B1 Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis 1.

.) Behaviour is innate as they are caused by the anatomy and physiology of our nervous and endocrine systems. Everything psychological is caused by something physiological Every behaviour is localized in a certain area of the brain The relationship is bi-directional Broca (1861) post mortem autopsy found that his patient who had difficulty speaking had a lesion in his left cerebral hemisphere. The lesion was used to determine which part of the brain was responsible for speech production. Phineas Gage was a man who in an accident had a metal rod pierce through his head and damaged his frontal lobe, he experienced dramatic changes in personality afterwards such as irritable behaviour and lack of organisational skills. Therefore showing link between the left frontal love and personality.

2.) Animal research can give insight on human behaviour Animals are biologically similar to humans; therefore, they should have similarities in behaviour. This is linked to the first principle as it states a link between the similar physiological characteristics and psychological characteristics. Also, it is less ethically controversial Bales researched on prairie voles and discovered that ones that were given oxytocin were more likely to care for other babies. Similarly in humans, oxytocin leads to more affectionate behaviour. Showed that biologically animals and humans are similar and also demonstrated the effect of oxytocin hormone on human behaviour

3.) Patterns in behaviour can be inherited and is predetermined by genetics Psychological disorders are caused by genetic predisposition Assumes behaviour is inherited or caused by genetic mutations Bouchard et al, twin studies on intelligence Found that MZ twins reared apart had high concordance too so that it shows that intelligence was determined by genes not the environment and therefore inherited.

4.) Behaviour may be influenced by the evolutionary process According to Darwins theory of natural selection, those with certain characteristics will have a higher chance of survival and reproduction and therefore pass on these characteristics to their offspring. Chartrand and Bargh, chameleons change colour to help them survive (mimic surroundings) found that humans who used mimicry in social situations scored

higher in likeability. Suggests that mimicry, a behaviour that assists social bonding and interaction which is important behaviour for success in the group, was due to evolutionary processes. B2- Explain how the principles of the BLOA can be used in research Discuss research from B1 and talk about the methods used. They use the experimental method (cause and effect) and scientific methods such as functional imaging, lesions and neurophysiological research. B3- Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis B4 Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis Lab Experiments Research in the BLOA normally uses the experimental method, in which the IV (cause) is manipulated and the DV (effect) is measured. In lab experiments the variable is changed on the experimental group whilst a control group is not exposed to any manipulations in variables to show whether changes where caused by the IV or not. Lab experiments allow you to control for extraneous variables. For example, the Bales study on oxytocin in prairie voles, he manipulated the level of oxytocin in prairie voles and then measured whether they would take care of other female prairie voles offspring. We can see the direct link between the hormone and the behaviour. (+) good b/c it shows a direct cause and effect (-) demand characteristics, because participants are aware that they are in the study they may try to guess the aim and act accordingly (-) not ecologically valid because everything is controlled (-) researcher bias (+) scientific Correlational Studies Correlational studies are used to show a relationship between two variables. Which can vary, so that we can find a relationship of when x increases so does y? No independent variable is manipulated. They are helpful in testing the role of environment versus genetics on behaviour. Adoption and twin studies use correlational study methods by observing the relationship between MZ and DZ twins reared together or apart. We can correlate that when MZ twins reared apart have lower concordance, that these differences can be attributed to the environment. Bouchard and Mcgue Plomin (concordance between adoptive and biological) (-) not valid because we are not sure of the cause and effect relationship there is bidirectional ambiguity. (-) not 1.00 concordance rate in twins suggest that there are some environmental influences (+) not directly manipulating anything, it is more ethical Lesioning Invasive psychosurgery that cuts connections between certain parts of, and then changes in behaviour are recorded. Normally performed on non-humans. This is used to localize the certain behaviours and functions to specific areas in the brain. Shows the link between the physiological and psychological aspects. Hetherington and Ranson lesioned parts of the

hypothalamus in rats and found that they ate 3x their body weight. This shows the correlation between our ability to feel full and the hypothalamus. This is important for eating disorder studies. (+) cause and effect to localize functions (+) animals are ethical and cheap (-) maybe not ethical and also cannot generalize (=) animals are unreliable because they cannot tell us what they are thinking Neuro-imaging technology FMRI, PET and CAT scans. They are used to observe changes in the brain to different stimulus and activity. It can be used to localize functions so we can see what part of the brain is active when performing a certain act or exposed to a certain stimulus. Iacaboni used fMRI scans to look at participants when exposed to happy faces, the limbic system was stimulated and active when exposed. Therefore we could see a link between that part of the brain and pleasure. (+) scientific and valid use of equipment (-) experimenter bias as they can only interpret the images (+) non invasive we are not cutting into the brain (-) expensive and not readily available) (-) not a cause and effect relationship only a correlation Genetic Research (+) takes away blame from them for their problems and bad behaviour (-) they cannot be responsible, invasion of privacy if they are not aware of what they are examining (-) if research is misused and they discover a link it may affect peoples lives in the long term e.g. unable to get job, life insurance, relationships They may be labelled (+) confidentiality, must use codes B5- Examine one study related to localization of functions of the brain The brain is a complex structure and according to the BLOA principles there should be a physiological link to every behaviour, therefore localisation of functions allows us to which area of the brain is responsible for different behaviours Heath tried to localize the pleasure parts of the brain, he attached electric nodes to specific parts of the brain in depressed patients. He then let the patients press the button themselves to release pleasure. He found that patients who pressed the button received instant gratification of pleasure. Therefore, localising pleasure centres. (+) found the link for pleasure in the brain this can be used to treat depressed people and find a way to alleviate depression (-) as it was only performed on depressed patients it cannot be generalised to nondepressed people (-) electricity is dangerous; however B19 had to be forcibly removed so there was a right to withdraw. (+) confidentiality (-) ecological validity, it was performed in a lab and does not reflect real life cannot push buttons to release pleasure. Heatherington and Ranson Hypothalamus and eating B6 Using one or more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour

Neurotransmission is the method in which messages are passed through nerve cells (NEURONS) in the brain so that people can respond to stimuli. When an electrical impulse travels through the axon it releases NEUROTRANSMITTERS over the SYNAPSE (gap between two neurons). Neurotransmitters are the bodys natural chemical messengers, after crossing the synapse the neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites and the message is passed on. Inhibitory transmitter: decreases likelihood of the cell firing and action potential excitatory is opposite. Neurotransmitters have been shown to have a range of different effects on humans: Mental illness Overproduction of neurotransmitters or lack of reuptake Dopamine: -It is an inhibitory transmitter linked to learning, arousal and pleasure. -high levels of dopamine linked to Sz. Sz drugs block receptors of synapses to prevent over arousal of brain which causes Sz. -Post-mortems have shown high levels of dopamine in Sz patients. Serotonin -inhibitory linked to sleep arousal and emotions -low levels of serotonin linked to clinical depression and correlated to emotions -Delgardo et al found abnormally low levels of serotonin and noradrenaline in major depressed patients Noradrenaline -Also linked to depression and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system -Janowsky patients who took a drug which decreased noradrenaline levels became extremely depressed Evaluation (-) there is only a link between neurotransmitters and behaviour (-) bidirectional ambiguity, does the neurotransmitter cause the disorder or does the disorder cause the changes in levels of neurotransmitters B7 Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour Hormones are another class of chemicals that affect behaviour; they are released from glands in the endocrine system. They travel in the bloodstream so take longer to have an effect. Oxytocin is known as the love hormone and is associated with affectionate behaviour and bonding. Oxytocin is released in the hypothalamus, released in affectionate touching and assists facial recognition. Bales study on prairie voles where he gave them oxytocin to females they were more likely to take care of the young of other females. Therefore, this demonstrates the effect of high oxytocin levels and the ability to bond and be affectionate. However, this is not generalizable as it was performed on prairie voles. With hormones, we only get a correlation relationship and not a cause and effect; there is also a bidirectional ambiguity. The good thing about hormones is that we can manipulate the levels and treat disorders associated with hormones. Melatonin is a hormone released in the pineal gland stimulated by darkness that induces sleepiness in humans and promotes sleep. High levels of melatonin also cause SAD (seasonal affective disorder) feelings of lethargy and cravings of carbohydrates Rosenthal found higher levels of SAD in Scandinavia where there is less sunlight and therefore higher levels of melatonin. Prescribed more sunlight. B8 Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

Brain plasticity is the process of the brain changing shape due to environment. The environment determines the requirements of the brains functions therefore the brain changes to fit these requirements. The brain is able to rearrange the connections between its neurons. Stimulation leads to increase in density of neurons as when we learn something new neurons connect to create a new trace in the brain. Maguire looked at differences in the brain of left handed male taxi drivers to right handed males who did not drive taxis. Using fmri and measuring the density of grey matter he found that the longer the taxi drivers had driven the larger the posterior hippocampi and the smaller the anterior hippocampi. Rosenzweig and RATS Davidson Monks who meditated regularly and people who just started meditating PET scan showed that monks had more gamma waves during meditation Gamma- higher order thinking (+) meditation can have long term effects on brain and how it processes motions (+) shows how brain adapts to stimulation over time B9 Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Could the way we think determine the way the brain functions? Davidson Monks who meditated regularly and people who just started meditating PET scan showed that monks had more gamma waves during meditation Gamma- higher order thinking, the gamma waves also did not drop to normal after they stopped meditation whilst it did with the volunteers. (+) meditation can have long term effects on brain and how it processes emotions (+) shows how brain adapts to stimulation over time Snowdon Minnesota study. Nuns that are more verbally fluent than nuns that are less verbally fluent are less likely to develop Alzheimers disease. B10 Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour Brain imaging technology is used because it allows us to correlate differences in brain activity and brain composition to certain behaviours. PET, FMRI, CAT and EEG are different types of brain imaging technology which each have their own strength and weaknesses which will be discussed. (+) reliable as it is computer technology can be easily repeated (+) non invasive FMRI- functional magnetic resonance imaging used magnetic fields and radio waves to detect brain activity (+) shows actual brain activity which areas are active when engaged in behaviour (+) clive wearing and HM and macguire taxi drivers (+) no risk for radiation (+) non invasive dangerous if you have metal screws (+)easier (+) higher resolution than PET scans CAT scans Xray scanners move around head and take cross sectional images which it builds up (+) for viewing at any depth, it is also good for determining the structure of the brain and the functions

(+) shows changes in structure Ogden showed that neglect of a certain side of brain causes tumors (-) radiation is dangerous PET scans Injected with radioactive glucose dye and then radioactive tracers are used to show which part is more active when glucose emits radioactive particles the PET scanners pick it up and show as different colour shows the brain activity and which part is in use. (-) Lower resolution (+) Davidson gamma waves and higher order thinking EEG Measures brain waves and registers changes in voltage in brain. It is highly effective for investigating brain activity in dreams as it detects electrical activity in a non invasive way Mini electrodes attached to scalp (+) understanding states of awareness and tells us about precise regions Jones- babies are healthier and happier when breastfed. B11 With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour? If we can inherit physical attributed we can inherit psychological attributed Suggests that things cannot be changed Adoption studies Plomin and Sz- adopted and biological, if biological had Sz then kid would have too regardless Kendler if 1st degree relative has Sz 18x more likely to have Sz (-) adoptions tend to be to similar environments (-) adoptive parents wealthier and better education (-) early adopted do better than late adopted SCLOA against BLOA Social causation hypothesis more stress and lower class more vulnerable Brom and Birley found stressed people more likely with Sz (-) reductionism because there is clearly environmental influences (=) cannot be responsible feel that they shouldnt do anything (-) takes blame away so they dont feel like they have a problem Twin study Gottesman found 48% concordance for MZ and only 17 for Dz But (-) not everyone is a twin (-) validity the concordance is not 1.00 (-) not cause and effect B12 Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour Evolution shows that when adapting to ones surroundings, those who are best adapted have a better chance of surviving. Like the theory of natural selection the strongest mate will be the one that will pass on their adaptives to their offspring. Over generations, the theory of natural selection will pass on only the genes that are best adapted and those that are not will die out and not pass on their traits. However, natural selection does not determine behaviour it can only select for the mechanisms that determine behaviour, Fessler

During pregnancy, the womans immune system is suppressed, Fessler hypothesized that the nausea was to compensate the immune system to protect Asked pregnant women in different stages to rank potentially disgusting scenarios, found that women in earlier stages ranked much higher as it was riskier for the baby in the earlier stages. They also found food scenarios more disgusting, most dangerous diseases are food borne, therefore natural selection has helped us compensate for the risked susceptibility during pregnancy by encouraging us to be picky with food through nausea Curtis Did an online test in which participants were shown images of either infectious or potentially harmful to immune system and a picture of something visually similar but not infectious. Found that they were more disgusted with the infectious one. Therefore our reactions of disgust help us protect our immune system. B13 Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour -genetic information obtained from research can be problematic for the participants as if misused could be stigmatizing such as hindering the ability to develop relationships, get a job and insurance. It may cause labelling for long-term. Participants should know how their privacy and confidentiality will be kept and what will happen to the genetic material and information after the study; they may not know what the researchers are looking for in their blood. They should also know the aims of the study and have informed consent of all the potential dangers and implications. Privacy and confidentiality can be kept using a code and only a small number of researchers know or fully anonymizing the data protects from insurance companies, jobs, police etc also limits follow up and further investigation Genetic research can also cause problems such as uncovering a hidden adoption, misattributed paternity and stress from finding out he/she has a gene for a particular genetic disorder. Also has a risk for cultural discrimination e.g. the aboriginal community does not allow genetic research in case information is found that can be used to discriminate against them. (-) lowers self esteem b/c told they have gene for an undesirable characteristic (-) deterministic it implies that it cannot change they cannot be treated the implications for stuff like alcoholics anonymous (-) designer babies (+) screening so people can be treated earlier if they are at risk etc...