Affixes: An extra adding to the root, used to change the form or meaning of root.

Prefix: The letter or letters added to the beginning of the root to change the form or meaning of the base form of the word (the root). (e.g., international) Suffix: A letter or group of letters added at the end of word to get new word(s) or to change the way they are used. (e.g., national) The most common of the spelling rules are: Capital letters Doubling the consonant Omission of the final e Words ending in y The words ending in ce and ge Capital letters: Capitals are used (to): Begin a sentence. Begin each fresh line of poetry. Begin all proper nouns and adjectives derived from them. For all nouns and pronouns which indicate the Deity. Write the pronoun I and the interjection O. For abbreviation of different words. Write the names of days, months, and languages. Write words of exclamation. Write all the tittles of books. Final Consonant: a) One-syllable ending in single vowel + single consonant, double the consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. e.g., Beg + ed = begged Sad + est = saddest But: Wish + ed = wished (two consonants) Fear + ing = fearing (two vowels) b) Words of two or three syllables ending in single vowel + single consonant double the final consonant if the last syllable is stressed. e.g., Refer + ing = referring Occur + ed = occurred But: Benefit + ed = benefited Suffer + ing = suffering Exceptions: worship, handicap, bias, focus, combat, and etc
c) In British English the consonant l is doubled, even if the stress does not fall on the last syllable, but in

American English words like this are normally spelt with one l. travelling/traveling e.g., Skill + full = skilful.

e.g., Travel + ing =

d) If the word to which the suffix ful is added ends in ll, the second l is dropped.

These letters can be doubled: b: Rub rubbing n: Win winnable d: Sad sadder p: Stop stopped g: Big bigger r: Prefer preferring l: Travel travelling t: Sit sitting m: Slim slimming We double final s in gassing, gassed (but not usually in other words), final z in fezzes, and final f in iffy (a colloquial word for questionable, uncertain).

Why double? The reason for doubling is to show that a vowel is pronounced short. This is because, in the middle of a word, a stressed vowel letter before one consonant is usually pronounced as along vowel or as a diphthong (double vowel). Hoping Hopping Later Latter Diner Dinner Omission of Final e: a) Words ending in silent e drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel. e.g., Live + ed = living Like + able = lik(e)able
b)

e.g.,
c)

Final e is not dropped from words ending in ee, -oe or ye. See + ing = seeing Canoe + iest = canoeist Before endings that begin with a consonant, final e is not normally dropped. Excite excitement Hope hopeful True truly Due duly Argue argument Whole wholly Nine ninth Awe awful

e.g., Exceptions:

Words ending in y: a) A final -y following a consonant changes to i before a suffix except ing. e.g., Carry + ed = carried carry + ing = carrying Happy + ly = happily but hurry + ing = hurrying Marry + ed = married marry + ing = marrying y following a vowel does not change. e.g., pray + ed = prayed Notice a few exceptions: Pay paid Gay gaily
b)

play + er = player lay laid day daily say said

Words ending in ce, ge: a) Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before a suffix beginning with a, o: e.g., courage courageous manage manageable This is done to avoid changes in pronunciation, because c and g are generally pronounced soft before e and i, but hard before a, o.
b)

e.g.,

Words ending in ce change the e to i before ous. grace gracious vice vicious

Some words have two possible forms before able and age, the form with e is more common except in mile + age = mileage.