12.

12 DNA technology is used in courts of law forensic science- the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene and other legal investigations DNA fingerprinting- a procedure that analyzes an individual/s collection of DNA restriction fragments, detected by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes. Q- in what ways is DNA fingerprinting valuable for determining innocence as well as guilt? o A DNA fingerprint can prove with near certainty that a sample of dna does or does not come from a particular individual 12.13 gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases gene therapy- alteration of an individuals affected genes o procedure of gene therapy: insert normal gene into virus infect bone marrow cell with virus viral DNA inserts into chromosome injects cell into patient Q. what characteristic of retroviruses makes them candidate vectors for gene therapy? o they integrate DNA into the DNA of host cells 12.14 The PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences polymerase chain reaction- a technique used to obtain many copies of a dna molecule or part of a dna molecule Q: why must dna polymerase from heat-stable prokaryotes be used during PCR? A: the enzyme must be able to survive the heating stage of each cycle 12.15 The human genome project is an ambitious application of DNA technology HGP- an effort to map the human genome in total detail by determining the entire nucleotide sequence of human DNA 3 stages: o Genetic linkage mapping o Physical mapping o DNA sequencing Q. what is meant by the human genome sequence?

o the order of the nucleotides in the DNA of all the human chromosomes 12.16 Most of the human genome does not consist of genes repetitive DNA- nucleotide sequences present in many copies in the genome telomeres- the repetitive DNA at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome transposons- a transposable genetic element, or jumping gene that moves from one site to another within a cell and serve as an agent of genetic change Q. How many genes are in the human genome? o 25,000 12.17 The science of genomics compares whole genomes as of 2005, the genomes of about 150 species have been mapped o mostly prokaryotes, 20ish eukaryotic (including vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants) o first eukaryotic genome = brewers/bakers yeast o first multi-cellular = a worm comparative analysis helps scientists interpret the human genome o DNA in human genes code for similar things in other organisms genomics- the study of genes and their interactions similarities in genomes indicate related evolutionary histories similar systematic study: proteomics- the study of the full protein sets (proteomes) encoded by genomes o number of proteins in humans > number of genes o proteins carry out activities of the cell, so scientists study when/where they are produced in an organism and how they interact o ongoing advances make these studies easier Q: why is it useful to sequence nonhuman genomes? o A: comparative analysis helps scientists interpret human data 12.18 Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture genetically modified (GM) organisms-one that has acquired one or more genes by artificial means rather than traditionally o plants are sometimes used commercially

 most common vector to introduce new genes into plant cells: plasmid from soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid o 1. gene for the desired trait is inserted into a segment of the plasmid (T DNA) using restriction enzyme and DNA ligase o 2. recombinant plasmid is put into a plant cell; TDNA carrying new gene integrates into plant chromosome o 3. recombinant cell is cultured, grows into a new plant transgenic organism- recombinant organism if newly acquired gene is from another species genetic engineering is replacing traditional plant breeding programs o majority of American soybean and cotton crops are modified to be resistant to herbicides and pests reduces amount of pesticides used o improves nutritional value (Vitamin A, etc.) transgenic animals: remove egg cells from female and fertilize them in vitro, then inject previously cloned gene directly into nuclei of fertilized eggs o resulting organisms may have a third parent (from the modified gene) from another species o used for pharmaceutical factories that produce otherwise rare biological substances Q: what is the function of the Ti plasmid in the creation of transgenic plants? o used as a vector for introducing new genes into cells 12.19 Could GM organisms harm human health or the environment? concerns with new genetic technology: transfer of cancer cells, allergens, hazardous genetic changes that may affect humans and the environment activists lobby for proper labeling of all foods containing genetic modifications o in early 2000, researchers from 138 countries agreed on a Biosafety Protocol to identify GM organisms in food and their risks not done for transgenic plants when they first became prominent advocates of caution with these organisms fear that they may spread genes while growing (esp. via pollen and weeds) govt is working to regulate transgenic and GM organisms that are sold to consumers

12.20 Genomics researcher Eric Lander discusses the Human Genome Project Dr. Eric Lander = founder/director of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard o uses genomics to develop new tools and understand and treat diseases o supervised a team that helped lead the Human Genome Project (HGP) o taught econ @ Harvard until 1990 (changed to bio) o applied math to bio; led him to the field of genetic analysis around when HGP was starting surprising: there are 20,000 to 25,000 protein coding genes in the body o previous reports said around 10,000 about 5% of the genome was similar to that of a mouse