N ..

~A--C

-""""''"-f

VO--~20

~I,.,'''\..-v

;'\.

'~fJl

C\..tM..un

r\

TECHNICAL NRINEERINGNODESIGN E A RUIDES AS ADAPTED FROMTHE

USARMYCORPS OFENGINEERS, 1 No.

DESIGN OF

-'-

---

, ,- --- ---

-'----

r-'"
--

PONTrFIC'A UNIV8RSIO~O Ci\TOLlfA DEL PERU BIBLIOTECA I

f.

INGENIERIA

Published by American Society of Civil Engineers 1801 Alexander SeU Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4400
~'-' ~ ------.

ABSTRACT

exThis handbook, Design of Pi/e Foundations, provides intormatiOn. foundation

ploration and
testing procedures, load test methods, analysis techniques, design

criteria and procedures, and construction considerations tor the selection. design, and installationot pile toundations.While the understanding01pile tound<1tion behavior resent is actively expanding by ongoing researd1. this book is based on thepresem state
ot technology for pile-soiJ-structure.foundation interaction b(thaviOr. Therefote. this handbook prOYides design guidance to ge~nical and structuraJ er1gil'188fS and essential intormation lor th8rs intereste<i in nderstanding construction techniques related to pile behavior during installatiOn.
.
.

Ubrary ot C90Qf'8SS Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Design ot pile toundatiOns." p. cm. -(Technical engineering and design guides as adapted from the U.S. Army Corps ot Engineers; no. 1) Includes bibliographical reterences and index. ISBN 0-87262-930-9 1. Piling (Civil Engineering)-Design. 1. American Society ot Civil Engineers. 11.United States. Army. Corps 01 Engineers. 111. eries. S TA780.D45 1993 92-43726 624.1 '54-dc20

CIP
The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with gel'1eraUy recognized engineering principals and practices, and is tor general inlormation only. This intormation should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability tor any ~eneral or specitic application. The contents of this publication are not '"tended to be and.should not be construectto be-a standard of1heAmerican-Society ot Civil Engineers (ASCE) andare not intended lor use as arelerence in-purchase specifications, contracts, regula-

tions,statutes,or anyotherlegaldocumento

-.

,. -

No reterence made in publication to any specific method, producto process, or service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereol by ASCE. ASCE makes no representation or warranty of any kind, whether express or implied. concerning the accuracy. completeness, suitability or utility 01 any intormation, apparatus. product or process discussed in this publication, and assumes no liability therefor. Anyone utilizing this information assumes allliability arising from such use. inctuding but not limited to infringement ot any patent or patents. Authorization to photocopy material lor internal or personal use under circumstancesl'lot falling within the fair use pro\1isions ot the Copyright Act ia granted by ASCE to libraries,.and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) Transactional Reportin~ Service. provided that the base fee ot $1.00 per article plus $.15 par page is paid dlrectly to CCC. 27 Congress Street, Salem. MA 01970. The identification (Or ASCE Books is 0-87262/93.$1 + .15. Requests lor special permission or bulk copying should be addressed to Reprinting/Permissions Department. Copyright @ 1993 by the American Society of Civil Engineers, exclusive 01 U.S. Army Corps 01 Engineers material. Al! Rights Reservad. Ubrary ot Gongress Catalog Card No: 92-43726 ISBN 0-87262-930-9 Manufacturad in the United States of America.

.,-.

r.
-USIGN Of PIlE FOUNDATIONS

ni

TABLEOF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction
1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 Purpose Applicability References, Bibliographical and Related Material Definitions 1 1 1 2

Chapter 2. General Considerations

2-1 General 2-2 Structural and Geotechnical Coordination

r "

2-3 DesignConsiderations
2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9

..

Nature of loadings Foundation Material IdentiRcationand Evaluation of Pile Alternatives Field Responsibilities for the Design Engineer Subsurface Conditions Pile Instrumentation

3 3 3 4 5 5 7 8 8

Chapter 3. Geotechnical Considerations

3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 Subsurface Investigations and Geology Laboratory and Field Testing Foundation Modification Groundwater Studies Dynamic Considerations 9 9 9 10 10 10 11
"'-"

3-6 Pileload Test

.' . ... r-.' ... .-. .

3-7 Selection of Shear Strength Parameters

-o. .. ... --. '-"'- '--'

. . Chapter-

4~.Aftalysis

ande Design

4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7

General DesignCriteria PileCapacity Settlement PileGroup Analysis DesignProcedure SpecialConsiderations

'.';-'

13 13 17 23 26 31 34

.
-'------

IV

DESIGN OF PIte FOUNDATION

Chapter 5. Engineering Considerations Pertaining.to Construction -o"; -,-~

5-1

General

5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5.7

Construction Practices and Equipment Pile Driving Studies Control of Pile Driving Operations Resultsof Corps Experiences As-BuiltAnalysis Field Evaluation

38 38 48 50 52 53 54

Chapter 6. Field Pile Tests

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 General Decision Process Axialload Test Monotonic lateralload 56 56 57 Test
---

Appendices
A-l Appendix A. B-l Appendix B. References Bibliographical and Related Material 63 64 67 80

C-l Appendix C. Case History-Pile Driving at lock and Dam No. 1 Red River Waterway D-l Appendix D. Pile Capacity Comp'utations

Index

99

.- -- 0_0_- -. -.. -.0'

00 --

-_o-

-'0

-'

. -_o /""

-.

~ANALYSISAND DESIGN

13

~ b .'
~

CFiAPTER'4 .

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

4-1. General
Design of a pile foundation involves solving the complex problem of transferring' loads from the structure through the piles to the underlying soil. It involves the analysis of a structure-pile system, the analysis of a soil-pile system, and the interaction of the two systems, which is highly nonlinear. Close cooperation between the structuralengineers and a state of ductile, stable equilibrium is attainable even if individual piles wiJI be loaded to their peak, or beyond to their residual capacities. Special provisions (such as field instrumentation, frequent or continuous field monitoring of performance, engineering studies and analyses, constraints on operational or rehabilitation activities, etc.) are required to ensure that the structure wi/l not catastrophica/ly foil during or after extreme loading .conditions. Devia-

geotechnicaJengineersis essentialtothe development

of an effective designo This chapter addresses the criterio, procedures, and porameters necessary for the analysis and design of pile foundations.

tionsshQuld be fOl"mulatedin consultation with and, approved by CECW-ED.

tions from these criterio for extreme loading condi4. Foundation Properties. Determination

of foundation properties ispartia/ly dependent on 4-2. Design Criteria types of loadings. Soil strength or stiffness, and therefore piJe capacity or stiffness, maydepend on A. APPLlCABlUTYAND DEVlATIONS. whethera load is vibratory, repetitive, or static and The design criterio set forth in this paragraph whether it isof long or short duration. Soil-pileproperare applicable to the design and analysis of a broad ties shouJd, therefore, be determined for each type of range of piles, soils and structures. Conditions that loading to be considered. are site-speciFicmay necessitate variations which must C. FACTOR OF. SAFETY FOR PILE - be substaotiated by extensive studies and testing of CAPACITY. The ultimate axial capacity, based on both the structural properties of the piling and the geatechnical considerations, should be divided by the geatechnical properties of the foundation. factors of safety deFined in Table 4-1 to determine the B. LOADING CONDmONS. . design pile capacity for axialloading. 1. Usual. These conditions inelude normal The minimum safety factors in the table are --,--operating <:,nd .hequent f/ood conditiGns.-,8asic.allow- .,---:~sed,on experienceusing the metAoc!s.of site-irwesti-u_---~ abTestr~sses and scifety-factorss!ioolclbesed for _thisc-"-:-,-gatiOT, testing and ancilysis presented-hereinand- are ,,-.' u-the basis- for standoi"d practice. Deviations from thesetype of loadng conditi6n. ' '.', 2. Unusual. Higher a/lowable stresses and minimumvalues may be justiFiedby extensive foundalower safety factors may be used for unusual loading tion investigations and testing which reduce uncertainconditions such as maintenance, infrequent floods, ties related to the variability of the foundation material barge impact, construction, or hurricanes. For these and soil strength parameters to a minimum. Such conditions allowable stresses may be increased up to extensive studies should be conducted in consultotion 33 percent. Lower safety factors for pile capacity may with and approved by CECW-ED. These minimum be used, as described in paragraph 4-2C. . safety factors 0150inelude uncertainties related to fac-, . 3. Extreme. High allowable stresses and ,tors which affed. pile cap~city durin~ inst~lIation~~d low safety factors are used for extreme loading conthe n~ed to pr.ov,de a deslgn cap.aclty wh,~h exhlblts ditions such as accidental or natural disasters that very Ilttlenonlmear load-deformatlon behavlor at norhave a very remote probability of occurrence and malservic:load levels. that invo/ve emergency maintenance conditions,~fter D. ALLOWABLE ST,ESSES IN STRUCsuch disasters. For these conditions a/lowable stressTURAL MEMBERS. Allowable design stresses for es may' be, incrased up to 7~ pareent. low safety service loads should -be limitd' fo'thevatues, factors for pile' capacity may be used as described in described in the following paragraphs. For unusual paragraph 4-2C. An iterative (nonlinear) analysis of loadings as described in paragraph 4-282, the allowthe pile group should be performed to determine that able stresses may be increased by one third.
~

.....

-----

"

14

DESIGNOF PILE FOUNDATlONS.

Table 4-1. Factor 01 ~ty

Method of Determining Capacity Theoretical or empirical prediction to be verified by pile load test Theoretical or empirical prediction to be verified by pile driving analyzer as described in Paragraph "-4A Theoretical or empirical prediction not verified by load test

for pite capacity

Loading Condition Usual Unusual Extreme Usual Unusual Extreme

MinimumFactor of Safety Compression Tension

2.0
1.5
1.15 2.5 1.9 1.4

2.0 1.5 1.15 3.0 2.25 1.7

Usual Unusual Extreme

3.0 2.25 1.7

3.0 2.25 1.7

1.5teel Piles. Allowable tension and compression stresses are given- for both the lower and upper regions of the pile. Since the lower region of the pile is subject to damage during driving, the basic allowable stress should reflect a high factor of safety. The distribution of allowable axial tension or compression stress along the length of the pile is shown in Figure 4-1. This factor of safety may be decreased if more is known about the actual driving conditions. Pile shoes should be used when driving in dense sand strata, gravel strata, cobble-boulder zones, and when
..

driving piles to refusal on a hard layer ofbedfock. Bending effects are usually minimal in the lower regionof the pile.' The upper region of the pile may be subject to the effects of bending and buckling as well as axialload. Since damage in the upper region is usually apparent during driving, a higher allowable stress is permitted. The upper region of the pile is actually designed as a beam-column, with due consideration to lateral support conditions. The allowable stresses for fully supported piles are presented in Table .4-2.

Mj:V

.fW,y.......
...
-.--'---"-'--.'""

~
-- ----

~,,-.".
F.- ....

---....-

....

I'U

JIU

PU

t ",
l8J Figure 4-1. Allowable

F. MOMENT DIAGItAMS

....
AXIAL

AUOWAIILE

1I18JN 0It COIfN[llllOlt iF. FOa IWIII

l1li

lcI

tension and compression

stress for steel piles

I
jft:-

f;

r
-

ANALYSlS ND DESIGN A

15

rabie

4-2. Allowabletresses s

Tensionor coinp~.ssioninlower pile region'Concentric axial tension or com- 10 kips per square pression only 1O kips per inch (ksi)for A-36 square inch (1/3 x Fyx 5/6) material Concentric axial tension or com- 12 ksi for A-36 matepression only with driving rial shoes (l/3 x Fy) Concentric axial tension or com- 14.5 ksi for A-36 material pression only with driving shoes, at least one axialload test and use of a pile driving analyzer to verify the pile capacity and integrity (1/2.5 x Fy)

r-Combined bending and axial compression in upper pile region:

fa
I

Fa

:t

fbx :t

Fb

~b F

S 1.0
I

where fa" computed axial unit stress Fa" allowable axial stress Fa" ~ X! Fy" ~ Fy" 18 ksi (for A-36 material) fbxand fby" computed unit bending stress Fb" allowable bending stress Fb" ~ X! Fy" ~ Fy.. 18 ksi (for A-36 noncompact sections) or
~

factor aqual to 2.7For.all combinations of d.~d and live loads. To account Foraccidental eccentricities, the axial strength oFthe pile shall be limited to 80 percent oFpure axial strength, or the pile shall be designed For a minimumeccentricity equal to 10 percent oFthe pile width. Strength interactiol1 diagrams For prestressed concrete piles may be developed using the computer program CPGC (Item 16). Control of cracking in prestressed piles is ochieved by limiting the concrete compressive ond tensile stresses under service conditions to the volues indicoted in Table .4-3. The o/lowable compressive stresses Forhydraulic structures are limited to approximately 85 percent oF those recommended by ACI Committee 5.43 (Item20) Forimproved serviceobility. Permissiblestresses in the prestressing steel tendons should be in occordance with ltem 19. A typical interaction diagram, depicting both strength and service lood designs, is shown in Figure 4-2. The use oF concrete with o compressive strength exceeding 7,000 psi requires CECW-E approvol. For common uses, a minimum effective prestress oF 700 psi compression is required For handling and driving purposes. Excessively long or short piles may necessitate deviation from the minimum effective prestress requiremento The capacity oF piles may be reduced by siendemess effects when a portion oF the pile is Free standing or when the soil is too weak to provide lateral support. Slenderness effects can be approximated using moment magnification procedures. The moment magnification methods of ACI 318, as modified by PCI, "Recommended Practice for the Design of Prestressed Concrete Columns and Walls" (Item .47), are recommended. b. Reinforced Concrete Piles. Reinforced concrete piles shall be designed for strength in accor'-'--rable 4-3. Allowab~,co1c.ie'~~S4Ii;'~'-'._-p~stressedconcrete. pite. (considering prutres.)
Uniform Axial Tension . Bending (extreme fiber) Compression Tension

Fb" ~x t-F-y --~ Fy-"20ksi. (forA-36compact- -.-;s~tipns1 .. -- - - -

...

For laterally unsupported piles the allowoble stresses should be 5/6 of the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) (Item 21) values for beam-columns. 2. Concrete Piles. Design criterio Forfour types oF concrete piles (prestressed, reinForced, castin-place and mandrel driven) are presented irthe fol,. lowing paragraphs. a. PrestressedConcrete Piles. Prestressedconcrete piles are used frequenriy and must.be designed to satisfy both strength and serviceability requirements. Strength design should Follow the basic criterio set forth by the American Concrete !nstitute (ACI) 31 8 (lten119) except thesfrength feduction fador(l2J) shall be O] for ll failure modes and the load factor shall be 1.9 for both dead and live loads. The specified load and strength reduction factors provide a safety -.

o 0.40 f~ O

For combined axialload and bending, the concrete stresses should be proportioned so that:

fa+ fb + fpc S 0.40

fa - fb + fpc ~ O

f~

where fa =.computed axial stress (tension is negative)fb

computed

bending

stress (tension

is negative)

fpc"
F ~

effective prestress concrete compressive strength

16

DESIGN Of 'ILE FOUNDATION$

r~~-'

'

-:

::i-.::::.:.:::::
"'0""'00
000

JULTIMATe 8TREN~TH
. '-"o

DIAGRAU

Table 4-4. east-in-place and mandrel-driven pile., allowable concrete slN.se. (Participation 01 steel casing or shell disallowed)
Uniform Axiol Compression

9 ~ . ~-

I !f

zoo

'0

-'-000::.

. ...J
....

2.7

. j
1

Confined
Unconfined Uniform AxiaJ Tension Bending {extreme fiber) Compression Tension

..

..0-; .......

0.33 f~ 0.27 f~ O
0.40 f~ O

Figure 4-2. Typical interadion diog~m, 16 x 16 in. square preslntssed co~te pite
dance with the general requirements of ACI 31 8 (Item 19) except as modified below. Load factors prescribed in ACI 318 should be directly, applied to hydraulic structures with. one alteration. The factored load combination "un should be increased by a hydraulic load factor (HE!.This increase should lead to improved serviceability and will yield stiffer members than those designed solely by ACI 318. The hydraulic load factor shall be 1.3 Jorreinforcement calculations in flexure or compression, 1.65 for reinforcement in direct tension, and 1.3 for reinforcement in diagonal tension (shear). The shear reinforcement calculation should deduct the shear carried by the concrete prior to application of the hydraulic load factor. As an ahernata to the prescribed ACJ load factors, a single load factor of 1.7 can be used. The 1.7 should then be multiplied by Hf. The axial compression strength of the pile shall be limited to 80 percent of the uhimate axial strength, or the pile shall be designed for a minimum eccentricity equal to 10 percent of the pile width. Strength interaction diagrams for reinforced J:oncr~tc;Lpiles may be develo~P-lIsin.g the,.Corps.
computer '~""" magnlflcahon program'CASTR . procedures. {ltem'T8).-Sledernessc .'. ", --". ',"

For combined axialload and bending, the concrete stresses should be proportioned so that:

fa
I

!h.
1

Fa + Fb

~ 1.0

where fa = computed axial stress Fa = allowable axial stress

fb = computed bendingstress

Fb = allowable bending stress moments, so that compression always controls. In order for a pile to qualify as confined, the steel casing must be 14 gage (US Standard) or thicker, be seamless or have spirally welded seams, have a minimum yield strength of 30 ksi, be 17 inches or less in diameter, not be exposed to a detrimental corrosive environment, and not be designed to carry a portion of the working load. Items not specifically addressed in this paragraph shall be in accordance with ACI 543. 3. Timber PUes. Representative allowable stressesfor pressure-treated round timber piles for normal load duration in hydraulic structures are defined . in Table 4-5,.. , -- .. --.--..-.
-~~.." -..
'

..'.

a.

' ,- .The workang

. '. ., stressesfor

'0_'. compresslon

par-

effect~ .ca~ be ap:>roxlmateO uSlng the ACl moment

allel . to grain

c. Cast-in-Placeand Mandre/..Driven Piles. For a cast-in-place pile, the casing is top-driven without the aid of a mandrel, and the casing typically has a wall thickness ranging from 9 gage to 1/4 inch. The casing ... must be of sufficlent thlckness to wlthstand stressesdue " . . . . he dnVlngoperahon and maantaln the cross section to t . . .
o

f the

pl e.

Th

e casing

thICkness

for

man dre 1-eI nven

'

..

. b . VaIues rror SOU ern P.' are welg hted for th me Iong Iea f, sIas h, Io blo IIy an d shor tiea f representa ti.ves . . of pl es '" use.
1

be Increased by O2 percent f or each foot of Iength . frQm the tip of the pile to the critical secton. For compression perpendicular to grain, an ncrease of 2.5 psi per foot of length is recommended.

in Douglas Fir and Southern Pine ma Y .

piles is normally 14 gage. Cast-in-place and mandreldriven piles should be designed for serviee conditions and stresseslimited to those values listed in Table 4-4. The allowable compressive stresses are reduced from those recommended by ACJ 543 (Item 20), as explained for prestressed concrete piles. Cast-in-place and mandrel-elriven piles shall be used only when full embedment and fuI! lateral support are assured and under conditions which produce zero or small end

. C. The above worklng stresses ~ave been adJusted to compensate for strength reductlons due to conditioning and treatment. For untreated piles or piles that are air-elried or kiln-elried before pressure treatment, the above working stresses should be increased by dividing the tabulated values by the following factors: 0.90 PaciRc Coast Douglas Fir: Southern Pine: 0.85

..

",.

---17 ..;.w.YSIS AND

~.

DESIGN

Species

Table 4-5. Alto'W'Clble stresses for pressure-treatecl round timber piles -Compression Compression Porallel to Horizontal Bending Perpendicular Sheor to Grain Grain (psil (psil Fa Fb (psil (psil 875 825 1,700 1,650 95 90 190 205

Modulus of Elasticity (psi) 1,500,000 1,500,000

Pacific Caost (a)"Douglas Fir Southern Pine (a)(b)"

d. The allowable stresses for compression parallel to the grain and bending, derived in accordance with ASTM D2899, are reduced by a safety factor of 1.2 in order to comply with the general intent of Paragraph 13.1 of ASTM D2899 (Item 22). e. For hydraulic structures, the above values, except for the modulus of elasticity, have been reduced by dividing by a factor of 1.2. This additional reduction recognizes the difference in loading effects between the ASTM normal load duration and the

F. ALLOWABLE DRIVING STRESSES. Axial driving stresses calculated by wave equation analysis should be limited to the values shown in Figure .4-3. G. GEOMETRIC CONSTRAINTS. 1.Pile Spacing. In determining the spacing of piles, consideration should be given to the characteristics of the soil and to the length, size, driving toleronce, batter, and shape of the piles. If piles are spaced too dosely, the bearing value and lateral-resis- tance of each pile will be reduced, ond there is danger of heaving of the foundation, and uplifting or damaging other piles already driven. In general, it is recommended that endbearing piles be spaced not less than three pile diameters on centers and that friction piles, depending on the characteristics of the piles and soil, be spaced a minimum of three to five pile diameters on center. Piles must be spaced to avoid tip interference due to specified driving tolerances. See paragraph 5-2A3 for typical tolerances. Pile layouts should be checked for pile interference using CPGI, a program which is being currently developed and is discussed in paragroph 1-3C6. 2. Pile Batter. Batter piles are used to support structures subjected to large lateralloads, or if the upper foundation stratum will not adequately resist lateral movement of vertical piles. Piles may be battered -in oppositedir~on~-orused'in combination wfthve...---tical piles:.Th~-cixallad 6n a batter-.piJe-shourd-hot exceed the allowable design load for a vertical pile. It is very difficultto drive piles with a batter greater than l' horizontal to 2 vertical. The driving efficiency of the hommer is decreased as the batter ncreases.

longer load duration

typical of hydraulic structures,

ond the uncertainties regarding strength reduction due to conditioning processes prior to treatment. For combined axial load and bending, stresses should be so proportioned that:

fa
I

fb
I

Fa + Fb

::; 1.0

where fa" computed axial stress Fa = allowableaxial stress fb = computed bending stress

Fb= allowablebending stress

E. DEFORMATIONS. Horizontal and vertical displacements resulting from applied loads should ---E>e-limitedto-nsureproperoperation anr,i1tegrity of
~. the structure_-Experienceuhas shown that avertial de.
.

formation of 1/.4 inch and a lateral deformation of 1/.4 to 1/2 inch at the pile cap are representative of long-term movements of structures such as locks ond dams. Operational requirements may dictate more rigid restrictions and deformations. For other structures such as piers, larger deformations may be allowed if the stresses in the structure and the piles are not excessive. Since the elastic spring constants used in the pile group analysis discussed later are based on a linearr load versus deformation relationship ot a specified deformation, it is important to keep the computed deformations at or below the specified value. longterm lateral deformations may be larger than the computed values or the vatues obtained from load tests due -to'cre~p- or plastic flow. lateral deflection may olso increase due to cyclic loading and close spacing. These conditions should be. investigated when determining'the maximumpredicted displacement.
............

4-3. Pile Capacity

Pile capacities should be computed by experi- enced designers thoroughly familiar with the various types of piles, how piles behave when loaded, and the soil conditions that exist ot the site. A. AXIAL PllE CAPACITY. The axial capacity of a pile may be represented by the following formula:
Qult
Qs'"

- Qs

+ Qt

fsAs

Qt- qAr

18

DESIGN OF PlLEFOUNDATlONS

where Qult" Qs" Qt" fs" As" q" At" ultimate pile capacity shaft resistance of the pile due to skin friction tip resistance of the pile due to end bearing average unit skin resistance surface area of the shaft in contact with the soil unit tip-b!Oring capacity effective (gross) area of the tip of the pile in contact with the soil 1. PUes in Cohesionless Soil.

lOto 20 pile aiameters or widths (B), dependng on the relative density of the sand. The critical depth is assumed as: De.. 10B for loose sands De .. 15B for medium dense sands De" 20B for dense sands The unit skin friction acting on the pile shaft may be determined by the following equations:
fs .. Kcr~ tan cr ~ Qs where
K

o
D ~ De

a. Skin Friction. For design purposes the skin friction of piles in sand increase linearly to an assumed critical depth (DJ and then remain constant below that depth. The critical depth varies between
Excended Dr1vin Pile Macerial Sud ReiDforced Concrece COtIIIr.. doa

cr~ .. 1'D for D < De

= 1'De for

= fsA
coefficient (Ke for

lateral earth pressure

.~

0.85 t' e 500 pd

(0.85 f'

compression piles and Ktfor tension piles) dv= effective overburden pressure o.. angle of friction between the soil and the pile
y'

Teuioa
Pre.cre..ed Conerece CoIa'pre..ioa tea.ion

effective unit weight of soil

ef pc

pe)

D = depth along the pile at which the effective overburden pressure is calculated Values of o are given in Table 4-6.

t1llber

3000 pd

Table 4-6. Values of o

.,
I

Pile Material

o
0.6711'to 0.8311' 0.9011' to 1.0 "'. 0.8011' to 1.0 11'

H.

Steel Concrete Timber

.--.-------

-.'~__"d

Values of K for piles in cmpression (Kc)ane.'-'-" piles in tension (Kt)aregiven in Table 4-7. Table 4-6 and Table 4-7 present ranges of values of o and K based upon experience in various soil deposits. These values should be selectd for design based upon

TIIllI
IIllll'"

Table 4-7.
- '..

Value. Ke

of K K 0.50 to 0.70 0.50 to 0.70 0.70 to 1.00

':rnIII

PI,.

'..

- M,

.:rnm
UD

Soil Type Sand Silt Clay'1.00 1.00

(0.11 '..) . 14, ':.

1.00 to 2.00

o
N. . COMP"."IY.

0-11 /; (COMPII."'VII PII..,

N.

. n"IIL~

I'OIIC. 'NUUC~D.Y .."-.,,

,onc.

'NDue." .Y 14"""'"

(111411014 PtLII

'.. .

",.eTIV. P"IIT"." "".IR LO.."

. . PRIITR.U/Na1'0"0'

Figure 4-3. Prestre...d concrete pile driving slresses

Note: The above do not apply to piles that are prebored, jetted, or installed with a vibratory hammer. Picking K values at the upper end of the above ranges should be based on local experience. K, 8, and Nq volues back calculated from load tests maybe used.
----------

.-

19

,~-

It)tperience and pile Ioad test. It is not intendedthat the;cMsigner:would uS8:the'minimumreduction of the fI ongle while using the upper range K values. For steel H-piles, As should be taken as the block perimeter of the pile and 5 should be the average friction angles of steel against sand and sand ogoinst sond (fll. It should be noted that Table .4-7 is general guidance to be used unless the long-term engineering practice in the area indicates otherwise. Under prediction of soil strength parameters at load test sites has at times produced back-calculated values of K that exceed the values in Table .4-7. It has also been found both theoretically and at some test sites that the use of displacement piles produces higher values of K than does the use ef nondisplacement piles. Values of K that have been used satisfactorily but with standard seil data in some locations are as presented in Table .4-8. b. End 8earing. Fer design purpesesthe piletip bearing capacity cCnbe assumed to increase linearly to a critical depth (De) and then remains constant. The same critical depth relationship used for skin friction can be used fer end bearing. The unit tip beoring capacity can be determined as follows:
q = (J ~ Nq

"

the resistance is due to the cohesion or adhesion of

the day to the pile shaft. fs .. ca
ca .. ac Qs .. fsAs

2. pjles in C~hesiv. - Soil. - -- a.' SlcinFrlction; Althoughcalled skin friction;

where Ca= adhesion between the day and the pile a = adhesion factor e = undrained shear strength of the day from a Q test The values of a as a function of the undrained shear are given in Figure .4-5A. An alternate procedure developed by Semple and Rigden (Item 56) to obtain values of a which is especially applicable for very long piles is given in Figure .4-58 where: a=ala2

r' ,

where
(J ~

and

- 'Y'D

for D < De

fs .. ac

(J: = y' De fer D ~ De For steel H-piles ~ should be taken as the area induded within the block perimeter. A curve to obtain the Terzaghi-Peck(Item 59) bearing capacity factor Nq (among values from other theories) is shown in Fig- ureU;-To--use'the-cl,-..ye-:-one:::mUsrobtaiiim~s:red--~-

b. End Bearing. The pile unit-tip bearing capacity for piles in day can be determinedfrom the following equation:
-- -

q = 9c
~q",--

q-------------

----

--

-,--. values'of-theangle'rte;:nal~f(ic:tion (~I which repre- --sents the soil mass. c. Tension Capacity. The tension capacity of piles in sand can be calculated as follows using the K values for tension from Table .4-7: Qult .. QSension

Q =

n.,-

However, the movement necessary to develop the tip resistance of piles in day soils l1)ay be several times larger than that required to develop the skin friction resistance. c. Compression Capacity. By combining the

Table 4-8. Common vc.lues for corrected

Displacement Piles

K
Tension 0.50 0.35 0.70

Nondisplacement Piles Compression 1.50 1.00 1.00

Soil Type Sand Silt

-

Compression

Tension

2.00 1.25
-

0.67 0._50 0.90

- - --,_e-

,,--

-- -- -,-

Clay

1.25

Note: Although these valueS'may be commonly used in some areas they should not be used without experience and testing to validate them.

118-.....----

20

DESIGN OF PIte FOUNDA11ONS

100

..
100 10 lE: 10

'GGESTED RANGE

g C)
~

::
e C)

40

:
i

case shear strength trend as discussed previousiyand proceed os iHhesoil is drained.The computational method is identical to that presented for piles in granular $Oils,and to present the computational methodology would be redundant. It should be notad however that the shear strengths in clays in the S case are assumed to be e > O and e O . Some eommonly used S case shear strengths in alluviolsoils are as reportedin Table 4-9.

20

3. PUes in Silt.
a. Skin Friction.The skin friction on a pile in silt is a two component resistanee to pile movement eontributed by the angle of internal friction (e) and the cohesion (e) acting along the pile shaft. That portion of the resistanee contributed by the angle of internal friction (e) is as with the sand limited to a critieal depth of (Del, below which the fridional portion remains con-

:l'

.
~

10

.
l..6.Etm
o o
()

My&RHOF nRZAGHI & PECK TOMUNSON

V&81C OltlV&N

stant, the limitdepths are stated below.Thatportionof the resistancecontributedby the cohesion,mayrquire /~
limit if it is sufficien~ylarge, see Figures'4-5A and B. The shaft resistance may be computed as follows:
Ky' D tan o + (XC

1
O 1 10 11 20 '21 'lO " .0 41 ..

ANQU OF INTIRNAL FRICTIOH

Figure 4-4. Bearing capacity

factor

where skin friction capacity and the tip bearing capacity, the ultimate compression capacity may be found as follows:
Qult = Qs + Qt

(D S;Del
Qs where Qs'"
fs

= Asfs

d. Tension Capacity. The tension capocity of

piles in clay may be calculated as:
Qlf-=-Gs--

capacity due to skin resistance average unit skin resistance

pile shafti n~ontoc:rwith
--- '. -.
'

-';":',r,

-_u --,
--~,_. -

~~---~As-"" --stlrkIce- area.:ofthe~

-, .$011 --'o -

~,

e. The pile capacity in normally consolidated clays (cohesive soils) should also be computed in the long-term S shear strength case. That is, develop o S
a:

K = see Table 4-7 . A .ex = see FIgures 5A and B D = depth below ground up to limitdepth De O = limitvalue for shaft friction angle from Table 4-6
r

~ ~ 1.0 1&. ! e
o i 111
Z

o..

b. End Bearing. The pile tip bearing capacity increases linearly to a critical depth (Deland remains constant below that depth. The critical depths are given as follows:
De = 10 B for loose silts

---

0.21 -'...

0.71
UNDRAlNED

1.0
8HEAR STRENGTH. T8F

2.0 De

= 15

B for medium silts

Figure 4-5A. Values of a versus undrained shear slrength

De = 20 B for dense silts

21

,,-,)."

".,1.."

,;,

~,..,~.,

t""";7'

- . .".~.,.

. "'. -'o';"i.. ." -',,,,,r.'p;.;.,C:..,i;,

'...""" . ;",,'"''.''' .

1.0
I
I I I I

1.0
I
I

0.7 a.2

L_____-

a., 0.&

---r---, I
I I I G.3& S. U (ct o.ao

, , I

I I I I ..!...

60
l b

120

(j'; r--

Figure 4-58. Values ofa) a2 applicable for very long piles Qult = Qs + Qt d. T ension Capacily. The tension capacity is comput~d by applying the appropriate value of Kt from Table 4-7 to the unit skin friction equation above.
Quh

. The unit and bearing capacity may be computed as follows:

q
(J

- (J ~Nq
D < De

~,. yD for
~ ,. yDe for

(J

;;?;De

- Q'-on

Qt=Aq
where Nq - Terzaghi bearing capacity factor, Figure.4-.4 . (J ~- vertical earth pressure at the tip with limits
. .At- -ar_e~f:)fth~_plle IIP, asdelerm1ectfor~C:Zt:!~s_. r-' .-.

e. It is recommended that when designing pile foundations in silty soils, considerations be given to selecting a very conservative shear strength from classical R shear tests. It is further recommended that test piles be considered as a virtual necessity, andthe possibility that pile length may have to be increased
ioJhe field.should be considered~ .. ~-'-

c. Compression Capacily. By combining the two incremental contributors, skin friction and end bearing the ultimate capacity of the soil/pile may be computed as follows:

4. Piles 'in ,Lciyered-'-'$oiis.':Pils're',rn~t" .,': frequently driven into' a layered soil 'stratigraphy.' For this condition, the preceding methods of computation may be used on a layer by layer basis. The end bearing capacity of the pile should be determined from the properties of the layer of soil where the tip is founded. strength
13. to 1l" 1l" to 20. 20. to 21.
-no -25.

Table 4-9. 5 case she. SoilType

Fat clay Fat clay Fat clay Fat clay
- ..:' ---'---5i1t""---'---(Ml)'

\ Consisten,cy
(CH) (CH) (CH) (CH) Very soft 50ft Medium 5tiff

Angle of Internal Frictionfl1

21 . to 23. to 28.

"".

""---'--'U'

Note: The designer should perform testing and select shear strengths. These general data ranges are from test on specific soils in site specinc environments and may not represent the soil in question.

22

DESIGN Of Pllf FOUNDAOONS

However, when weak or dissimilar layers of soiJ exist within approximately 5 feet or 8 pile tip diameters, whichever is the larger, of the tip founding elevation the end beering capacity will be affected. It is necessary to compute this affect and account for it when assigning end bearing capacity. In computing the skin resistance, the contribution of each layer is computed separately, considering the layers above as a surcharge and applying the appropriate reduction factors for the soil type within that increment of pile shaft. a. Skin Friction. The skin friction contributed by different soil types may be computed incrementally and summed to find the ultimate capacity. Consideration should be given to compatibility of strain between layers when computing the unit skin resistance. N Qs'" ~ fs. As. k,. I I
.- i -1
-

5. Point BearingPiles. In some cases Ihe pile will be driven to refusal upon firmgood quality

>1'

rock. In such cases the capacily of the pile is governed by the structural capacity oFthe pile or the rack capacity.

6. Negative Skin Friction.

a. Negative skin Friction is a downward sheer drag acting on piles due to downward movament oF surrounding soil strata relative to the piles. For such movement oF the soils to occur, a segment of the pile must penetrate a compressible soil stratum that consolidates. The dpwnward drag may be caused by the placement of fill on compressible soils, lowering of the groundwater table, or underconsolidated natural or compacted soils. The effect of these occurrences is to cause the compressible soils surrounding the piles to consolidate. If the pile tip is in a relatively stiffsoil, the upper compressible stratum will move down relative to the pile, inducing a drag loa~

.J

where fs;'" unit skin resistance in layer i As - surface area of pile in contact with layer i N - total number of layers b. End Bearing. The pile tip bearing should be computed based upon the sol type within which the tip is founded, with limits near layer boundaries mentioned above. Using the overlying soil layers as surcharge the following equations may be used. Sand or Silt:

This load can be quite large and mustbe added Iv

the structuralload for purposes of assessing stresses in the pile. Vesic (Item 60) stated that a relative downward movement of as little as 0.6 inch of the soil with respect to the pile may be sufficient to mobilize fuI! negative skin friction. The geotechnical capacily of the pile is unaffected by downdrag, however downdrag does serve to increase settlement and increase the stresses in the pile and pile cap. b. For a pile group, it can be assumed that there is no relative movement between the piles and the soil between the piles. Therefore, the total force acting down is equal to the weight of the block of sol

...

cr~N
q

cr ~...
m ---

y
--'_.'~

e -

held between the piles, plus the shear along the pile group perimeter due to negative skinfriction. The
average downwardload transferred to I:Jpile in a pile
grouP.Qnfcan-be -- .. estimated-by '--c 1- -Qnf == [A'}'l.+ slP] .
--

D for D < De
-..

-- cr-~_.-for-f)->--9---~ - "- - .r.~~e

"

--

.._~- -.--.,,.",'

Qt,=;\q

(4-

.. -

Clay:

==

9c

where (cross-sectional area of piles and endosed soil)

Qt==Aq c. Compression Capacity. By combining the skin resistance and end bearing, the ultimate capacity of the soil/pile may be computed as follows:
r

- A == horizontalarea bounded by the pile group N == numberof piles in pile group

r
l s

==

==

unit weight of fillor compressible soillayers length of embedment above the bottom of the
compressible soillayers

Qult ...

Qs + Qt
==

sheer resistanceof the soil

d. Tension Capacity. TI.e tension capacily may be computed by applying the appropriate values of Ktfrom Table 4-7 as appropriate for granular soils -- to the incremental computation for eachlayer and then combining to yield:
Qult ...
QSt.n.ion

~.p;

==

perimeterof the area A

c. For a single pile, the downward load transferred to the pile is aqual to the shearing resistance along the pile as shown in Equation 4-2.
Qnf

- slP'

(4-2)