Jacobi method

In numerical linear algebra, the Jacobi method is an algorithm for determining the solutions of a system of linear equations with largest absolute values in each row and column dominated by the diagonal element. Each diagonal element is solved for, and an approximate value plugged in. The process is then iterated until it converges. This algorithm is a stripped-down version of the Jacobi transformation method of matrix diagonalization. The method is named after German mathematician Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi. The Jacobi method is a method of solving a matrix equation on a matrix that has no zeros along its main diagonal (Bronshtein and Semendyayev 1997, p. 892). Each diagonal element is solved for, and an approximate value plugged in. The process is then iterated until it converges. This algorithm is a stripped-down version of the Jacobi transformation method of matrix diagonalization.

Linkages
Linkages include garage door mechanisms, car wiper mechanisms, gear shift mechanisms. They are a very important part of mechanical engineering which is given very little attention... A link is defined as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements which connect it to other bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion . In every machine, at least one link either occupies a fixed position relative to the earth or carries the machine as a whole along with it during motion. This link is the frame of the machine and is called the fixed link. An arrangement based on components connected by rotary or sliding interfaces only is called a linkage. These type of connections, revolute and prismatic, are called lower pairs. Higher pairs are based on point line or curve interfaces. Examples of lower pairs include hinges rotary bearings, slideways , universal couplings. Examples of higher pairs include cams and gears. Kinematic analysis, a particular given mechanism is investigated based on the mechanism geometry plus factors which identify the motion such as input angular velocity, angular acceleration, etc. Kinematic synthesis is the process of designing a mechanism to accomplish a desired task. Here, both choosing the types as well as the dimensions of the new mechanism can be part of kinematic synthesis.

Examples of Lower Pair Links with associated Degrees of Freedom

Or

A mechanical linkage is a series of rigid linksconnected with joints to form a closed chain, or a seriesof closed chains. Each link has two or more joints, andthe joints have various degrees of freedom to allowmotion between the links. A linkage is called amechanism if two or more links are movable with respectto a fixed link. Mechanical linkages are usually designedto take an input and produce a different output, alteringthe motion, velocity, acceleration, and applyingmechanical advantage.

Linkage (mechanical)
A mechanical linkage is an assembly of bodies connected together to manage forces and movement. The movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry so the link is considered to be rigid. The connections between links are modeled as providing ideal movement, pure rotation or sliding for example, and are called joints. A linkage modeled as a network of rigid links and ideal joints is called a kinematic chain. Linkages may be constructed from open chains, closed chains, or a combination of open and closed chains. Each link in a chain is connected by a joint to one or more other links. Thus, a kinematic chain can be modeled as a graph in which the links are vertices and the joints are paths, which is called a linkage graph. The deployable mirror linkage is constructed from a series of rhombus or scissor linkages. An extended scissor lift The movement of an ideal joint is generally associated with a subgroup of the group of Euclidean displacements. The number of parameters in the subgroup is called the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the joint. Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a given input force and movement into a desired output force and movement. The ratio of the output force to the input force is known as the mechanical advantage of the linkage, while the ratio of the input speed to the output speed is known as the speed ratio. The speed ratio and mechanical advantage are defined so they yield the same number in an ideal linkage. A kinimatic chain, in which one link is fixed or stationary, is called a mechanism[1], and a linkage designed to be stationary is called a structure.

Uses
Perhaps the simplest linkage is the lever, which is a link that pivots around a fulcrum attached to ground, or a fixed point. As a force rotates the lever, points far from the fulcrum have a greater velocity than points near the fulcrum. Because power in to the lever equals the power out, a small force applied at a point far from the fulcrum (with greater velocity) equals a larger force applied at a point near the fulcrum (with less velocity). The amount the force is amplified is called mechanical advantage. This is the law of the lever.

Two levers connected by a rod so that a force applied to one is transmitted to the second is known as a four-bar linkage. The levers are called cranks, and the fulcrums are called pivots. The connecting rod is also called the coupler. The fourth bar in this assembly is the ground, or frame, on which the cranks are mounted. Linkages are important components of machines and tools. Examples range from the four-bar linkage used to amplify force in a bolt cutter or to provide independent suspension in an automobile, to complex linkage systems in robotic arms and walking machines. The internal combustion engine uses a slider-crank four-bar linkage formed from it piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft to transform power from expanding burning gases into rotary power. Relatively simple linkages are often used to perform complicated tasks. Interesting examples of linkages include the windshield wiper, the bicycle suspension, and hydraulic actuators for heavy equipment. In these examples the components in the linkage move in parallel planes and are called "planar linkages." A linkage with at least one link that moves in three dimensional space is called a "spatial linkage." The skeletons of robotic systems are examples of spatial linkages. The geometric design of these systems relies on modern computer aided design software. The 4-bar linkage is an adapted mechanical linkage used on bicycles. With a normal fullsuspension bike the back wheel moves in a very tight arc shape. This means that more power is lost when going uphill. With a bike fitted with a 4-bar linkage, the wheel moves in such a large arc that it is moving almost vertically. This way the power loss is reduced by up to 30%.

Analysis and synthesis of linkages

The primary mathematical tool for the analysis of a linkage is known as the kinematics equations of the system. This is a sequence of rigid body transformation along a serial chain within the linkage that locates a floating link relative to the ground frame. Each serial chain within the linkage that connects this floating link to ground provides a set of equations that must be satisfied by the configuration parameters of the system. The result is a set of non-linear equations that define the configuration parameters of the system for a set of values for the input parameters. Freudenstein introduced a method to use these equations for the design of a planar four-bar linkage to achieve a specified relation between the input parameters and the configuration of the linkage. Another approach to planar four-bar linkage design was introduced by L. Burmester, and is called Burmester theory.
The planar four-bar linkage is probably the simplest and most common linkage. It is a one degree-of-freedom system that transforms an input crank rotation or slider displacement into and output rotation or slide.

Examples of four-bar linkages are:

the crank-rocker, in which the input crank fully rotates and the output link rocks back and forth;

the slider-drank, in which the input crank rotates and the output slide moves back and forth; drag-link mechanisms, in which the input crank fully rotates and drags the output crank in a fully rotational movement.

FOUR BAR LINKAGE

A typical four bar mechanism, as the namedenotes, is formed of akinematic chain of four members connected byrevolute joints. Thismechanism can have four possible configurationswith a different link fixedas frame each time. The plane four-bar linkage (Fig. 1) consists of four pin-connected links forming a closed loop, in which all pinaxes are parallel. The spherical four-bar linkage consistsof four pin-connected links forming a closed loop, inwhich all pin axes intersect at one point. The skew four-bar linkage (Fig. 2) consists of four jointed links forminga closed loop, in which crank 2 and link 4 are pin-connected to ground 1 and the axes of the pins aregenerally nonparallel and nonintersecting; coupler 3 isconnected to crank 2 and link 4 by ball joints

Four-bar linkages are most frequently used to convert a uniform continuousrotation (the motion of crank 2) into a no uniform rotation or oscillation (themotion of link 4). In instrument applications the primary function of the linkage isthe conversion of

motion, while in power applications both motion conversionand power transmission are fundamental. Each of the above linkages can be proportioned for three types of motion, or linkage types: crank-and-rocker, drag, and double-rocker. Crank-and-rocker linkages have a motion in which the crank (link 2) is capableof unlimited rotation, while the output link (link 4) oscillates or rocks through afraction of one turn (usually less than 90). This is the most common form of theplane and the skew four-bar linkage, and is used in machinery and appliances of all types. In drag linkages the motions of cranks 2 and 4 are both capable of unlimitedrotations. The plane drag linkage has been used for quick-return motions. Themost common drag linkage is the spherical drag linkage. One such linkage is theHooke-type universal joint, or hooke joint. In double-rocker linkages, neither crank 2 nor 4 is capable of complete rotations.Such motions occur in hand tools and mechanical equipment in which onlylimited rotations are required

RECIPROCATOR
This mechanism converts rotary motion to reciprocating motion in two axis

Planar, Spatial and Spherical Mechanisms

A planar mechanism is one in which all particles describe plane curves is space and all of the planes are co-planar.. The majority of linkages and mechanisms are designed as planer systems. The main reason for this is that planar systems are more convenient to engineer. Spatial mechanisms are far more complicated to engineer requiring computer synthesis. Planar mechanisms ultilising only lower pairs are called planar linkages. Planar linkages only involve the use of revolute and prismatic pairs A spatial mechanism has no restrictions on the relative movement of the particles. Planar and spherical mechanisms are sub-sets of spatial mechanisms..Spatial mechanisms / linkages are not considered on this page Spherical mechanisms has one point on each linkage which is stationary and the stationary point of all the links is at the same location. The motions of all of the particles in the mechanism are concentric and can be repesented by their shadow on a spherical surface which is centered on the common location..Spherical mechanisms /linkages are not considered on this page

Mobility
An important factor is considering a linkage is the mobility expressed as the number of degrees of freedom. The mobility of a linkage is the number of input parameters which must be controlled independently in order to bring the device to a set position. It is possible to determine this from the number of links and the number and types of joints which connect the links... A free planar link generally has 3 degrees of freedom (x , y, ). One link is always fixed so before any joints are attached the number of degrees of freedom of a linkage assembly with n links = DOF = 3 (n-1) Connecting two links using a joint which has only one degree of freedom adds two constraints. Connecting two links with a joint which has two degrees of freedom include 1 restraint to the systems. The number of 1 DOF joints = say j 1 and the number of joints with 2 DOF's = say j 2.. The Mobility of a system is therefore expressed as mobility = m = 3 (n-1) - 2 j 1 - j 2 Examples linkages showing the mobility are shown below..

A system with a mobility of 0 is a structure. A system with a mobility of 1 can be fixed in position by positioning only one link. A system with a mobility of 2 requires two links to be positioned to fix the linkage position. This rule is general in nature and there are exceptions but it can provide a very useful initial guide as the the mobility of an arrangement of links...

Grashof's Law

When designing a linkage where the input linkage is continuously rotated e.g. driven by a motor it is important that the input link can freely rotate through complete revolutions. The arrangement would not work if the linkage locks at any point. For the four bar linkage Grashof's law provides a simple test for this condition Grashof's law is as follows: For a planar four bar linkage, the sum of the shortest and longest links cannot be greater than the sum of the remaining links if there is to be continuous relative rotation between two members.

Referring to the 4 inversions of a four bar linkage shown below ..Grashof's law states that one of the links (generally the shortest link) will be able to rotate continuously if the following condition is met...

b (shortest link ) + c(longest link) < a + d

Mechanical Advantage of 4 bar linkage

The mechanical advantage of a linkage is the ratio of the output torque exerted by the driven link to the required input torque at the driver link. It can be proved that the mechanical advantage is directly proportional to Sin( ) the angle between the coupler link(c) and the driven link(d), and is inversely proportional to sin( ) the angle between the driver link (b) and the coupler (c) . These angles are not constant so it is clear that the mechanical advantage is constantly changing.

The linkage positions shown below with an angle = 0 o and 180 o has a near infinite mechanical advantage. These positions are referred to as toggle positions. These positions allow the 4 bar linkage to be used a clamping tools.

The angle is called the "transmission angle". As the value sin(transmission angle) becomes small the mechanical advantage of the linkage approaches zero. In these region the linkage is very liable to lock up with very small amounts of friction. When using four bar linkages to transfer torque it is generally considered prudent to avoid transmission angles below 450 and 500. In the figure above if link (d) is made the driver the system shown is in a locked position. The system has no toggle positions and the linkage is a poor design

Freudenstein's Equation
This equation provides a simple algebraic method of determining the position of an output lever knowing the four link lengths and the position of the input lever. Consider the 4 -bar linkage chain as shown below..

The position vector of the links are related as follows l1+l2+l3+l4=0 Equating horizontal distances l 1 cos 1 + l 2 cos 2 + l 3 cos 3 + l 4 cos 4 = 0 Equating Vertical distances l 1 sin 1 + l 2 sin 2 + l 3 sin 3 + l 4 sin 4 = 0 Assuming 1 = 1800 then sin 1 = 0 and cos 1 = -1 Therefore - l 1 + l 2 cos 2 + l 3 cos 3 + l 4 cos 4 = 0 and .. l 2 sin 2 + l 3 sin 3 + l 4 sin 4 = 0 Moving all terms except those containing l 3 to the RHS and Squaring both sides l 32 cos 2 3 = (l 1 - l 2 cos 2 - l 4 cos 4 ) 2 l 32 sin 2 3 = ( - l 2 sin 2 - l 4 sin 4) 2 Adding the above 2 equations and using the relationships cos ( 2 - 4 ) = cos 2 cos 4 + sin 2sin 4 ) and sin2 + cos2 = 1 the following relationship results..

Freudenstein's Equation results from this relationship as K 1 cos 2 + K2 cos 4 + K 3 = cos ( 2 - 4 ) K1 = l1 / l4 K2 = l 1 / l 2 K3 = ( l 32 - l 12 - l 22 - l 2 4 ) / 2 l 2 l 4

This equation enables the analytic synthesis of a 4 bar linkage. If three positions of the output lever are required corresponding to the angular position of the input lever at three positions then this equation can be used to determine the appropriate lever lengths using three simultaneous equations...

Mechanisms and Machines

The words mechanism and a machine, although often used interchangeably, are not exactly the same. According to the Free Online Dictionary, the defi-nition of a mechanism as used in mechanical engi-neering is a system or structure of moving parts that performs some func-tion in a machine. The defi-nition of a machine, on the other hand, is a device con-sisting of fixed and moving parts that modifies mecha-nical energy and transmits it in a more useful form. A mechanism, as the defini-tion states, has to do more with the geometry, arrange-m en t of parts an d th e motion of the parts indi-vidually or of the arrange-ment as a whole, without worrying about the forces or energy required for the motion. In a m achine, which consists of mecha-nisms, the transmission of forces an d en ergy also needs to be considered. Or
A mechanism considered to be an assembly of mechanical items designed to achieve a specific purpose within a machine. There are clearly an infinite number of mechanisms available but the notes and links are concentrating on the specific ones as listed below. For specific information on linkages please refer.. Linkages

Classification Of Mechanisms
There are many methods of classifying mechanisms. The following list is a functional list based on the type of motion required. This list is based on that provided in Theory of Machines and Mechanisms ..Uicker, Pennock, ans Shigley. The notes below are low level descriptions. Over time additional notes will be included...For detailed analysis and synthesis please refer to the books listed in the book section of this site. 1. Snap-Action Mechanisms 2. Linear Actuators 3. Fine Adjustment Mechanisms 4. Clamping Mechanisms 5. Location Devices 6. Ratchets 7. Escapements 8. Indexing Mechanisms 9. Swinging or Rocking Mechanisms 10. Reciprocating Mechanisms

11. Reversing Mechanisms 12. Couplings and Connectors 13. Sliding Connectors 14. Stop Pause and Hesitation Mechanisms 15. Curve Generators 16. Straight Line generators 17. Tracing Mechanisms

CRANK AND SLIDER LINKAGE:

The rods move forwards and backwards in slider. The fixed pivot anchor the linkages to one place

This mechanism is composed of three important parts: The crank which is the rotating disc, the slider which slides inside the tube and the connecting rod which joins the parts together.
As the slider moves to the right the connecting rod pushes the wheel round for the first 180 degrees of wheel rotation. When the slider begins to move back into the tube, the connecting rod pulls the wheel round to complete the rotation.

CRANK
a mechanical linkage or mechanism, a link that canturn about a center of rotation. The crank's center of rotation is in the pivot, usually the axis of a crankshaft,that connects the crank to an adjacent link. A crank isarranged for complete rotation (360) about its center;however, it may only oscillate or have intermittentmotion. A bell crank is frequently used to changedirection of motion in a linkage.

Slider-crank mechanism
A four-bar linkage with output crank and ground member of infinite length. A slider crank is most widely used toconvert reciprocating to rotary motion (as in an engine)or to convert rotary to reciprocating motion (as inpumps), but it has numerous other applications.Positions at which slider motion reverses are called deadcenters. When crank and connecting rod are extended ina straight line and the slider is at its maximum distancefrom the axis of the crankshaft, the position is top deadcenter (TDC); when the slider is at its minimum distancefrom the axis of the crankshaft, the position is bottomdead center (BDC).

PISTON
This mechanism is usedto convert between rotarymotion and reciprocatingmotion, it works either way. Notice how thespeed of the pistonchanges. The pistonstarts from one end, andincreases its speed. Itreaches maximum speedin the middle of its travelthen gradually slowsdown until it reaches theend of its travel.

Slider-Crank Mechanism
The slider-crank mechanism is one of the most useful mechanisms in modern technology since it appears in most of the internal combustion engines including automobiles, trucks and small engines. Reuleaux designed many variations of the slider-crank models for the Voigt catalog including C-2, D-1-4, D-6. The eccentric mechanisms in models E-1-7 are also extensions of the slider-crank. The slider-crank kinematic chain consists of four bodies linked with three cylindrical joints and one sliding or prismatic joint. Four different mechanisms or inversions of this kinematic chain are possible depending on which body is grounded; the crank, connecting link, sliding link and slot link. In model D-4, the slot link is fixed. Besides application to engines and pumps the slider-crank is used in so-called quick-return mechanisms