Chapter 1: Introductory concepts and definitions Thermodynamics Thermo: Heat Dynamis: Force

System Surroundings Boundary

Closed System Control Volume

Macroscopic approach: Classical thermodynamics Microscopic approach: Statistical thermodynamics

Property: intensive, extensive State Process o Isothermal process o Adiabatic process

Cycle Equilibrium Phase

Specific Volume Density Pressure (units) Temperature scale o Kelvin scale o Rankine scale

Chapter 2: Energy and First Law of Thermodynamics Work-Energy

S2

S1

Fds =

1 m(V2 2 V12 ) 2

Conservation of energy

1 1 mV12 + mgZ1 = mV2 2 + mgZ 2 2 2

Expansion /Compression work

Work is a path function (Depends on process)

Sign convention: w>0 work done by the system w<0 work done on the system

A gas in a piston-cylinder undergoes an expansion for which PV n = constant . Evaluate the work done by the gas if: a) n=1.5 b) n=1.0 c) n=0

w = Pdv
v1

v2

Expansion work

c) w = Pdv = P (v2 v1 ) = 3*105 (0.2 0.1)

v1

v2

N 3 m = 3*104 J = 30KJ m2

b) w = Pdv = c
v1 v1

v2

v2

dv v 0.2 = PV ln 2 = 3*105 (0.1) ln( ) = 20.79KJ 0.1 v v1

a ) P2 = P ( 1

V1 n 0.1 ) = 3( )1.5 = 1.06 Bar V2 0.2

w=

V2

V1

c V21n V11n dV = c Vn 1 n

But C = PV2 n = PV1n 2 1 W = PV2 PV1 2 1 = 17.6 KJ 1 n

Energy transfer by heat:

Q>0 heat transfer to the system Q<0 heat transfer from the system

Heat transfer modes:

Conduction: Q x = KA

dT dx

Convection: Q = hA(T2 T1 )

Radiation: Q = A(T2 4 T14 )

Stefan-Boltzman Law

1st Last of Thermodynamics for Closed System:

Q = W + U + KE + PE

Energy analysis of cycles:

Qnet = Wnet

(a) Power cycle:

= =

W Qin Qin Qout Qin

(b) Refrigeration cycle:

= =

Qin Wcycle Qin Qout Qin

Heater:

Qout Wcycle

Chapter 3: Evaluating Properties P-v-T Relation P=P(T,v) The graph of such a function is a surface called (P-v-T) surface

Projecting the liquid, two phase, and vapor regions of P-v-T surface onto the temperaturespecific volume Plane results in a (T-v) diagram

Two Phase Flow:

x=

mvap mtot

mg m f + mg

V = V f + Vg vm = v f m f + vg mg Divide by m mf mg ) + vg ( ) m m v = (1 x)v f + xvg v = vf (

The concept of independent properties:

H = V + Pv h = u + Pv u = (1 x)u f + xu g h = (1 x)h f + xhg

Ideal gas model

Pv = RT u = u (T ) h = h (T ) = u (T ) + Pv h = h (T ) = u (T ) + RT

Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases

For a gas obeying the ideal gas model, specific energy depends only on temperature. Hence, the specific heat cv is also a function of temperature alone. That is,
cv (T ) = du dT

(ideal gas)

This is expressed as an ordinary derivative because u depends only on T . By separating variables du = cv (T )dT On integration
u (T2 ) u (T1 ) = cv (T )dT
T1 T2

(ideal gas)

Similarly, for a gas obeying the ideal gas model, the specific enthalpy depends only on temperature, so the specific heat c p defined by Eq. 3.9, is also a function of temperature alone. That is
c p (T ) = dh dT

(ideal gas)

An important relationship between the ideal gas specific heats can be developed by differentiating the enthalpy equation with respect to temperature
dh du = +R dT dT

Therefore
c p (T ) = cv (T ) + R

(ideal gas)

On a molar basis, this is written as

c p (T ) = c v (T ) + R

(ideal gas)

Although each of the two ideal gas specific heats is a function of temperature, the above equations show that the specific heats differ by just a constant. Knowledge of either specific heat for a particular gas allows the other to be calculated by using only the gas constant. The above equations also show that c p > cv and c p > c v , respectively.

For an ideal gas, the specific heat ration, k, is also a function of temperature only k= c p (T ) cv (T ) (ideal gas)

Since c p > cv , it follows that k > 1 . Combining the above two equations results in
kR k 1 R c v (T ) = k 1 c p (T ) =

Polytropic process of an ideal gas Recall that a polytropic process of a closed system is described by a pressure-volume relationship of the form pV n = constant Where n is a constant. For a polytropic process between two states
p1V1n = p2V2 n

or
p2 V = ( 1 )n p1 V2

The exponent n may take on any value from to + , depending on the particular process. When n = 0 , the process is an isobaric (constant-pressure) process, and when
n = , the process is an isometric (constant volume) process.

For a polytropic process

pdV =

p2V2 p1V1 ( n 1) 1 n

For any exponent n except n = 1 . When n = 1 ,

pdV = p1V1 ln

V2 (n = 1) V1

The above equations apply to any gas (or liquid) undergoing a polytropic process. When the additional idealization of ideal gas behavior is appropriate, further relations can be derived. Thus, when the ideal gas equation of state is introduced, the following expressions are obtained, respectively

T2 p2 ( n 1) / n V ( ) = ( 1 ) n 1 (idealgas) T1 p1 V2

pdV =
2

mR (T2 T1 ) (ideal gas, n 1) 1 n V2 (ideal gas, n=1) V1

pdV = mRT ln

For an ideal gas, the case n=1 corresponds to an isothermal (constant-temperature) process, as can readily be verified. In addition, when the specific heats are constant, the value of the exponent n corresponding to and adiabatic polytropic process of and ideal gas is the specific heat ratio k Example 3.11 illustrates the use of the closed system energy balance for a system consisting of an ideal gas undergoing a polytropic process.

Linear Interpolation:

Chapter 4: Control volume analysis

A region of space through which mass flows

Conservation of mass

dmcv = mi m e ct

Since m = VA

m=

VA v

Then

dmcv VA VA = i i e e dt vi ve

Most engineering systems can be assumed to be at steady state, meaning that all properties are unchanged with time.

For a control volume then:

dmcv =0 dt

Therefore

mi = m e

A stream of water vapor mixes with a liquid water stream to produce a saturated liquid stream at the exit. The states at the inlets and exit are specified. Mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate data are given at one inlet and at the exit, respectively. Determine the mass flow rates at inlet 2 and at the exit, and the velocity V2 .

Analysis:

The principle relations to be employed are the mass rate balance and the expression
m = VA / v . At steady state the mass rate balance becomes:

dmtv dt

= m1 + m 2 m3

Solving for m 2
m 2 = m3 m1

The mass flow rate m1 is given. The mass flow rate at the exit can be evaluated from the given volumetric flow rate
m3 =

( AV )3 v3

Where v3 , is the specific volume at the exit. In writing this expression, one-dimensional flow is assumed. From Table A-3, Hence
v3 = 1.108*103 m 3 /kg .

m3 =

0.06m3 / s = 54.15kg/s (1.108*103 m3 / kg )

The mass flow rate at inlet 2 is then

m 2 = m3 m1 = 54.15 40 = 14.15kg/s

For one-dimensional flow at 2,

m 2 = A2V2 / v2 , so

V2 = m 2 v2 / A2

State 2 is a compressed liquid. The specific volume at this state can be approximated by
v2 = v f (T2 ) .

From Table A-2 at 40C,

v2 = 1.0078*10 3 m 3 /kg .

Therefore (14.15kg/s)(1.0078*103 m3 /kg) 104 cm 2 V2 = = 5.7m/s 25cm 2 1m 2

Conservation of energy for a control volume

dEcv V2 V2 = Q W + mi (ui + i + gzi ) me (ue + e + gze ) 2 2 dt

W = W cv + ( pe Ae )Ve ( pi Ai )Vi
dEcv Vi 2 Ve 2 = Q cv W cv + mi (ui + pi vi + + gzi ) me (ue + pe ve + + gze ) 2 2 dt dEcv V2 V2 = Q cv W cv + mi (hi + i + gzi ) me (he + e + gze ) dt 2 2

dEcv V2 V2 = Q cv W cv + mi (hi + i + gzi ) me (he + e + gze ) 2 2 dt i e

Analyzing control volume at steady state

dEcv =0 dt
Vi 2 Ve 2 0 = Q cv W cv + mi (hi + + gzi ) me (he + + gze ) 2 2

Since

m = m
i

Many applications involve one inlet and one exit

Therefore:
mi = m e = m

0 = Q cv W cv + m[(h1 h2 ) +

(V12 V2 2 ) + g ( z1 z2 )] 2

0=

Q cv m

W cv

+ (h1 h2 ) +

(V12 V2 2 ) + g ( z1 z2 ) 2

0 = q w + (h1 h2 ) + Or:

V12 V2 2 + g ( z1 z2 ) 2

V2 2 V12 q = w + (h2 h1 ) + + g ( z1 z2 ) 2 This is the statement of first law of thermodynamics for controlled volume

Application of the first law to various engineering devices:

Nozzles and diffusers:

q = h2 h1 +

V2 2 V12 2

Turbines:

q = w + (h2 h1 )

Compressors:

q = w + (h2 h1 )

Pump:

V2 2 V12 q = w + h2 h1 + + g ( z2 z1 ) 2 0 = w + u2 + P2 v2 u1 Pv1 + 1 V2 2 V12 + g ( z2 z1 ) 2

Since u2 u1 0 water has a low viscosity And v2 = v1 = v incompressible flow

Then V2 2 V12 0 = w + v( P2 P ) + + g ( z2 z1 ) 1 2 The above formula is used to find the power used by a pump

v( P2 P ) is known as Pressure head 1 V2 2 V12 2 is known as Velocity head

g ( z2 z1 ) is known as Elevation head

Throttling Devices:

q = w + (h2 h1 ) +

V2 2 V12 + g ( z2 z1 ) 2

There is usually no significant heat transfer with the surrounding and the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible. With these assumptions, the first law Of thermodynamics reduces to:

h1 +

V12 V2 = h2 + 2 2 2

Although velocities may be relatively high in the vicinity of the restriction, measurements made upstream and downstream of the flow area show in most cases that the change in the specific kinetic energy of the fluid between these locations can be neglected. With this further simplification, the last equation reduces to

h1 = h2

System integration (putting it all together):

Heat exchangers:

Devices that transfer energy between fluids at different temperatures by heat transfer modes such as conduction, convection, and radiation are called heat exchangers. One common type of heat exchanger is a vessel in which hot and cold streams are mixed directly as show in figure (a). An open feedwater heater is an example of this type.

Another common type of heat exchanger is one in which a gas or liquid is separated from another gas or liquid by a wall through which energy is conducted. These heat exchangers, known as recuperators, take many different forms. Counterflow and parallel tube-within-a-tube configurations are shown in Figures (b) and (c), respectively. Other

configurations include cross-flow, as in automobile radiators, and multiple-pass shalland-tube condensers and evaporators. Figure (d) illustrates a cross-flow heat exchanger. The only work interaction at the boundary of a control volume enclosing a heat

exchanger is flow work at the places where matter enters and exits, so the term W cv of the energy rate balance can be set to zero. Although high rates of energy transfer may be achieved from stream to stream, the heat transfer from the outer surface of the heat exchanger to the surroundings is often small enough to be neglected. In addition, the kinetic and potential energies of the flowing streams can often be ignored at the inlets and exits.

Transient analysis:

Chapter 5: The second law of thermodynamics

Although the first law of thermodynamics allows unrestricted convertibility from one from of energy to another, as long as the overall quantity is conserved, experimental evidence tells that in certain types of energy conversion, restriction must be placed to the direction end extent of transformation. For example, it is a fact that although work can be completely converted into heat, heat cannot be completely converted into work, no matter how ideal the process may be. For example, rubbing two pieces of sandpaper together, work used to overcome friction causes an increase in internal energy of the paper and heat flow to surroundings, but heat addition will not result in doing mechanical work. It is the second law of thermodynamics that imposes restrictions to the direction and extent of energy transformation processes. In this chapter we sturdy the second law of thermodynamics and some consequences of it.

In summary second law provides means for 1. Predicting the direction of processes. 2. Establishing conditions for equilibrium. 3. Determining the best theoretical performance of cycles, engines, and other devices. 4. Evaluating quantitatively the factors that preclude the attainment of the best theoretical performance level.

Additional uses of the second law include its roles in 5. Defining a temperature scale independent or the properties of any thermometric substance. 6. Developing mans for evaluating properties such as u and h in terms of properties that are more readily obtained experimentally.

It is well known that physical processes in nature process toward equilibrium spontaneously. Liquids flow from a region of high elevation to one of low elevation; gases expand from a region of high pressure to one of low pressure; heat flows from a region of high temperature to one of low temperature; and material diffuses from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration. A spontaneous process can proceed only in a particular direction. Energy from an external source is required to reverse such processes. The second law of thermodynamics epitomizes out experiences with respect to the unidirectional nature of thermodynamics processes.

Kelvin Planck statement of the second law (Heat Engine)

Clausius statement of the second law (Heat pump)

Reservoir A large container that is unaffected in temperature as heat goes into and out of it.

Reversible process: Is a process that can be reversed and leave no resultant change in either the system or surroundings. Reversible processes are fictitious, they are ideal operations that represent the only means by which engineering calculations can be made.

Irreversible process: The system and the surrounding can not be exactly restored to their initial states. All real processes are irreversible, since they involve dissipative effects such as friction, heat transfer, etc...

The process is irreversible because of heat transfer to the surroundings. To reverse the process, heat must be added to the block and an equal amount of mechanical work must be done, which is impossible.

The most common irreversible processes are: Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference Unrestrained expansion of a fluid Mixing of fluids of different compositions and states Solid and fluid friction Spontaneous chemical reaction Inelastic deformation Electric resistance Hysteresis effects in magnetization and polarization

Thermodynamic cycles:

1 Power cycle Thermal efficiency = Wcycle QH = QH Qc Q = 1 c QH QH

2 Refrigeration/Heat pump cycle

=
Coefficient of performance

Qc Qc = Wcycle QH Qc QH QH = Wcycle QH Qc

Maximum thermal efficiency of a power cycle:

For a reversible cycle

Qc f (Tc ) = QH f (TH )

Can use number of temp functions. Kelvin suggested to use

Qc Tc = QH TH Tc TH

f (Tc ) = Tc f (TH ) = TH

Therefore

max = 1

Maximum performance of a refrigeration cycle:

max =

Tc TH Tc TH TH Tc

max =

Carnot cycle

What is the most efficient heat engine? What heat pump provides the highest coefficient of performance? All processes in the cycle must be reversible.

Chapter 6: Using Entropy

Clasius inequality Principle of entropy increase Entropy is a non conserved property Entropy change for pure substances Entropy change for ideal gases Isentropic process Isentropic efficiencies of various engineering devices

Clasius inequality

Q
T

0 for reversible & irreversible cycles

Sum of all differential heat transfers divided by absolute temp at the boundary.

Q ' = Wc + dEc

Where Wc = W '+ W Since the cyclic device is a reversible one

Q'
Tres

Q
T

II

Eliminating SQ ' from I & II

Wc = Tres

Q
T

dEc

Let the system undergo a cycle while the cyclic device undergoes one or more cycles.

W = T
c

Q
T

res

dEc

Since net change of energy during a cycle is zero

Wc = Tres

dE

=0

Q
T

For the heat engine, based on Kelvin-Planck statement Wc is a negative quantity and Tres is positive

Q
T

= reversible < irreversible

Definition of entropy change A quantity whose cyclic integral is zero depends on the state only and not on the process path therefore the quantity (

Q
T

) rev must represent a property in differential form.

ds = (

Q
T

) rev

Units of entropy: KJ Kg.K

Btu Lbm.R

Integrating both sides:

s = s2 s1 = (
1 2

Q
T

)
rev

Engineers are often concerned with change in entropy.

The principle of entropy increase:

Q
T

0 Clasius inequality

Q
T A

+ (
2

Q
T C

) rev 0

Q
T

+ s1 s2 0
2

Therefore s2 s1 Or ds

Q
T

Q
T

statement of second law of thermodynamics

> 0 irreversible Entropy generation (ds ) = 0 reversible < 0 impossible

Conclusion:

During a thermodynamic process the entropy of the universe can either increase or remain the same (Reversible process). It is not possible for a process to occur which involves decrease in entropy of the universe.
( S )univ = ( S ) system + ( S ) surr

The universe is filling up with entropy

1Lbm of saturated R-22 vapor at 155F is condensed at constant pressure to saturated liquid at 155F by transfer of heat to surrounding air at 95F
Q = hg h f = 112.495 58.04 = 54.45 Btu Lbm

(S ) sur =

54.45 Btu = 0.09811 (95 + 460) Lbm R

Defined reservoir: no change in temp as heat goes into it.

( S ) system = s f s g = 0.11036 0.19895 = 0.08862

(S )univ = (S ) system + (S ) sur = 0.0095

Btu Lbm R

Find the highest temp of air permissible under 2nd law ANS: must be a reversible process:
( S ) sys + ( S ) sur = 0

0.08862 +

54.45 =0 T + 460

T = 155 F
reversible heat transfer

Entropy change of pure substances:

s = (1 x ) s f + xs g

Numerical evaluation of entropy:

ds = dQ for reversible process T

dQ=dU+PdV

1st law in differential form for closed system

TdS = dU + PdV
For unit mass Tds = du + Pdv Units of s: Btu LbmR KJ Kg K I

h = u + Pv dh = du + Pdv + vdP Tds = dh vdP

II plug in equation I

Equations I & II for open, closed, rev systems

Entropy change for ideal gases:

(I) Tds = cv dT +
ds = Cv

RT dv for ideal gas v

dT dv +R T v T2 v + R ln 2 T1 v1 RT dp for ideal gas P

s2 s1 = cv ln

(II) Tds = c p dT
ds = c p

dT dP R T P

s2 s1 = cP ln

T2 P R ln 2 T1 P 1

Isentropic relations for an ideal gas:

s2 s1 = cv ln
Since s2 = s1
0 = cv ln

T2 v + R ln 2 T1 v1

T2 v + R ln 2 T1 v1 T2 v + (c p cv ) ln 2 T1 v1 T2 v + (k 1) ln 2 T1 v1

0 = cv ln

Divide by cv 0 = ln
T2 v = (1 k ) ln 2 T1 v1

ln

T2 v = ( 2 )1 k T1 v1 s2 s1 = c p ln T2 P R ln 2 T1 P 1

0 = c p ln

T2 P (c p cv ) ln 2 T1 P 1 T2 P (k 1) ln 2 T1 P 1

Divide by cv 0 = k ln
T2 k 1 P2 = ln T1 k P 1

ln

T2 P k 1 =( 2) k T1 P 1

Pv k = c

Pv1k = P2 v2 k 1

P2 v = ( 1 )k P v2 1

Isentropic process = reversible + adiabatic Enables us to compare the actual performance of engineering devices to the performance under idealized condition. s2 = s1

Isentropic efficiencies of various engineering devices:

Turbine:

w W = = ws W s

Compressor & Pump:

w Ws = s = w W

Nozzle:

(V2 2 / 2) (V2 2 / 2) s

More on ideal gas model

For two states having the same specific entropy,

s (T2 , p2 ) s (T1 , p1 ) = s(T2 ) s(T1 ) R ln p2 p1

Reduces to
0 = s(T2 ) s(T1 ) R ln
p2 p1

(I)

The above equation involves four property values: p1 ,T1 ,p2 , and T2 . If any three are known, the fourth can be determined. If, for example, the temperature at state 1 and the pressure ratio p2 / p1 are known, the temperature at state 2 can be determined from
s(T2 ) = s(T1 ) + R ln p2 p1

(II)

Since T1 is known, s(T1 ) would be obtained from the appropriate table, the value of s(T2 ) would be calculated, and temperature T2 would then be determines by interpolation. If p1 , T1 , and T2 are specified ad the pressure at state 2 is the unknown, equation I would be solved to obtain
s(T2 ) s(T1 ) p2 = p1 exp R

(III)

These equations can be used when s (or s ) data are known, as for the gases of Tables A-22 and A-23

Air

For the special case of air modeled as an ideal gas the above equation provides the basis for an alternative approach for relating the temperatures and pressure at two states having the same specific entropy. To introduce this, rewrite the equation as
p2 exp [ s(T2 ) / R ] = p1 exp [ s(T1 ) / R ]

(IV)

The quantity exp [ s(T ) / R ] appearing in this expression is solely a function of temperature, and is given the symbol pr (T ) . A tabulation of pr versus temperature for air is provided in Tables A-22. In terms of the function pr, the last equation becomes
p2 pr 2 (s1 = s2 , air only) = p1 pr1

(V)

Where pr1 = pr (T2 ) and pr 2 = pr (T2 ) . The function pr is sometimes called the relative pressure. Observe that pr is not truly a pressure, so the name relative pressure is misleading. Also, be careful not to confuse pr with the reduced pressure of the compressibility diagram. A relation between specific volumes and temperature for two states of air having the same specific entropy can also be developed. With the ideal gas equation of state,
v = RT / p , the ratio of the specific volumes is

v2 RT p = ( 2 )( 1 ) v1 p2 RT1

(VI)

Then, since the two states have the same specific entropy, equation V can be introduced to give

v2 RT2 pr (T1 ) = v1 pr (T2 ) RT1

(VII)

The ratio RT / pr (T ) appearing on the right side of the last equation is solely a function of temperature, and is given the symbol vr (T ) . Values of vr for air are tabulated versus temperature in Tables A-22. In terms of the function vr , the last equation becomes
v2 vr 2 (s1 = s2 , air only) = v1 vr1

(VIII)

Where vr1 = vr (T1 ) and vr 2 = vr (T2 ) . The function vr is sometimes called the relative volume. Despite the name given to it, vr (T ) is not truly a volume.

Chapter 8: Cycles

A series of processes in which a system starts at a given state and is returned to that same state.

Closed loop cycle: Same working fluid. Open loop cycle: New working fluid continuously furnished.

Since in a cycle u = 0 then Qnet = Wnet

Power cycle: Thermal efficiency can not be greater than thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle. Refrigeration cycle: Coefficient of performance.

We will study the application of 1st and 2nd law to analyze the performance of power and refrigeration cycles.

Vapor power systems Rankine cycle

th =

wturb wpump qin

wpump wturb

bwr =

bwr = Back work ratio

The back work ration is an alternative way of measuring the performance of a Rankine cycle.

Increasing Rankine cycle efficiency

1 Lowering the condenser temp 2 Superheating the steam (before entering turbine) Note: The boiler and super heater taken together is called steam generator. 3 Increasing the boiler pressure (while maintaining the peak temp) 4 Reheat of the steam to maintain the 90% quality of better in turbine to prevent blade damage.

Principle sources of irreversibilities & losses in turbine and/or pump:

Ideal reheat cycle:

Reheat cycle with turbine irreversibilities:

Regenerative vapor power cycle, open feedwater heater:

Chapter 9: Gas power systems

Internal combustion engine:

Mean effective pressure =

Net work for one cycle Displacement volume

Air standard Otto cycle:

Cycle analysis: 1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 constant volume heat addition 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 constant volume heat rejection

Air standard analysis

W12 = u2 u1 , m Q23 = u3 u2 , m W34 = u3 u 4 m Q41 = u4 u1 m

(I)

Wcycle m Wcycle m

W34 W12 = (u3 u4 ) (u2 u1 ) m m Q23 Q41 = (u3 u2 ) (u4 u1 ) m m

(II)

(III)

(u3 u2 ) (u4 u1 ) u u = 1 4 1 u3 u2 u3 u2
v2 v ) = r1 v1 r v4 ) = rvr 3 v3

(IV)

vr 2 = vr1 (

(V)

vr 4 = vr 3 (

(VI)

Cold air standard analysis

T2 V = ( 1 ) k 1 = r k 1 T1 V2 V T4 1 = ( 3 ) k 1 = k 1 T3 V4 r

(VII)

(VIII)

Effect of compression ratio on performance of Otto cycle By referring to the T-s diagram of the previous figure, we can conclude that the Otto cycle thermal efficiency increases as the compression ratio increase. An increase in the compression ratio changes the cycle from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2-34-1. Since the average temperature of heat addition is greater in the latter cycle and both cycles have the same heat rejection process, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 would have the greater thermal efficiency. The increase in thermal efficiency with compression ratio is also brought out simply by the following development on a cold air-standard basis. For constant cv , Eq. IV becomes

= 1
On rearrangement

cv (T4 T1 ) cv (T3 T2 )

(IX)

= 1

T1 T4 / T1 1 ( ) T2 T3 / T2 1

(X)

Knowing

T4 v T v = ( 4 )1 k and 1 = ( 1 )1 k T3 v3 T2 v2

Since v4 = v1 and v3 = v2 therefore the right hand sides are equal so the left hand sides must be equal.
T T T4 T1 or 4 = 3 = T1 T2 T3 T2

= 1
Finally, introducing Eq. VII

T1 T2

(XI)

= 1

1 r k 1

(XII)

Air Standard Diesel Cycle

Cycle analysis: 1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 constant pressure heat addition 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 constant volume heat rejection

In the diesel cycle the heat addition takes place at constant pressure. Accordingly, Process 2-3 involves both work and heat. The work is given by
3 W23 = pdv = p2 (v3 v2 ) 2 m

(XIII)

The heat added in Process 2-3 can be found by applying the closed system energy balance m(u3 u2 ) = Q23 W23 Introducing Eq. XIII and solving for the heat transfer
Q23 = (u3 u2 ) + p (v3 v2 ) = (u3 + pv3 ) (u2 + pv2 ) = h3 h2 m

(IXV)

Where the specific enthalpy is introduced to simplify the expression. As in the Otto cycle, the heat rejected in process 4-1 is given by
Q41 = u4 u1 m

The thermal efficiency is the ration of the net work of the cycle to the heat added

Wcycle / m Q23 / m

= 1

Q41 / m u u = 1 4 1 Q23 / m h3 h2

(XV)

As for the Otto cycle, the thermal efficiency from Eq. XV requires values for u1 , u4 , h2 , and h3 or equivalently the temperatures at the principle states of the cycle. Let us consider next how these temperatures are evaluated. For a given initial temperature T1 and compression ratio r , the temperature at state 2 can be found using the following isentropic relationship and vr data
vr 2 = V3 T2 = rcT2 V2

Where rc = v3 / v2 , called the cutoff ratio, has been introduced. Since V4 = V1 , the volume ratio for the isentropic process 3-4 can be expressed as
V4 V4 V2 V1 V2 r = = = V3 V2 V3 V2 V3 rc

(XVI)

Where the compression ratio r and cutoff ratio rc have been introduces for conciseness. Using Eq. XVI together with vr 3 at T3 , the temperature T4 can be determines by interpolation once vr 4 is found from the isentropic relationship
vr 4 = V4 r vr 3 = vr 3 V3 rc

In a cold air-standard analysis, the appropriate expression for evaluating T2 is provided by

T2 V = ( 1 ) k 1 = r k 1 (constant k) T1 V2

The temperature T4 is found similarly from

V r T4 = ( 3 ) k 1 = ( c ) k 1 T3 V4 r r

Where Eq. XVI has been used to replace the volume ratio.

Effect of compression ratio on performance

1 rck 1 = 1 k 1 (constant k) (XVII) r k (rc 1)

Air Standard Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbine Cycle)

Cycle analysis: 1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 constant pressure heat addition 3-4 isentropic expansion 4-1 constant pressure heat rejection

Air standard analysis

Wt

= h3 h4

(XVIII)

Wc

= h2 h1

(IXX)

Q in

= h3 h2

(XX)

Q out

= h4 h1 (XXI)

W t / m W c / m

Q in / m

(h3 h4 ) (h2 h1 ) h3 h2

(XXII)

pr 2 = pr 1

p2 p1

(XXIII)

pr 4 = pr 3

p4 p = pr 3 1 (XXIV) p3 p2

Cold air standard analysis: T4 P k 1 =( 4) k T3 P3

T1 P kk 1 1 =( ) T2 P2

Effect of compressor pressure ratio on the performance of Brayton cycle

c p (T3 T4 ) c p (T2 T1 ) c p (T3 T2 ) T1 T4 / T1 1 ( ) T2 T3 / T2 1

= 1

(T4 T1 ) (T3 T2 )

= 1

Knowing

T4 P k 1 T P k 1 = ( 4 ) k and 1 = ( 1 ) k T3 P3 T2 P2 therefore right hand sides are equal and the left hand side must be equal.

Since

P4 = P 1 P3 = P2

T T T4 T1 or 4 = 3 = T1 T2 T3 T2

= 1

T1 T2 1 (k constant) ( p2 / p1 ) ( k 1) / k

= 1

(XXV)

Comparison with Rankine Cycle The working fluid of Brayton cycle is a gas while the Rankine cycle involves a phase change (condenser, evap). The pump work is only a small fraction of turbine work, however in Brayton cycle the compressor work is a large fraction of turbine work this is why the Rankine cycle has better efficiency. But Brayton cycle is used for Jet engines because it has a better thrust to weight ratio than Rankine cycle.

T-s Diagram of Ideal Rankine and Brayton Cycles

The Actual Cycle The deviation of ideal cycle is due to the irreversibilities in turbine and/or compressor.

Effect of Component Efficiencies on Brayton Cycle Performance (Pressure Ratio = 5).

Brayton Cycle With Regenerator The gases at turbine exit are relatively high (500-600C). These hot gases are discharged and not used and represent losses. It is good to recover some of this energy. Such heat recovery can be accomplished by the use of a regenerator or heat exchanger

Hot gases from turbine exhaust are used to heat the cooler air before it enters the combustion chamber. Therefore less heat (fuel) needs to be supplied in the combustion chamber to reach a certain max turbine inlet temp. Disadvantage: Additional ducting and space (extra weight) not practical for jet engine. Effectiveness of a heat exchanger (Regenerator)
e= qactual hx h2 Actual enthalpy increase of the air flowing through the compressor side of regenerator = = qmax h4 h2 Maximum theoretical enthalpy increase c p '(Tx T2 ) c p ''(T4 T2 )

e=

if c p ' = c p '' (constant specific heat) e= Tx T2 T4 T2

Example 9.7: Brayton Cycle with Regeneration Air enters the compressor of an ideal Brayton cycle with regenerator at 100 kPa, 300 K with a volumetric flow rate of 5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. The regenerator effectiveness is 80%. Determine the thermal efficiency. Solution Known: A regenerative gas turbine operates with air as the working fluid. The compressor inlet state, turbine inlet temperature, and compressor pressure ratio are known. Find: For a regenerator effectiveness of 80%, determine the thermal efficiency. Also plot the thermal efficiency versus the regenerator effectiveness ranging from 0 to 80%.

Schematic and Given Data:

Assumptions: 1. Each component is analyzed as a control volume at steady state. The control volumes are shown on the accompanying sketch by dashed lines. 2. The compressor and turbine processes are isentropic. 3. There are no pressure drops for flow through the heat exchangers. 4. The regenerator effectiveness is 80% in part (a). 5. Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible. 6. The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas.

Analysis: (a) The specific enthalpy values at the numbered states on the T-s diagram are the same as those in Example 9.4: h1 = 300.19kJ / kg , h2 = 579,9kJ / kg , h3 = 1515.4kJ / kg , h4 = 808.5kJ / kg .

To find the specific enthalpy hx , the regenerator effectiveness is used as follows: By definition

reg =
Solving for hx , hx = reg (h4 h2 ) + h2

hx h2 h4 h2

= (0.8)(808.5 579.9) + 579.9 = 762.8kJ / kg With the specific enthalpy values determined above, the thermal efficiency is

=
=

(W t / m) (W c / m)

(Q in / m)

(h3 h4 ) (h2 h1 ) (h3 hx )

(1515.4 808.5) (579.9 300.19) (1515.4 762.8) = 0.568(56.8%)

Gas Turbines for Jet Propulsion: Gas turbines are particularly suited for aircraft propulsion because of their favorable power-to-eight ratios. The turbojet engine is commonly used for this purpose. As illustrated in the figure below, this type of engine consists of three main sections: the diffuser, the gas generator, and the nozzle. The diffuser placed before the compressor decelerates the incoming air relative to the engine. A pressure rise known as the ram effect is associated with this deceleration. The gas generator section consists of a compressor, combustor, and turbine, with the same functions as the corresponding components of a stationary gas turbine power plant. In a turbojet engine, the turbine power output need only be sufficient to drive the compressor and auxiliary equipment, however. The gases leave the turbine at a pressure significantly greater than atmospheric and expand through the nozzle to a high velocity before being discharged to the surroundings. The overall change in the velocity of the gases relative to the engine gives rise to propulsive force, or thrust.

Turbojet engine with afterburner: Some turbojets are equipped with an afterburner, as show below. This is essentially a reheat device in which additional fuel is injected into the gas exiting the turbine and burned, producing a higher temperature at the nozzle inlet than would be achieved otherwise. As a consequence, a greater nozzle exit velocity is attained, resulting in increased thrust.

Cycle analysis The T-s diagram of the process in an ideal turbojet engine is show on the previous page. In accordance with the assumptions of an air-standard analysis, the working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas. The diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle processes are isentropic, and the combustor operated as constant pressure. Process a-1 shows the pressure rise that occurs in the diffuser as the air decelerates isentropically through this component. Process 1-2 is an isentropic compression. Process 2-3 is a constant-pressure heat addition. Process 3-4 is an isentropic expansion through the turbine during which work is developed. Process 4-5 is an isentropic expansion through the nozzle in which the air accelerates and the pressure decreases. Owing to irreversibilities in an actual engine, there would be increases in specific entropy across the diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle. In addition, there would be a pressure drop through the combustor of an actual engine. The subject of combustion is discussed in Chap. 13.

In a typical thermodynamic analysis of a turbojet on an air-standard basis the following quantities might be known: the velocity at the diffuser inlet, the compressor pressure ratio, and the turbine inlet temperature. The objective of the analysis would be to determine the velocity at the nozzle exit. Once the nozzle exit velocity is determined, the thrust is determined by applying Newtons second law of motion in a form suitable for a control volume. All principles required for the thermodynamic analysis of turbojet engines on an air standard basis have been introduces.

Redo example 9.12 pg 441 for homework.

Combined Gas Turbine Vapor Power Cycle A combined power cycle couples two power cycles such that the energy discharged by heat transfer from one cycle is used partly or wholly as the input for the other cycle.

The stream exiting the turbine of a gas turbine is at a high temperature. One way this energy can be used, thereby improving overall fuel utilization, is by a regenerator that allows the turbine exhaust gas to preheat the air between the compressor and combustor, which we already discussed. Another method is the combined cycle. The two power cycles are coupled so that the heat transfer to the vapor cycle is provided by the gas turbine cycle, called the Topping cycle.

Reheat and Intercooling Reheat between turbine stages and intercooling between compressor stages provide two important advantages: The net work output is in creased, and the potential for regeneration is enhanced. Accordingly, when reheat and intercooling are used together with regeneration, a substantial improvement in performance can be realized. One arrangement incorporation reheat, intercooling, and regeneration is shown. This gas turbine has two stages of compression and two turbine stages. The accompanying T-s diagram is drawn to indicate irreversibilities in the compressor and turbine stages. The pressure drops that would occur as the working fluid passes through the intercooler, regenerator, and combustors are not shown.

Chapter 10: Vapor compression refrigeration systems:

Cycle analysis:

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from state 1 to the condenser pressure at state 2. Process 2-3: Heat transfer from the refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through the condenser. The refrigerant exists as a liquid at state 3. Process 3-4: Throttling process from state 3 to a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture at state4.

Process 4-1: Heat transfer to the refrigerant as it flows at constant pressure through the evaporator to complete the cycle.

Q in

= h1 h4

Wc

= h1 h2

Q out

= h2 h3

h4 = h3

Qin / m

W c/ m
Therefore:

h1 h4 h1 h2

Which is the coefficient of performance of the ideal cycle

Actual cycle with irreversibilities:

Example: An automobile air conditioning system uses R-22 as the working fluid. The evaporator pressure is 80 Lbf/in2, and the condenser outlet pressure is 250 Lbf/in2. The temperature of the R-22 leaving the evaporator is 5 0F above saturation. Assume an isentropic compressor with no changes of pressure or temperature in the lines connecting the components of the cycle. The maximum heat load is 22,000 Btu/h; that is, 22,000 Btu/hr must be removed to lower the air temperature of the interior of the car to a comfortable level. Determine the compressor horsepower required and the coefficient of performance of the cycle. Then repeat the problem for a compressor efficiency of 85 percent.

T-s and p-h diagrams of Vapor Compression Cycle with Nonisentropic Compression

Solution

P = 80 1

Lbf in 2

Tsat = 37.71 F and P = 80 1 Lbf in 2 h1 = 108.9 Btu Lbm

T1 = 42.71 F s1 = 0.2222

Btu Lbf = s2 and P2 = 250 2 o Lbm. R in Btu T2 = 150.8 F and h2 = 121.3 Lbm Btu Lbf h3 = h f at 250 2 = 43.46 Lbm in Btu and h4 = h3 = 43.46 Lbm Btu qin = h1 h4 = 65.44 Lbm Btu wcomp = h1 h2 = 12.40 Lbm q = in = 5.277 wcomp Btu hr = 336.18 Lbm m= Btu hr 65.94 Lbm

22000

W comp = m wcomp W comp = 336.18

Lbm Btu 1 (12.40 ) hr Lbm 2545

W comp = 1.638 HP Nonisentropic Case: W comp =

W comp

1.638 = 1.927 HP The actual work into compressor 0.85 Btu = 1.927 * 2545 = 4904 hr = 4.486

Q in

W comp

Refrigerant properties

Selecting refrigerants