Introduction Viscosity Effect of Temperature on Viscosity Effect of Pressure on Viscosity The Measurement of Viscosity Other Properties of Lubricants Grease

Questions 5.1. Introduction: Lubricants-very popularly known as mineral oils. But in the early days the vegetable oils and animal fats were used as lubricants. In the today's advanced technology synthetic oils, solid substances like graphite, molybdenum disulphide and gaseous fluids like air, inert gases are also being used as lubricants. Oils are very popular as a lubricant because of its viscous properties, non corrosive nature, easy and cheaply availability. The parameter which plays a fundamental role in lubrication is oil viscosity. Different oils exhibit different viscosities. In addition, oil viscosity changes with temperature, shear rate and pressure and the thickness of the generated oil film is usually proportional to it. So at first glance it appears that the more viscous oils would give better performance. But more viscous oil causes large friction and consequently power loss and more heat is generated. 5.2. Viscosity: This is most readily recognized as that physical property which defines the resistance now so that we often associate high viscosity with such adjectives as thick. The scientific definition of viscosity is due to

Newton, who in the seventeenth century introduced the idea of layers of fluid sliding over one another, as shone in fig. 5.1. This sliding induces interfacial shear stresses between the layers and Newton postulated that these shear stresses were proportional to the rate at which the shear strain was occurring. Thus in fig. 5.1 if we assume that each layer has a velocity which increases linearly by an amount u across a vertical height y we may write (u / y) Or in the more conventional form, the tangential stress is given by = du dy Where the constant of proportionality is the dynamic viscosity and du / dy is the velocity gradient across the film thickness. The units of viscosity are clearly those of a stress multiplied by a distance and divided by velocity. Thus, the SI unit is N - sm2, but the most commonly used unit is a c.g.s. unit the poise (P) dyn s - cm-2. For, many lubricants the poise is too large a unit so that the centi poise (cP) which is one hundredth of a poise is more commonly employed. Since one poise is 0.1 N - sm-2 = 1 cP, air has a value 0.02 cP, and lubricating oils have values which may be as high as 400 cP or as low as 2 cP.

Fig. 5.1. Newtonian flow. From the foregoing we appear to have assumed that the dynamic viscosity is a constant of the fluid and this is perhaps reinforced when its other name of coefficient of viscosity is used. In fact varies markedly with temperature for all fluids, varies with pressure for a great many fluids. and in some cases varies with the velocity gradient (rate of shearing) du / dy. Where is independent of the rate of shearing we refer to the fluid as a Newtonian fluids whereas if is major preoccupation will be with the behavior of simple Newtonian fluids such as mineral oils rather than the more complex non-Newtonian fluids such as greases and oils with certain additives. In many situations it is convenient to use the kinematic viscosity rather than the dynamic viscosity. The kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid: =/ The S.I. unit of kinematic viscosity is 1 m2 s-1 but the c.g.s. unit is the stokes or its submultiple the centistokes (cS), is most often used; 1 stokes is 10-4 m2 s-1. 5.3. Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:

It is a matter of common experience that the viscosity of most oils decreases with temperature and this is an important effect in tribology. The changes in temperature arise form two causes. First, lubricants are used in a wide range of ambient temperatures due to both climatic variations and coal thermal environments, such as the temperature associated with refrigeration machinery or internal combustion engines. Second, during the shearing of lubricant films the energy dissipated manifests itself as a heat release in bearings, etc. we would therefore anticipate that the operational viscosity of the oil will be considerably less than that of the oil in the can. Designers of machines and their operators must therefore know the way in which the viscosity of oil varies with temperature. t = 0 exp. (-t)

Fig. 5.2. The specification of the viscosity index = (L U) x 100 / (L H) For lubricating oils the viscosity index (V.I.) is now commonly used to indicate the approximate effect of temperature on kinematic viscosity. This index is based on the behavior of two standard oils. Gulf Coast oils were thought to have the greatest variation of viscosity with temperature and were ascribed a viscosity index of zero, whilst Pennsylvanian oils were

considered to have the least variation and were defined by an index of 100. All other oils are defined by an index between these two values, as defined by the formula shown in fig. 5.2. The particular reference oils are chosen so that they and the oil under study have the same viscosity at a temperature of 100C. Since the introduction of the viscosity index classification of many new oils and additives have been produced so the oils are now available with much better viscosity/temperature characteristics than the Pennsylvanian oils, i.e. they have an index greater than 100. Typical modern engine oil will be found to have a V.I. of 160. Finally mention should be made of some fluids (a term which includes gases and vapors) whose viscosity actually increases with temperature. Thus in gases the increased velocity of the molecules at higher temperature causes an increase in the momentum transfer which is of the primary cause of viscosity of gases. The effect of temperature of the Viscosity of air at atmospheric pressure is shown in fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 The effect of temperature on the viscosity of air

5.4.

Effect of Pressure on Viscosity: Just as temperature rise reduces the viscosity of a mineral oil, so an

increase in pressure produces a rise in its viscosity. The simple expression which represents the effect of pressure is. p = 0 exp. (p) When p is the current dynamic viscosity at a pressure p whilst 0 is the viscosity at atmospheric pressure. The constant is referred to as the pressure exponent of viscosity. The exponential form of this equation shows that the viscosity rises fairly slowly at low pressure, but that the rate increases rapidly at the higher pressures. Thus for many bearing applications the changes in viscosity due to the pressures produced in the lubricant are negligible. This pressure effect becomes much more important in so-called Hertizian contacts (see chapter 3) scrub as between gear teeth in contact. In such situations the pressure can rise to values in the region 109 Pa = 104 atm., where it would be found that the dynamic viscosity of a mineral oil is raised by about one hundred times its value at atmospheric pressure. In a sense the oil which is a simple fluid at atmospheric pressure begins to behave almost like a plastic solid at these very high pressures. It is also worth noting that at such high pressures the oil behaves in a non-Newtonian fashion when the shear stresses are no longer directly proportional to the shear strain rates. 5.5. The Measurement of Viscosity: A very wide range of instruments have been designed of the measurement of viscosity. Most of these instruments called viscometers are of three main types:

(a) Instruments in which the viscosity is determined by measuring the rate of flow of the fluid through a capillary tube or through an orifice. (b) Instruments in which the viscosity is determined by measuring the motion of a solid object through the fluid. (c) Instruments in which the viscosity is determined from the shearing of the fluid between surfaces in relative motion. In general instruments of types (a) and (b) are only suitable for measuring the viscosity of Newtonian fluids, whilst type (c) may be used for a wide range of fluid characteristics. Since the effects of temperature and pressure have already been established as of paramount importance they must be controlled in all measurements so of viscosity. Whilst the effects of temperature on viscosity may be studied in almost all types of viscometer the effects of pressure may only be studied in a very few instruments.

5.5.1. Capillary Viscometers: These provide a measure of viscosity by measuring the volume q flowing through a capillary of diameter d and length l in a time t. Here is obtained by applying Poiseuilles formula, where = d4 t P 128lq P being the pressure drop along the capillary. In practice the above equation has to be slightly modified due to the end effects where the fluid is suddenly accelerated at entry to and exit from the capillary. Provided 1/d is large, say greater than 500, these end effects are fairly small corrections.

This type of viscometer may be used to make absolute measurements of the viscosity using the Poiseuille formula together with any end effect correction. More often, however, these viscometers are used as comparative instruments. The instrument is calibrated using fluids of known viscosity to establish its constants whence it may then be used to determine the viscosity of any other fluid. A commonly used viscometer of this type is shown in fig. 5.4. In use the fluid level is adjusted to mark A and is then drawn up to a point just above B. The time taken of the fluid level to all form B to C is noted and used to determine the viscosity.

Fig. 5.4. A typical capillary viscometer.

5.5.2. Efflux Viscometers: In these instruments the viscosity is determined by ensuring the time for a given value of liquid to flow through a calibrated short tube orifice in the base of the instrument. The Redwood, Symbol and Engler viscometers are all of this type and are of the form shown in fig. 5.5. These instruments are purely comparative and give definite viscosity in such unit as Saybolt

second. Fortunately, there are tubes which enable one to convert the arbitrary units into enigmatic may be determined at any desired constant temperature because of the surrounding water bath.

Fig.5.5. A typical efflux viscometer 5.5.3. Falling - Body Viscometer: In the simplest type of falling-body viscometers one finds the viscosity from the terminal velocity of a steel sphere falling under gravity (fig. 5.6.). When the sphere has reached its constant terminal velocity v. it is in equilibrium under the action of gravity. buoyancy and drag forces, since the buoyancy and drag forces must equal its weight. Now weight force is 4/3 r3 s g, the buoyancy force is 4/3 r3 l g. and the drag force is 6r (Stockes's formula). Where r is the radius of the shear and s and l are the densities of the steel and the liquid receptively. From weight = drag + buoyancy, we obtain = 2 r2(s - l)g 9

It is essential that the radius of the sphere should be small compared with that of the vessel containing the fluid. If not, it is necessary to correct for the proximity of the walls of the contenting vessel. This type of viscometer may be designed to measure viscosity at any desired temperature and pressure. Several commercial viscometers based on the same general principles as that described above are available but will not be described.

Fig. 5.6. A falling sphere viscometer. 5.5.4. Rotational Viscometers: In these visco meters there are two elements, one fixed and other rotating, the space between being filled by fluid. By measuring the transmitted torque across three fluid film and the speed with which it is sheared one may readily obtain an instantaneous measure of viscosity. The torque may be converted to shear stress and the speed difference to the rate of shearing. Two basic geometries of this type of viscometer are in common use. The rotating cylinder form is shown in fig 5.7, where the inner rotating cylinder is concentric with the stationery outer cylinder. The space between

the cylinders contains the test fluid and the torque transmitted across the film is recorded. By varying the speed of the inner cylinder and / or changing the clearance between the cylinders the rate of shearing may be varied. Such visco meters are therefore useful for measuring the viscosity for a range of values of shear strain rate. This is particularly important with nonNewtonian fluids where the shear stress and shear strain rate are not in a constant ratio at all values of strain rate. i.e. the viscosity varies with strain rate.

= du = R dr c
f = R 2RL c T = 2R3L c

2R L
3

Tc

Fig.5.7. A typical rotational viscometer. The other form of rotational viscometer is shown in fig. 5.8. This is the socalled cone and plate arrangement. Again one element rotates relative to the other and they are speared by the test fluid. The conical shape of one element is necessary to ensure a linear strain rate is the same throughout the film. The shear strain rate is u/h where u is the linear relative velocity and its

film thickness at that point. Since u is a linear function of the radiuses, h must follow the same law if u/h is to be constant.

= du = r dr r
F = 2rdr 0
2 T = 2r dr 2 R3 = 3 0

3T 2R3

Fig. 5.8. A cone and plate viscometer. 5.5.5. Disc Machine Viscometers: For the measurement of viscosity at very high pressure most of the common viscometers described earlier are either of no use or are very least inconvenient, since they require external pressure systems. The disc machine offers a very simple approach to this particular problem since the pressures are inherent in the design of the system. Consider two rotating discs subjected to a load P as shown in fig.5.9.

The fluid in the gap between these discs is sheared due to the motion of the discs and is subjected to very high pressure. That this is so will be appreciated by recognizing that the contact at the discs is only a few square millimeters so that a load P of 100 N leads to

Fig. 5.9. The principle of the disc machine high pressure viscometer. Pressure of the fluid in the contact region of the order of 108 Pa (Nm2

). From a measurement of the torque transmitted across the fluid mm and

the rate of shearing one may thus readily obtain the viscosity at very high pressures. Such information is essential where lubricants are used between gear teeth or between balls and rollers involving bearings. Indeed it will be readily appreciated that the disc machine itself is useful simply because it represents these types of high pressure contact. 5.6. Other Properties of lubricants: Although viscosity is the most important property of a lubricant, other properties must not be neglected. Other important properties are: density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, acidity or alkalinity, foaming characteristics, flash point (the lowest temperature at which vapur is

produced sufficient for first ignition), pour point (the temperature at which oil ceases to flow freely) and oxidation stability (since oxidation of lubricant less to a shortening of their life and may result in corrosive effects). Most modern lubricants have chemical compounds added to improve the basic characteristic of the base mineral oils. Some such additives are:
(a) Viscosity improvers: These are usually high-molecular-weight

polymers designed to reduce the rate of change of viscosity with temperature.

(b) Pour point depressants: When mineral oils are cooled, waxy crystals

are precipitated which combine to form a semi-solid mass. The pour point depressants, usually complex polymers, form a skin around such crystal and inhibit their coalescing.
(c) Oxidation inhibitors: These reduce the rate of formation of oxidation

products. Where such products are acidic the oxidation inhibitor also acts as a corrosion inhibitor.
(d) Detergents or dispersants: These are mainly used in engine oils to

hold insoluble material in suspension, thereby inhibiting the formation of sludge a variety of organometallic salts or polymers are used for this purpose.
(e) Corrosion inhibitors: Alcohol's, ethers, organic acids or soaps are

used to produce protective films on the metal surfaces to inhibit corrosion.

(f) E.P. additives: Extreme pressure additives are used to form

protective, thermally stable surface films in situations where metallic coat might otherwise occur, e.g. when starting up an engine and before hydrodynamic mms of lubricant have been generated.

Compounds of chlorine, phosphorus and sulfur are most commonly used.

(g) Anti-foam additives: These are usually silicon compounds designed

to minimize foaming where this is likely to present difficulties.

(h) Solid lubricants: These are materials like graphite and molybdenum

disulfide which are solid lubricants. These are often used as dispersions in mineral oil and offer protection even when the base oil is no longer present.
(i) Emulsifiers: In such operations as metal cutting an emulsion of oil

and water is often used as actuating fluid. Emulsifiers such as petroleum sulphonate and metallic soaps stabilize such emulsions. 5.7. Grease: Grease usually consists of a thickening agent mixed with a standard mineral oil, often with other special additives. For certain special grease the mineral oil may be replaced by other fluids such as silicon fluids where high temperature grease is required. Metallic soaps such as calcium, lithium and sodium soaps are commonly used as thickeners, whilst clays and silicates are also used for this purpose. The grease has the characteristic appearance under the microscope of a tangled web of fibers of the thickener suspended in the base oil as seen in. The inherent stiffness of grease enables them to be used in a wide variety of paraxial situation. In ball bearings they both fulfill the role of lubricant and act as a very effective seal against the ingress of dirt and moisture. There stiffness also allows them to be used in situations where a liquid lubricant would readily drain away. As with other lubricants several tests are carried out to define the characteristics of grease. Perhaps the most important aspect of grease is that

they tend to be altered during operation rather more than simpler lubricant. In high pressure contacts such as ball bearings the fibrous structure of the grease is broken down and this leads at a reduction in lubricating efficiency. ( Questions ) 1. Explain the effect of temperature on viscosity. 2. Derive an expression to determine the dynamic viscosity of lubricant by using cone and plate viscometer. State your assumptions clearly. 3. What are the properties of lubricants? How these can be improved? 4. What are the principles of measurement of lubricant viscosity? 5. Explain in detail anyone type of shear measuring viscometer. (a) Differentiate between various types of lubricants and discuss their applications. (b) Define the viscosity index. How the gulf coast oil series and Pennsylvanian Oil series are useful in studying the effect of temperature on viscosity. (c) What are additives and what are their applications. 6. Explain the principles of a rotational viscometer. Derive the equation of a dynamic viscosity for a concentric cylindrical viscometer. 7. Define viscosity index. Explain how VI of an oil can be greater than 100.
8. Explain the effect of pressure on viscosity. How this effect can be useful

in case of gear and ball bearing lubrications.

9. Describe the principle of a cone and plate viscometer

10.Write short notes on: (i) Viscosity improvers. (ii) Types of lubricants. (iii) Greases.

(iv) Capillary viscometer. (v) Viscous flow and its velocity profiles.
11. What are the types of lubricants? State the properties of liquid lubricants. 12. What is a viscosity index? Explain with a neat sketch how the VI of test

oil is determined?
13. What are the principles of measurement of lubricant viscosity? Explain in

detail anyone type of shear measuring viscometer. 14.Determine the viscosity of a lubricant for the following data: (i) The maximum diameter of the cone - 50 mm (ii) The cone angle = 160. (iii) The rotational speed of the cone = 150 rpm. (iv) Power required to drive the cone = 50 watts. Ans-- 17292.15 N-S/M^2