundary layer between the LCZ and the lake water beneath it v's and the need for the use of vertical or horizontal membranes, or both together 9'~ are considerable disadvantages.

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100

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Fig. 7. University of Hawaii 'floating' salt-gradient solar pond.10 The upward diffusion of salt, which would tend to occur naturally due to the difference in salt concentrations between the bottom and top layers in a conventional salt-stratified solar pond, is a major problem. However, several techniques have been suggested to prevent this and so maintain the stratification. In the saturated solar pond (SSP), this unrequired phenomenon of the upward diffusion does not occur, because the pond water at all levels is saturated with salt. The chosen salt should possess a solubility which rises significantly with temperature increase, and vice versa. So, in a SSP, the salt gradient would be self-maintained, depending upon the local temperature gradient. However, a SSP will require much more salt than the conventional pond. Therefore, it is a feasible proposition economically only if one can find an appropriate salt, which should not be highly soluble in water but whose solubility depends solely and significantly on the temperature. Also, the salt should meet the other requirements mentioned previously. No SSP has been built so far because of the apparent lack of a suitable salt.ll However, some studies have been undertaken in order to check the viability of different types to satisfy the desired criteria. The considered salts were disodium phosphate,1 ~ potassium nitrate,12 potassium aluminium sulphate dodecahydrate ~3 and Boraxt4: of these, the

Saturated solar ponds.

Solar ponds: designs and prospects

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Fig. 8. Schematic configuration of a coffered solar pond and ancillary electric-power station: the depth of the pond is much exaggerated in this drawing compared with the other dimensions.

most suitable is aluminium sulphate dodecahydrate because its solubility is so dependent upon temperature.13

Coffered solar ponds (see Fig. 8). For power production in the multimegawatt range, a solar pond of several square kilometres surface area is needed. However, excavation and preparation of an appropriate hole for such a pond is usually not feasible economically; excavation and preparation work account for more than 40% of the total capital cost of the power-generating station. 8 So it would appear logical to employ a natural lake, and convert a shallow portion of it into a solar pond. The FSP was suggested as a possible solution, 7 but there is the problem of the uncertain behaviours of the lower boundary of the bottomless pond. The coffered solar pond (CSP) has been proposed by AbdelSalam et al.15 as another way for achieving low-cost power production: this avoids some of the problems of bottomless ponds. The CSP could be formed by physically isolating a section of a natural lake using walls of thermally insulating materials. Such walls have to be anchored to the lake bottom. The transition zone (see Fig. 8), serves as a buffer to reduce the mechanical and thermal perturbations of the lake water influencing the pond. Suitable lakes for establishing CSPs exist in many places around the world. For example, in Egypt, it appears feasible to convert large

102

H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert

shallow parts of lakes (e.g. of Karon Lake, Marute Lake and lakes near the Suez Canal) into CSPs.X5

(ii) Viscosity-stabilized solar ponds

The proposed viscosity-stabilized solar pond (VSSP) was stabilized by the addition of organic thickeners to the pond layers, thereby creating a static stabilized zone--see Fig. 9. The increase of the water's viscosity (by increasing the proportion of thickeners) up to the limit at which natural convection is entirely suppressed, leads to the existence of a stabilizing zone. A preliminary assessment of prospective thickeners x6 suggested that the most promising materials are: cellulose methylethers, sodium carboxy methyl cellulose and a commercial carboxy vinyl polymer (or acrylic), which is at present regarded as the best choice. Although the concept of suppressing convection in solar ponds by viscosity stabilization is attractive theoretically, the problems associated with using thickeners (e.g. the difficulty of maintaining the stability of the static zone under the effect of excessive shear stresses; decomposition of the thickeners with time and temperature above 55C; and discouraging economics) need further study in order to make the idea viable practically.

( iii) Gel-stabilized solar ponds

For this advocated system, the stratified non-converting zone of the traditional salt-gradient solar pond is replaced by a transparent layer
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General configuration of a viscosity-stabilized solar pond. 16

104

H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert

when the mean temperature of the pond has risen to that required. In the flow-through mode, the water passes continuously through the bags: the outlet temperature is maintained by regulating the rate of flow in accordance with the water supply source and the rate of solar-energy input. The extensive system of pipes, pumps and valves needed and the low peak temperatures of shallow solar ponds (~ 60C during summer and --~40C during winter in New Mexico 19) make them less attractive compared with some other types of solar pond. However, shallow solar ponds can compete successfully with other fuel sources, especially for heating water. The compact portable shallow solar pond (see Fig. 11) is another design suggested by Kudish and Wolf. 2 It provides limited amounts of hot water for domestic use in isolated places, especially for camping and military sites.
Deep convecting solar ponds These were proposed by Jayadev et al., 3 to avoid the main drawback of shallow solar ponds. (The relatively expensive system of pipes and plumbing, which is required to remove the hot water from shallow ponds each evening, and the insulated storage tanks necessary to hold the water during the nights, result in shallow solar ponds producing very expensive hot water per litre obtained.) A cheaper approach is to
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Schematic diagram of a compact shallow solar pond.

Solar ponds." designs and prospects

105

leave the water in the pond at night and to provide it with adequate thermal insulation--see Fig. 12. The rate of heat loss to the ambient environment can be reduced by double glazing. At night it has been suggested 3 that, as an extra measure, a sprayed foam insulant be used between the glazing and on the pond's surface itself. In the morning, the foam insulation would be allowed to settle and be run off, leaving only a negligible residue. Although deep convecting ponds could be more economic than shallow ponds, their attractiveness needs to be demonstrated by further theoretical and experimental studies.

Augmented solar ponds

This type can be either a conventional convecting or non-convecting solar pond, equipped with one or more solar-energy harnessing devices to augment the solar-energy capturing capability of the pond. This design is of interest primarily for higher latitudes, because it is there that efficient solar collectors have to possess significantly inclined receiver surfaces to face the incident insolation. However, this augmentation will increase the capital cost of the solar pond. These systems can be classified as follows.

Solar pond augmented by reflect&g surfaces

The erection of reflecting sheets (e.g. polished aluminium-alloy mirrors) appropriately mounted on a frame at the north end (i.e. in the northern hemisphere) of the pond will increase the insolation incident upon the
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Example of a deep convecting solar pond. a

106

H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert
- SOLAR-ENERGY COLLECTOR

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surface of the pond. This can be achieved relatively cheaply if one can exploit a hill or a building and cover its southerly face (in the northern hemisphere) adjacent to the pond with these reflecting sheets.

Collector-pond combination
Several such designs have been suggested. 3 In one, a bank of optimally tilted collectors is either constructed on a bank or floated on a raft of insulant floating on the solar pond's surface. The heated water is drained into the pond and the collectors are fed with cooler water pumped back up from the pond as in Fig. 13. L I T E R A T U R E REVIEW OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLAR-POND CONCEPT Salt gradient lakes, which exhibit an increase in temperature with depth, occur naturally. The first recorded reference to such a solar lake was that of Kalecsinsky (1902), who described the Medve Lake in

Solar ponds: designs and prospects

107

Transylvania. 21 This natural lake contains a nearly saturated NaC1 solution at a few metres depth, with almost fresh water at its surface. The maximum temperature exceeded 60C at a depth of 1.32 m at the end of Summer; the minimum temperature being about 26C during the early Spring. Kalecsinsky concluded that, although the natural oceans show a decrease of temperature with depth, the reverse occurred in the Medve Lake because convection was suppressed by the increase of salinity with depth. He proposed that artificial solar ponds might be used to collect and store solar energy. Anderson 22 described the hot lake near Oroville in north-central Washington, USA. This lake is meromictic, and the salt in it is principally magnesium sulphate. It exhibited a temperature of around 50C in July, 1955 at a depth of 2m, whilst the surface temperature was less than 26C. Wilson and Wellman 23 reported that Lake Vanda in the Antarctic is a natural example of the trapping and storing of solar energy as a result of a salt water density gradient. The bottom of this lake ( ~ 67 m depth) is maintained at ~25C despite a mean annual air temperature of about - 2 0 C . Solar energy is the source of heat which causes that temperature gradient. There is no detectable effect from any other factors such as biological activities, chemical heating, hot springs in the bottom of the lake, or abnormally high geothermal gradients under the lake. Another natural solar lake was discovered in 1968 on the shores of the Red Sea, on the east coast of the Sinai Peninsula. The temperature rose from 16C at its surface to 40C at 1-5m depth. At greater depths, the temperature increased to 4 8 C . 24 The salinity of the lake also showed a gradient, increasing with depth. Knowledge of the thermal behaviours of the mentioned natural solar lakes, and of a few others, such as the lake of Los Reques, Venezuela, 25 Lake Mahega in western Uganda, 26 and Castle Lake in California, U S A , 27 provided the incentive needed to attempt to create artificial saltstratified solar ponds. These new devices for harnessing and storing solar energy were intended to be more efficient than natural solar lakes, and were sited in more convenient and useful locations. Although Bloch's first experiments were disappointing, a a successful solar pond research project was initiated in Israel in 1958. This was first described in print by Tabor in 1959. 28 He gave general information about the experimental solar pond of 1 m E surface area: it showed a

108

H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert

temperature difference of 33C between its upper surface and its bottom, with no detectable convection. In the Autumn of 1959, a bigger pond of 25 m x 25 m surface area was tested near the Dead Sea. 29 In this pond, the bottom temperature reached 92C, with a surface temperature of 30C. These early experiments verified the feasibility of the concept and encouraged the initiation of further R & D programmes concerning solar ponds. In 1964, Weinberger, a presented the first published theoretical approach with respect to solar ponds. Via his one-dimensional nonconvecting model, he predicted the annual variation of the pond's mean temperature, and could estimate the temperature at any depth. In 1965, Tabor and Matz presented a report on the progress of the Israeli solar pond project. 31 They evolved guidelines for future investigations. However, the researches were discontinued because, at that time, the power produced was not competitive commercially with those from the plentiful and cheap supplies of conventional fossil fuels. However, following the oil embargo of November, 1973, and subsequent political crises, and in response to the ensuing unit energy cost escalations, solar pond R & D was revived. The applications of solar ponds in many fields have subsequently become increasingly attractive financially.

Solar pond applications

Solar ponds for space heating were proposed in 1975 by Rabl and Nielsen: 6 they discussed the theory and design of a solar pond--see Fig. 4 for supplying the heating demands of a 186 m 2 house if situated in different parts of the USA. As a result of this theoretical investigation, a salt gradient solar pond of 2.5 m depth and 200 m 2 effective collector area was constructed and put into operation in August, 1975, at the Ohio State University, USA, for space heating. Nielsen's report 32 showed that the performance of this pond was encouraging. Styris e t al., 33 predicted the dimensions of a solar pond for satisfying specified heating requirements in Richland, Washington, USA: they also discussed the installation, operation and economics of such ponds. In 1978, a solar pond was used for heating an outdoor swimming pool in Summer and a recreation building during part of the Winter, in Miamisburg, Ohio, USA. 34 Since then, it has been the biggest operating solar pond in the USA with a surface area of 2020m2: it is 3 m in depth.

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Tabor 35 suggested using solar ponds as heat sources for distillation plants. Previously, 31 he had proposed that the most promising application of a solar pond was for salt production. This has been demonstrated subsequently in the study by Matz et al. 36 Also, it has been proposed that solar ponds be used in space cooling, a crop drying, industrial-process heating, 5 domestic-water preheating, 37 air conditioning in conjunction with a heat pump, 9 and in electric-power production. The application of solar ponds for electric-power production is attractive, partly because the technology for converting low-temperature heat to electricity is well established, a'38 An organic-vapour Rankinecycle prime-mover, such as the multi-vane expander, 39 can be used to convert solar pond heat into mechanical work, and thereby into electricity. However, such power plants could be operated successfully only if the cost per watt is comparatively low. Thus, solar ponds of several square kilometres are needed to achieve this target, and consequently huge solar-pond projects are now contemplated. A scheme for converting the Dead Sea in Israel into a solar lake was proposed by Assaf, 7 with the further study on the hydrodynamic and thermal stability of this sea undertaken by Vadasz e t al. 4 The Dead Sea could be a huge source of power (in the multi-megawatt range8). As a prototype, a solar pond of 7000m 2 w a s constructed during the Autumn of 1979 at Ein Bokek on the shores of the Dead Sea, and run in conjunction with organic-vapour Rankine-cycle turbines as primemovers, with a net power output of 150kW. 41 This pond operates successfully and there is a plan for constructing even larger ponds of power outputs up to 50 M W . 42 In the USA, a study was initiated in November, 1979, to determine the feasibility of constructing a salt-gradient solar pond within the Salton Sea, California. 43 The proposed system would have a powergeneration potential of 600MWe; the pond's surface area being 8-3% of the lake's surface (,-, 800 km2). During April, 1981, a conceptual design study was completed by the Solar Energy Research Institute, Colorado, USA, 44'45 for an assembly of electricity-producing salt-gradient solar ponds. These are to be located within a brine lake at Truscott, Texas. Also, the possibility of transforming the Great Salt Lake at Utah, USA, into a solar lake for power production has been suggested, 46 and an optimization study to construct a power plant using the energy collected by this lake has been undertaken. 47

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SYSTEM DESIGN: I N F L U E N T I A L FACTORS In order to establish an efficient solar pond, several design and operational requirements should be satisfied. Suitability of site, brine clarity and maintenance over long periods of the salt gradient are key factors for a successful solar pond.

The site
The desirable attributes can be summarized as follows: (a) It should be near both a cheap source of salt or concentrated brine, as well as an adequate source of water (fresh water, sea water or rain) in order to be able to achieve the required saltgradient and maintain continuously the low surface salinity. (b) The proposed base of the pond should be nearly flat in order to reduce the expense of earth moving. (c) Stormy regions should be avoided in order to limit the wind surface mixing effect, and the rate of debris deposition upon the pond's surface. (d) The underlying earth structure should be homogeneous and free of stresses and fissures. If not, then increases in temperature may cause differential thermal expansions which could result in earth movements. 4a (e) The site should avoid overlying closely an aquifer s of fresh (or brackish) water in order to: (i) prevent polluting the aquifer, if it is of fresh water, and thereby lose a valuable fresh-water source; (ii) not pose serious thermal or structural problems for the pond, especially when the temperature rises and the dissolved gases in the aquifer water start to evolve; (iii) not lose heat via underground water streams passing through the aquifer. Any continuous drain of heat from the pond's bottom will lower its storage capability and effectiveness. (f) The site should experience an all-year solar exposure. (g) The pond should preferably be situated in a relatively cheap per hectare region of no mineral importance.

Brine clarity
The thermal efficiency of a solar pond is affected significantly by the clarity of the brine. Increasing the brine's clarity will increase its

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transmissivity, which, in turn, increases the ability of the insolation to penetrate through the NCZ, and thereby improve the collection efficiency. Mechanical and chemical treatments of suspended inorganic particles (dust and sands) and the organic species (bacteria and algae), which exist in solar pond brine, are necessary to achieve relatively high transmissivities in solar ponds. Control of the brine's pH value (see the Appendix) is essential if the optimal performance is to be achieved, as well as in minimizing the corrosion of the heat exchangers and the pumps of the pond's ancillary equipment. 37

Algae control Species of fresh-water and salt-water algae grow under the conditions of temperature and salt concentration that exist in a stratified solar pond. Algae growth will inhibit solar transmissivity and, if allowed to reach sufficiently high population densities, the algae will interfere with the pond's operation and absorb unprofitably a considerable amount of the insolation. 49 Many different algae species can be introduced unintentionally into the pond by rain water, air-blown dust and debris. However, the best way to control algae is to stop their formation initially (i.e. during the period of pond stratification). A concentration of about 1.5 mg/litre of copper sulphate proved to be effective37'49'5 for controlling the algae growth, after adjusting the brine to its optimal pH value (see the Appendix). Bacteria control Bacteria can grow even in the highest concentrations of brine, if its temperature is less than 50C. 51 Chlorine is the chemical commonly used to control bacteria: its effectiveness varies with the pH value, being more potent in acidic solutions than in alkaline ones. Water filtering and surface cleaning Air-blown dust, debris and sand particles of different sizes will possibly fall on the pond's surface. Some will sink to the bottom and settle there, so causing no reduction in clarity; some (such as leaves) will float on the surface and these can be removed easily during the surface-flushing process; and some might remain suspended in the solution--this is the most harmful and will reduce the solution's clarity significantly. A sand filter is effective in filtering out suspended solids; 5~ the water

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of the contaminated layer being pumped through the sand filter and returned to the withdrawal level.

Maintaining the salt-gradient

The thermal efficiency of a pond depends on the stability of its vertical salt-gradient. Without the proper maintenance of the stratification, the pond will cease functioning. The stability of the salt-gradient is maintained by: Controlling the overall salinity difference between the two convecting layers--the UCZ and the LCZ. Inhibiting internal convection currents, if they tend to form, in the NCZ. Limiting the growth of the UCZ.
Gradient control Salt slowly diffuses upwards as a result of its concentration gradient at an average annual rate of about 2 0 k g m - 2 . 51 This rate varies and is dependent upon the ambient environment conditions, type of salt and temperature gradient. So a combination of surface washing by fresh water and injecting brines of adequate density at the bottom of the pond is usually sufficient to maintain an almost stationary gradient. Several techniques have been developed to achieve this. The four-terminal flow system of Nielsen and Rabl, 52 shown in Fig. 14, creates an almost constant salt-gradient with the minimum amount of added salt. However, it requires a small amount of salt to be added regularly during the salt-input process at the LCZ in order to compensate for that lost during the salt-removal process from the UCZ. The three-terminal flow system, i.e. 'the falling pond' of Tabor 4 8 see Fig. 15, does not need any compensating salt, but the initial salt investment is higher than for the four-terminal system. 52 The basic idea of the 'falling pond' is that, by extracting the hot brine from the bottom of the NCZ--see Fig. 15, and flashing it in a chamber at sub-atmospheric pressure, the water content of the brine is reduced due to the evaporation, and the resulting denser brine, of smaller volume, will be returned back to the LCZ. Hereby, a downward velocity is given to the water in the pond: this will offset the upward salt diffusion and the salt flux becomes zero. Consequently, no compensating salt is needed. The resulting

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A / A E I T RA E I W T RN E F C R

SLAT RM VL E OA
PROCESS

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Fig. 14. Four-terminal flow system, used for maintaining the salt-concentration gradient. vapour could be used in power generation or for passing its heat on to a second fluid through a heat exchanger, and the condensed water will be returned to the pond's surface. Some of it will be added to the denser brine returning to the bottom of the pond in order to control the salt concentration and thereby maintain the required salt balance. Another way of salt-gradient maintenance is that of Akbarzadeh and Macdonald. s3 They suggested a passive method for the replenishment of salt in solar ponds, based on the natural circulation of water caused by density differences. Water, from a selected depth in the solar pond, is passed through a salt bed in an adjacent tank, where its salinity is increased before it is returned to the bottom region of the solar pond. The difference between the densities, at the points of intake and outlet, provides the driving force for the natural c i r c u l a t i o n I s e e Fig. 16. Careful system design ensures that this circulation will transport enough salt to the bottom region of the pond to compensate for its upward diffusion. 53 This method is simple and self-regulating, because it controls

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H. E. A. Abdel-Salam, S. D. Probert
POND'S AIR/WATER INTERFACE
COMPENSATORY WATER

FOREVAPORATION ANDOVERF L ~ -

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Three-terminal flow system: schematic representation of the 'falling pond'.

the density gradient without the necessity for a pumping system. This still needs to be demonstrated via a large-scale system.
Gradient correction During pond heating, and particularly at higher temperatures, small, unstable, convecting zones may develop within the NCZ. If these zones are left unattended, they will increase in thickness, and this leads to a decrease in the effective thickness of the NCZ. s 1 Gradient correction can be performed by two techniques. The first method s4 consists of injecting low- or high-salinity brine
AIR lWATER INTERFACES !NSITY

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Schematic diagram for salt replenishment in a solar pond using the passive method.

Solar ponds: designs and prospects

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taken from either the UCZ or the LCZ, depending on the position of the unstable-convecting layer in the original stratified zone. A diffuser is placed at the upper boundary of the unstable region, and the brine is injected horizontally through this diffuser, while it is moving downwards until the lower boundary of the unstable region is reached. The vertical speed of the diffuser and the rate and the density of the injected brine from it are adjusted in such way as to restore the stability of the gradient. So the mixing process in this method occurs inside the affected region itself. The second method 55 involves external mixing of the available brines to provide a solution of the appropriate concentration, which is then slowly injected into the unstable region. The UCZ or the LCZ can be used to supply the adequate amounts of salt water of low or high salt content needed to achieve the solution of the appropriate concentration, but the temperature of this solution may require additional controls.
U C Z control

The UCZ exists and grows at the expense of the NCZ. Therefore, if the UCZ thickness becomes excessive, it lowers significantly the pond's efficiency. Surface flushing is an essential process in maintaining the pond's saltgradient. Its effect on the UCZ growth could be reduced to a great extent if the velocity of the surface-washing water, and its inlet and outlet ports, are designed in such a way as not to introduce turbulence into the pond's surface layer. Surface temperature fluctuations will result in heat being transferred upwards through the UCZ by convection, especially at night, and downward by conduction, especially during mid-days of Summer. av The thickness of the UCZ varies with the intensity of the incident insolation. In an experimental solar pond at Melbourne University, Australia, the thickness of the UCZ varied between 10 and 15cm from night time to mid-day. 56 Attempts to exclude or reduce the mixing caused by differences between the solar input at noon and the heat loss at night are impractical for large ponds. At the Ohio State University, in a small experimental pond covered with air-spaced double-glazing to reduce surface temperature variations, the UCZ remained thinner than in a similar pond covered with single glazing. In both cases the glass cover almost eliminated wind effects. 3~

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Evaporation will be caused by insolation and wind-action. The higher the temperature of the UCZ and the lower the humidity above the pond's surface, the greater will be the evaporation rate. Excessive evaporation results in a downwards growth of the UCZ.S 7 Evaporation increases the salinity at the top of the UCZ, and consequently this top layer becomes denser than the saline water immediately below it and so a downward movement ensues. As it sinks, its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. Most of this is dissipated, but a fraction of it may persist to the bottom of the UCZ, where it may entrain higher density liquid at the top of the NCZ. 5a Evaporation could be counterbalanced by surface water-washing, which could compensate for evaporated water, as well as reduce the temperature of the pond's surface, especially during excessive-insolation periods. Reducing the wind velocity over the water's surface by using wind breaks will also reduce the evaporation rates. Evaporation can be the dominant mechanism in surface-layer mixing under light-to-moderate winds. However, under strong winds, evaporation becomes of secondary importance compared with wind stirring. Wind-induced mixing can contribute significantly to the deepening of the UCZ by erosion of the NCZ. Surface-wind shear forces introduce energy, which causes the upper layer to become thicker through entrainment. 59 Cooper, 6 Kato and Phillips, 61 Turner, 62 W u 63 and others studied the turbulent entrainment across a density-differential interface. Most of the theoretical and experimental studies concluded that the rate of increase of potential energy of the stratified fluid is proportional to the rate of dissipation of kinetic energy per unit area in the turbulent layer. Hence, the rate of change of the potential energy of the mixing layer (i.e. the UCZ) is proportional to the work done by the wind. When a wind begins to blow over the water surface, turbulence is generated both by the mean shear forces and by the generated waves. Subsequently, the turbulent surface layer becomes thicker due to the entrainment or erosion of underlying denser water. 61 Winds also induce horizontal currents near the top surface of the pond. These have a mixing effect resulting in convection ensuing in this region. 64 Wind-mixing action cannot be negated. Surface mixed layers exceeding 0-5 m depth exist in practice. 58 Therefore, many techniques have been used to try to control their formation and growth. A successfullyoperating solar pond should have a limited UCZ depth, i.e. normally in the range of 0.1 to 0.3m. s

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The wind-mixing effect could be reduced by surface attenuation devices such as floating plastic pipes, 3v floating plastic grids s and independent floating rings. 56 These devices have been employed to shorten the wind-fetch length, which directly reduces the effect of wind shear, surface currents and waves, without attenuating the incident insolation significantly. Another way of reducing the wind-mixing effect is by using windbreaks, which would serve to reduce the local wind velocity. However, this may not be viable economically, but exploiting existing features (such as trees, hills, or any natural physical protection) will result in the wind effect being reduced without incurring additional expense. Rather than using physical devices to suppress surface deepening, the desired effect may be achieved by decreasing the potential energy of the top surface layer of the pond. This may be accomplished by raising the overall salinity of the pond, and then washing this top layer with much fresher water to produce a thin surface sub-layer, which would require considerable turbulent kinetic energy to mix it with the bulk of the surface layer. So, most of the undesired captured wind energy would be used to mix the top layer and the remainder would be insufficient to lower the level of the interface between the UCZ and the NCZ. 5s

ECONOMICS AND PROSPECTS Solar ponds have considerable potential for producing economic heat at low temperatures for many applications. They possess large heatstorage capabilities and involve relatively simple technology. They solve the problem associated with huge solar-energy harnessing projects, namely, the long-term storage system, in a remarkably cheap way. At present, due to the lack of wide range of field performance and price data, it is difficult to make reliable predictions of unit energy costs for solar ponds. However, the basic technical and economic feasibilities of ponds have been demonstrated in pioneer projects, especially in USA, Australia and Israel. 6s The estimations of the cost of solar-pond installations per unit area have been considerably less than that of any active solar-energy collector available today. According to Jayadev and Edesess, 66 typical solar pond capital costs generally range between US $10" and $40 per m 2, for combined solar* All values of $ are for the particular year stated in the appropriate reference.

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energy collection and heat storage. This represents a significant decrease from the costs of traditional collector systems ( ~ U S $220 per m2). 67 Zangrando and Bryant 5 estimated the costs of constructing a solar pond of 105 m 2 surface area as US $54 per m 2, which is well below the total cost of any other comparable solar-heating installation. Rabl and Nielsen 6 predicted that the cost for a 140m 2 pond with horizontal partitions between the UCZ, N C Z and LCZ was US $42 per m 2, whilst their estimation of US $22 per m 2 for a larger pond of 2800 m 2, with the same design features, corroborated that larger ponds are more economical. The largest operating solar pond in the U S A 34'6s w a s constructed with a 2020 m 2 surface area at a total cost of US $35 per m 2. The cost of heat produced was US $8-95 per GJ. This compared favourably with the cost of heating obtained from fossil fuels, e.g. US $9.5 per GJ for fuel oil, the cost analysis being undertaken according to 1977 prices. For a pond of 1 km 2 area, Tabor s assumed the initial capital cost of US $13 per m 2. He calculated accordingly the effective cost of heat derived from this pond in a sunny area of average annual insolation of 228 W m - 2 with a 20% pond efficiency. After allowing for the costs of the annual maintenance and the compensating fresh water, he estimated the cost of heat per kWh(t) to be US0.44. He concluded that the solar pond as a source of low-grade energy is competitive with oil even for conditions considerably less favourable than those assumed. Sheridan undertook a simple cost analysis for a 15 kW solar-pond power system at Alice Springs, Australia: he reported an electrical unit cost as A $0.60 per kWh, which was considered to be acceptable for remote locations. 67

Cost-influencing factors
The effective cost of heat obtained from solar ponds depends mainly on: costs of construction, operation and maintenance of the pond; size of the pond; site suitability; type of the pond; and kind of application. Construction cost is a decisive factor. It depends upon the design recommendations and the local prices of the materials required for the pond's construction. Further studies are still needed to reduce the design costs, especially concerning the use of walls and bottom liner, excavations and the optimal amount of salt to create the gradient. For example, plastic liners of different sorts have been used, leading to a 25% increase

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in capital cost. 37 This could be avoided if appropriate local materials such as adequate types of clay, are exploited. 69 Operational and maintenance costs are influenced mainly by labour costs (estimated at about 2 man-years for a pond of 1 km 2 areaS), compensating and flushing water costs, and additional salt cost needed to maintain the gradient. For the developing world, the operational and maintenance financial costs, in addition to the land prices, are generally lower than for the highly developed countries. However, capital cost should be calculated according to the net-present-value procedure, 7 allowing for inflation rates, interest on capital and the expected lifetime of the pond (estimated conservatively at 15 years s or 20 years38). The effective capital cost of a large ( > 100m 2) solar pond per unit area is inversely proportional to the size of the pond. This implies that larger ponds are more economic than smaller ones due to the reduction in costs of construction, operation and maintenance per unit area. Also, the maximization of the ratio of the pond's surface area to its perimeter (e.g. as in large solar ponds) will minimize the relative heat losses at the pond's edges. Circular ponds satisfy this maximization criterion. There are several site considerations which will influence the choice of location for a solar pond. Probably the most severe limitation is the local insolation. Generally, lower latitude sites are to be preferred. 2 However, nbt all the places at a given latitude possess the same prospects for construction of an economically viable solar pond. Locations that could be transformed into a solar pond with the minimum earth-moving expense, and which are near cheap salt and water sources, are the most attractive commercially. Economic assessments of the different types of solar ponds suggest that there is no single type which is suitable for all sites and localities. For example, according to Edesess e t al., 4 a salt gradient non-convecting solar pond is more economic than a comparable size convecting saltless pond only if the price of the salt is less than about US $14-8 per ton. For a higher unit price of salt, the saltless pond becomes a more economic choice. The shallow solar ponds of the Lawrence Livermore Laboratories,18 are capable of supplying hot water to large users at an installed cost which could reach US $100 per m 2. However, a large conventional solar pond has an installation price of US $13 per m2. s Despite this, for some applications, a shallow solar pond could be considered as the 'best buy'.

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CONCLUSIONS There is growing world-wide interest in promoting renewable energy resources such as solar energy. A wide variety of solar-energy collectors has been proposed. One of these is the solar pond. It is an attractive approach for harnessing solar energy on a large scale. The advantages of solar ponds can be summarized as: (a) The solar pond acts as both a collector and store. (b) Its collecting surface area could be of the order of several square kilometres without incurring excessive technical difficulties and so it solves the problem of the intrinsically low intensity of solar energy. (c) Its store could be large enough to offer a continuous yearly heat supply despite the intermittency of the insolation, and without the need for back-up energy supplies. (d) Unlike conventional collectors, solar ponds have no windows that need to be kept clean. (e) The solar pond avoids the necessity for employing a piping system to convey the collected energy from a large area to a central point. Because of the likely slippage of the stratified layers, one relative to another, it will probably be unnecessary to have more than one pipe for withdrawal and one pipe for the return of the salt water to the LCZ, and these pipes need not extend very far from the walls of the coffered solar pond. (f) This collector shares with other solar systems the attribute of being non-polluting. (g) The solar pond probably involves the simplest technology and is the most attractive economically for large-scale solarenergy harnessing: under some conditions, it is competitive with fossil fuels. (h) Solar ponds could make a great contribution to help solve the energy problems of developing countries and remote areas due to the simple technology involved. However, there are some limitations associated with solar ponds, such as: (a) Choice of a suitable site. (b) Solar ponds have a horizontal collecting surface, which cannot be tilted. So sun tracking is impossible and the efficiency will be somewhat lower than for traditional collectors: the thermal efficiency of a typical solar pond ranges from 15 to 25% according to the water clarity, 71 whereas traditional collectors' efficiencies could reach 30% or more. 7 (c) The maximum temperature of a solar pond is limited practically to below 100C. Nevertheless, because of the great advantages of solar ponds, their limitations should not discourage further research, design and development studies as well as economic assessments of this means of solarenergy collection and storage. Once solar ponds commonly exist, their

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potential for harnessing and storing other forms of ambient energy (e.g. possibly lightning) may be realized.

APPENDIX: THE H Y D R O G E N - I O N EXPONENT, pH In aqueous solutions, the hydrogen-ion concentration is often described in terms of the solution's pH value, which is defined as - l o g l o [ H + ] , where [H ] is the hydrogen-ion activity. The latter may be considered to approximate to the molar concentration of H ions in very dilute solutions. 72 At 25C, the ionic product for water is [ H + ] [ O H - ] = l x 10 -14 When [H ] = [OH-], the solution is neutral and [H +] = 1 x 10-7; that is, pH = 7.0. Solutions of lower pH values ranging from 7-0 to unity are acidic and the acidity rises as the pH decreases. Solutions with pH higher than 7.0 are alkaline, and the pure alkaline state occurs at pH = 14. 72 In solar ponds, the brine's pH value should be maintained at less than 7.0 (i.e. on the acidic side) in order to keep the copper sulphate active in the solution. It then remains effective in inhibiting the rate of growth of the algae and the bacteria: otherwise the copper will precipitate out on the bottom of the pond. The higher the brine's acidity, the more active the copper sulphate will be in the solution. However, the acidity should be kept as low as possible from the point of view of corrosion of metallic parts in the system (i.e. heat exchanger, pumps and other ancillary equipment). So there is an optimal pH value for the solar pond brine, and this is somewhere between 5.0 and 6.5. 51 Appropriate adjustments of the pH value can be achieved by adding hydrochloric acid to lower it, and sodium carbonate to increase it.

REFERENCES 1. Janzen, A. F. and Swartman, R. K., Solar energy conversion, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1981. 2. Tabor, H., Solar ponds--Progress and potential, Solar Energy Benefits Evaluated--Techniques & Results, Conference (M3), UK ISES, Birmingham, UK, September, 1982, pp. 39-45.

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3. Jayadev, T. S., Edesess, M. and Henderson, J., Solar pond concepts: Old and new, Proceedings of 14th Inter-society Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Boston, USA, August, 1979, pp. 45-48. 4. Edesess, M., Benson, D., Henderson, J. and Jayadev, T. S., Economic and performance comparisons of salty and saltless solar ponds, Proceedings of 14th Inter-society Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Boston, USA, August, 1979, pp. 56-61. 5. Zangrando, F. and Bryant, H. C., Heat extraction from a salt-gradient solar pond, International Conference on Alternative Energy Sources, Miami Beach, Florida, USA, 1977, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, USA, 1978, pp. 293547. 6. Rabl, A. and Nielsen, C. E., Solar ponds for space heating, Solar Energy, 17 (1975), pp. 1-12. 7. Assaf, G., The Dead Sea: A scheme for a solar lake, Solar Energy, 1 (1976), pp. 293-9. 8. Tabor, H., Review article: Solar ponds, Solar Energy, !27 (1981), pp. 181- 94. 9. Crevier, D. and Moshref, A., The floating solar pond, ISES-AS Conference, Philadelphia, USA, 26-30 May, 1981, pp. 801-7. 10. Weeks, D. D., Technical note: The thermal properties of a floating saltgradient solar pond, Sun World, 7 (1983), p. 1. 11. Satish, C. J. and Gurmukh, D. M., Laboratory demonstration of selfcreation, self-maintenance and self-correction of saturated solar ponds, IECEC '80 'Energy to the 21st Century', Proceedings of the 15th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Seattle, Washington, USA, Vol. 2, 18-22 August, 1980, pp. 1448-52. 12. Rothmeyer, M. K., Saturated solar ponds: Modified equations and results of a laboratory experiment, University of New Mexico, USA, MSc Thesis, 1980. 13. Vitner, A., Reisfeld, R. and Sarig, S., Self-generation of a laboratory-scale saturated solar pond, Solar Energy, 32 (1984), pp. 671-5. 14. Ochs, T. L., Operational experience with a saturated Borax solar pond, IECEC '80 'Energy to the 21st Century', Proceedings of the 15th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Seattle, Washington, USA, Vol. 2, 18-22 August, 1980, pp. 1444-47. 15. Abdel-Salam, H. E. A., Probert, S. D., O'Callaghan, P. W., Hussein, M. and Norton, B., Predicted performances of a proposed coffered solar pond, Applied Energy, 16 (1984), pp. 283 306. 16. Shaffer, H. L., Viscosity-stabilized solar ponds, Sun: Mankind's Future Source of Energy, Proceedings of the ISESC, New Delhi, India, 16-21 Jan. 1978. 17. Wilkins, E., EI-Genk, M., EI-Husseini, K. and Thakur, D., An evaluation of the gel pond's performance, ASME, 82-WA/Sol-29, 1982. 18. Casamajor, A. B., The application of shallow solar ponds for industrial process heat: Case-histories, Sun 2: Proceedings of the ISES Silver Jubilee Congress, Vol 2, Atlanta, USA, 1979, pp. 1029-32. 19. Casamajor, A. B., Clark, A. F. and Parsons, R. E., Cost reductions and

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20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36.

37.

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