Transcription and Translation Genetic information is coded in the sequence of codons in a DNA molecule, and this sequence determines

the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule. The first part of protein synthesis is called transcription. This process begins when a molecule of mRNA corms along one side of a DNA molecule in the cell under the direction of the enzyme RNA polymerase. The side of the DNA molecule which is copied is called the template side. In eukaryotic cells, the process of transcription occurs in the nucleus. In addition, in eukaryotic cells, intervening sequences or introns must be spliced out of the mRNA before it can be used in the next step of protein synthesis. Also, a GTP cap and a poly A tail are added to the mature mRNA. In eukaryotic cells, the molecule of mRNA then travels out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. This completes the first part of protein synthesis. The next part of protein synthesis is called translation. In the cytoplasm, the mRNA molecule attaches to a specific organelle called a ribosome and forms a complex called the m-RNA ribosome complex. Also in the cytoplasm are tRNA molecules which are attached at the aminoacyl attachment site to a specific amino acid. At the other end of this molecule is a nucleotide triplet called an anticodon since it matches the mRNA codon for the particular amino acid carried by tRNA. The ribosomes are divided into 2 sites: the a and the p site. The first RNA molecule with its amino acid moves into the P site and the second tRNA moves into the A site. At this time, the peptidyl transferase reaction takes place when the bond holding the first amino acid to its tRNA molecule breaks and a bond forms between the first two amino acids in the polypeptide sequence. At this point, the first tRNA leaves the P site and the whole ribosome moves along the mRNA until the second tRNA is in the P site and the A site contains the next codon. This process is called translocation. As the process continues, the amino acids are brought into place one by one, following the order specified by mRNA, eventually bonding together to form a polypeptide chain. Mutations A mutation is any inherited change in the sequence of DNA. There are two types of mutations that result in changes in the molecular structure of a DNA molecule. The first one is a point mutation, or base substitution mutation. As its name implies, one nucleotide is substituted for another. Substitution mutations are known as missense mutations because the altered codon still codes for an amino acid and thus makes sense, just not the right sense. Non-sense mutations occur when a codon is altered to a stop signal. Nearly all non-sense mutations result in a non-functional protein. Another type of mutation is a frame shift mutation, where one or more nucleotides is added or deleted from a gene. This alters the reading frame of the genetic message and occurs whenever the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of 3. This type of mutation almost always results in a non-functional protein.