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Transmission Media and Antenna Transmission Media and Antenna
Systems Part Systems Part
Sources:
Com3 Lecture Notes
FValiente's Com3 2011 presentation slides
JCardenas' Com4/Com5 2011 presentation slides
Carr, Practical Antenna Handbook, TAB, 1989
Tomasi,
Expcerts of presentation materiaIs,
not in MIT Lecture Notes
2012 Jose Cardenas, v 1.0
Expcerts of presentation materiaIs,
not in MIT Lecture Notes
2012 Jose Cardenas, v 1.0
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jbcardenas 2011 2
Topic 07
Unbounded space Free Space Propagation
Radio Freq spectrum bands; channel/frequency TV/FM band in Phil
sotropic model review of TEM
Characteristics of wave regarding:
Polarization
Attenuation
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
nterference
Scattering
Sample problems/exercises
See also: Self-study module in Com4 yahoo site.
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EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY
t is a term used to describe
radiation frequencies from 3 to
300 Hz.
ELF is a subradio frequency.
Submarine Applications
VERY LOW FREQUENCY
3-30kHz
Radio waves at these frequencies
are very reliable for long-range
communications. Attenuation of the
ground waves is very small, and the
sky wave reflection is good.
Radio Navigation, Aeronautical
Communications and Maritime
Mobile Communications
RAD!O FREQUENCY BANDS
LOW FREQUENCY
30kHz - 300kHz
Attenuation of ground waves is higher than VLF. Sky absorption begins to be a factor ,
especially at the higher end of this band.
Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile Communications
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Propagating aIong with
Earth surface and go
over Iow mountains
Low Frequency:LF
Very High
Frequency:VHF
UItra High Frequency:
UHF
High Frequency:HF
Medium Frequency:MF
Super High
Frequency:SHF
ExtremeIy High
Frequency:EHF
Sub mm Frequency
30GHz
3GHz
300MHz
30MHz
3MHz
Very Long
Frequency:VLF
300kHz
30kHz
3kHz
0.1mm
1mm
1cm
10cm
1m
10m
100m
1km
10km
100km
Propagating on the
straight as simiIar to
Iight
Propagating on the
straight as weII as
diffracting around
mountains and
buiIding
RefIecting at
Ionosphere and
traveIing to the back of
Earth
m
m

W
a
v
e
Q
u
a
s
i
-
m
m

W
a
v
e
M
i
c
r
o

W
a
v
e
Q
u
a
s
i

-
M
i
c
r
o

W
a
v
e
300GHz
30GHz
3GHz
10GHz
1GHz
WaveIength
38GHz FWA
26GHz FWA
22GHz FWA
10.5GHz FWA
3.5GHz FWA
2.4GHz
WLAN
5GHz WLAN
1.9GHz PHS
300GHz
3THz
Frequency
MEDIUM FREQUENCY
300kHz 3MHz
ncludes the standard AM
broadcast band in which it is
possible to obtain reliable ground
wave coverage up to 100 miles
from the transmitting antenna.
Amateur Communications
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HIGH FREQUENCY
3MHz 30MHz
Sky wave propagation is the only reliable
means of communicating over long
distances especially at the upper end of this
band
Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point
Communications and Land, Maritime and
Aeronautical Communications
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY
30MHz 300MHz
This region includes the commercial FM
and VHF TV bands. Line of sight s the
principal means of communication.
Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point
Communications and Land, Maritime and
Aeronautical Communications
Channel
Frequency
{MHz)
2 5+-60
Low Band
vHF
3 60-66
+ 66-72
5 76-82
6 82-88
7 17+-180
High Band
vHF
8 180-186
9 186-192
10 192-198
11 198-20+
12 20+-210
13 210-216
1+ to 83 +70-890 UHF Band
73,7+ Govn.tf Nobile
75 NAv! (!LSfNbeacon)
88-108 FN Band
108-136 Aero Comm
136-17+ NobilefNarinefAirfLand
TeIevision Broadcast Band
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ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY
300MHz 3GHz
Line of sight propagation is
possible beyond the optical
horizon due to the increasing
refraction effects on earth's
atmosphere
TV Broadcasting,
Radioastronomy, Aeronautical
and land mobile communications
and satellite communications.
SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY
3GHz 30GHz
Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in radio-wave communication
using standard method of generating and transmitting signals.
Microwave Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communication
EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY
30GHz 300GHz
Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in radio-wave communication
using standard method of generating and transmitting signals.
Microwave P2P Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communications
MobiIe WireIess Spectrum
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Radio- Wave In Free Space
Radio waves propagate as TEM waves in Iree space.
For an isotropic source:
R
P
E
R
P
P
t
t
D
30
;
4
2
= =
t
where P
D
power density (W/m
2
); E electric
Iield intensity (V/m); P
r
total radiated power (W);
and R distance Irom source (m).
R
Point
Source
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
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Topic 08
Propagation modes
Types of wave propagation: ground sky excluding space wave
Atmospheric layers
Atmospheric conditions, description not atmospheric effects
Daily and seasonal variations
onization
Multi-path
Maximum usable and optimum frequencies
Skip zones
Fading (not Fade Margin)
Exercises
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Radio Wave Propagation Modes
n every terrestrial radio system, there are three possible modes of
propagation:
Ground-wave or surface-wave propagation
Space-wave or direct-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
At frequencies < 2 MHz, ground wave is best.
Sky waves are used for HF signals.
Space waves are used for VHF and above.
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IONOSPHERIC LAYERS
D LAYER.- The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles above the earth.
onization in the D layer is low because less ultraviolet light penetrates to this level.
E LAYER.- The E layer
ranges from approximately 55
to 90 miles above the earth.
The rate of ionospheric
recombination in this layer is
rather rapid after sunset,
causing it to nearly disappear
by midnight. The E layer
permits medium-range
communications on the low-
frequency through veryhigh-
frequency bands. At
frequencies above about 150
MHz, radio waves pass
through the E layer.
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
10
F LAYER.- The F layer exists from about 90 to
240 miles above the earth. During daylight hours,
the F layer separates into two layers, F1 and F2.
During the night, the F1 layer usually disappears,
The F layer produces maximum ionization during
the afternoon hours, but the effects of the daily cycle
are not as pronounced as in the D and E layers.
Atoms in the F layer stay ionized for a longer time
after sunset, and during maximum sunspot activity,
they can stay ionized all night long.
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Effects of frequency on critical angle
Critical Angle - above which the signal will not be reIracted
enough to return to earth
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OTHER PHENOMENA THAT AFFECT
COMMUNICATIONS
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE IONOSPHERE
Seasonal variations are the result of the earth's revolving around the sun, because
the relative position of the sun moves from one hemisphere to the other with the
changes in seasons. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers are directly
related to the highest angle of the sun
SUNSPOTS
One of the most notable occurrences on the surface of the sun is the appearance
and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known as SUNSPOTS.
Twenty-Seven Day Cycle
The number of sunspots present at any one time is constantly changing as some
disappear and new ones emerge. As the sun rotates on its own axis, these
sunspots are visible at 27-day intervals, which is the approximate period for the sun
to make one complete revolution.
Eleven-Year Cycle
Sunspots can occur unexpectedly, and the life span of individual sunspots is variable.
The ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE is a regular cycle of sunspot activity that has
a minimum and maximum level of activity that occurs every 11 years.
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IRREGULAR VARIATIONS
Irregular variations are just that, unpredictable changes in
the ionosphere that can drastically aIIect our ability to
communicate. The more common variations are sporadic E,
ionospheric disturbances, and ionospheric storms.
Sporadic E
Irregular cloud-like patches oI unusually high ionization,
called the sporadic E, oIten Iormat heights near the normal
E layer. Their exact cause is not known and their
occurrence cannot be predicted. However, sporadic E is
known to vary signiIicantly with latitude. In the northern
latitudes, it appears to be closely related to the aurora
borealis or northern lights
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
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Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances
Commonly known as SID, these disturbances may occur
without warning and may last Ior a Iew minutes to several
hours. When SID occurs, long-range HF communications
are almost totally blanked out. The radio operator listening
during this time will believe his or her receiver has gone
dead.
Ionospheric Storms
Ionospheric storms are caused by disturbances in the earth`s
magnetic Iield. They are associated with both solar eruptions
and the 27-day cycle, meaning they are related to the rotation
oI the sun. The eIIects oI ionospheric storms are a turbulent
ionosphere and very erratic sky-wave propagation.
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
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Topic 09
Space waves review ground and sky
Atmospheric Effects on Propagation
Subsidence Advection Radiative Cooling
Temperature inversions
Refraction k-factor M profiles
Conduction bands evaporative ducting
Path loss, ground reflection loss and Fade margin
Review: dB dBi dBd dBq
Sample problems
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TRANSMISSION LOSSES
CROUAD REFLEC1IOA LOSS
When propagation is accomplished via multihop reIraction,
RF energy is lost each time the radio wave is reIlected Irom
the earth`s surIace. The amount oI energy lost depends on the
Irequency oI the wave, the angle oI incidence, ground
irregularities, and the electrical conductivity oI the point oI
reIlection
FREE SPACE LOSS
Normally, the major loss oI energy is because oI the
spreading out oI the waveIront as it travels Irom the
transmitter. As distance increases, the area oI the waveIront
spreads out, much like the beam oI a Ilashlight.
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
16
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RAIN.- Attenuation because oI raindrops is greater than
attenuation Ior any other Iorm oI precipitation. Raindrop
attenuation may be caused either by absorption, where the
raindrop acts as a poor dielectric, absorbs power Irom the radio
wave and dissipates the power by heat loss; or by scattering.
H
2
O and O
2
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ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON PROPAGATION
Fading
The most troublesome and Irustrating problem in receiving
radio signals is variations in signal strength, most
commonly known as FADING.
Multipath Fading
MULTIPATH is simply a term used to describe the
multiple paths a radio wave may Iollow between
transmitter and receiver. Such propagation paths include
the ground wave, ionospheric reIraction, reradiation by the
ionospheric layers, reIlection Irom the earth`s surIace or
Irom more than one ionospheric layer, and so on.
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
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Multipath Transmission
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Fade Margin
To account for changes in atmospheric conditions, multipath loss, and terrain
sensitivity, a fade margin, F
m
, must be added to total system loss:
F
m
(dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70
where d = distance (km), f = frequency (GHz), R = reliability (decimal value),
A = terrain roughness factor (0.25 to 4, for very rough to very smooth), and B
= climate factor to convert (0.125 to 0.5, for very dry to hot and humid) or
worst-month probability = 1.
For info only: Other formulas (do not use in Com3)
F
m
(dB) = 30log d + 15log(f) + 10log(5.21AB) - 10log(1-R) -60
F
m
(dB) = 36log d + 8.9log(f) + 10log(K) 14log(1+|hr-he|/d) - 10log(1-R) - C
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Propagation options: Line of Sight
Direct
Reflected
Diffracted
Scattered
Line of Sight
NLOS wf multi path
tropo ducting
billboards
ionospheric refraction
knife edge
Tropospheric
Rain
The radio horizon is greater than the optical
horizon by about one third due to refraction
of the atmosphere (US std k=4/3).
Reflections from a relatively smooth surface,
such as a body of water, could result in
partial cancellation of the direct signal.
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GEO - geosynchronous earth orbit = 36000
The APOGEE is the farthest distance from earth to sateIIite orbit.
The PERIGEE is the minimum distance.
Lowest practicaI orbit: 100 miIes above sea IeveI
3
9
,3
5
4
k
m
A
p
o
g
e
e

(
M
o
In
y
a
)
P
e
r
i
g
e
e
1
0
0
0

k
m
.
Direct Propagation
US mainland 1965: 60S4
Equatorial mean 637S.137
Polar mean 6356.752 km
Keepler's 2
nd
Law
Satellite Communication and Terrestrial Radio Link
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TEMPERATURE NVERSON
When layers of warm air form above layers of cold air, the condition known as
temperature inversion develops. This phenomenon causes conduction ducts or
channels to be formed, by sandwiching cool air either between the surface of the
earth and a layer of warm air, or between two layers of warm air. Also, large
objects, such as buildings and hills, could cause multipath distortion from many
reflections.
MuItipIe Path
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Evaporative Ducting
Propagation speed of sea breeze front depends
on large scale forcing
Sea breeze extension depends on large off
shore wind component
Onset of sea breeze depends on solar radiation
available
Development of sea breeze depends also on
the prevailing winds.
Duct formation; high level elevated, lower level,
stronger elevated duct, surface duct.
Evaporation duct gets stronger as wind speed
increases in the surface layer.
Complex refractivity structure ranging from sub
refractive over land to elevated ducts, surface
ducts and "nested ducts over the sea.
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Space-Wave Propagation
Most terrestrial communications in the VHF or higher
Irequency range use direct, line-oI-sight, or
tropospheric radio waves. The approximate maximum
distance oI communication is given by:
( )
R T
h h d + = 4
where d max. distance in km
h
T
height oI the TX antenna in m
h
R
height oI the RX antenna in m
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
25
Assumes US standard equivalent earth radius factor,
and info only: in some reference:
( )
R T
h h d 17 17 + =
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Topic 10
Antenna basics (do not cover topic 11 and 12)
Near Far fields
Efficiency, gain, ERP
Review: resonance resistive impedance as applied to antennas
Characteristics: directivity, loading, grounding
Review: Matching as applied to antennas
Antenna length; resonant/non- resonant antennas
Description: single-band multi- band, broadband;
For each antenna type listed below, describe, radiation patterns, formulas,
provide sample problems
Dipole Monopole Folded Dipole, inverted V, multi-band, loop, rhombic, spiral,
bobtails, curtain, normal mode helix (rubber ducky), etc..
Do not incIude reflector types, horns, slots, cones, lenses, arrays, axial-mode
helix
x
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Marconi/Monopole Antenna
Main characteristics:
vertical and /4
good ground plane is required
omnidirectional in the horizontal
plane
3 dBd power gain
impedance: about 36W
27
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Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
28
f
c
f
kc
f
v
l
M
4
95 . 0
4 4 4
= = = =

) (
25 . 71
m
f
l
MH:
M
= ) (
7 . 233
ft
f
l
MH:
D
=
Marconi/Monopole Antenna
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Resonant Antenna
- Corresponds to a resonant line, and the dipole antenna is a good
example whose length is a multiple of quarter wavelength
- Plasma is used in some application to reduce antenna
detectability by radar; in some others sea water is used

l
n
lobes
4
=
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Folded Dipole
- Often used - alone or with other elements - for Tv and FN
broadcast receiving antennas because it has a wider
bandwidth and four times the feedpoint resistance of a
single dipole.

2
Feed line
Z
in
292 O
Spirals: Instead of leaving
the arms of the dipole
antenna straight, they are
wrap around each other
resulting to a spiral. There is
also what is called the log-
periodic spiral. The
circumference = determines
the lowest frequency; the
radius = /4 the highest
frequency.
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Topic 11
Cover antennas below microwave not cover by earlier topics
Loop. Quad loop. Delta loop, X- Y- J-pole; plasma, sea water
Driven and parasitic elements (do not include reflectors)
For the below, theory and design
Arrays: Yagi, Broadside, Turnstile, End Fire, Reflector arrays, Log periodic,
co-linear, Slim Jim, etc
Helical (Axial)
Cone Discone Bicone
Other types for below microwave application including hybrid designs, e.g.:
quad-yagi, loop-lpda, etc.
Do not include solid/mesh reflectors, parabolic, Dielguides, horns,
Cassegrain, Gregorian, Fresnel, lens and slot antennas
Sample problems including design examples, topics 10 and 11
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Antenna Arrays
- An assembly of two or more antenna elements (often f2) situated in close
proximity to each other so that their induction fields interact to produce a
radiation pattern that is a vector sum of the individual ones
- Antenna elements can be combined in an array to increase gain and get
desired radiation pattern.
- Arrays can be classified as broadside or end-fire, according to their direction of
maximum radiation.
- !n a phased array, all elements are fed or driven; i.e. they are connected to the
feedline.
- Some arrays have only one driven element with several parasitic elements
which act to absorb and reradiate power radiated from the driven element.
- A reflector array is illustrated at right:
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DipoIe Arrays
A Slim Jim or J-pole antenna is a form of end-fed dipole connected to a
quarter-wave stub matching section. A collinear array has all elements
are along a straight line, fed in phase, and often mounted with main
axis vertical, and results in narrow radiation beam omni directional in
the horizontal plane when antenna is vertical.
HalI-wave
Elements Feed
Line
Quarter-wave
Shorted Stub
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Characteristics of Yagi-Uda Array
- Nore commonly known as the Yagi array, it has one driven element,
one reflector, and one or more directors.
- unidirectional radiation pattern (one main lobe, some sidelobes and
backlobes)
- relatively narrow bandwidth since it is resonant
- 3-element array has a gain of about 7 dBi
- more directors will increase gain and reduce the beamwidth and
feedpoint impedance
- a folded dipole is generally used for the driven element to widen the
bandwidth and increase the feedpoint impedance.
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Micro-strip Bi-Yagi Array
Designing Yagi-Uda
Radiation Pattern
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Log-Periodic Dipole Array {LPDA)
Feed
line
o
L
6
L
5
L
4
L
3
L
2
D
6
D
5
Direction oI main lobe
Apex
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Characteristics of LPDA
feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of log f
unidirectional radiation and wide bandwidth
shortest element is less than or equal to f2 of highest frequency, while
longest element is at least f2 of lowest frequency
reasonable gain, but lower than that of Yagi for the same number of
elements
design parameter, t = L
1
fL
2
= D
1
fD
2
= L
2
fL
3
= .
used mainly as HF, vHF, and Tv antennas
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Topic 12
Topic 12 focuses on microwave millimetric antennas not covered in 10 and
11
Reflectors: Mesh- solid- deployable reflectors; axial- offset feed; Parabolic,
Cassegrain, Gregorian, etc.
Refractors: lens, Fresnel zone plate, etc.
Radiators: horn, cavity, slot
Hybrids: Hog-Horn, Cas-horn, Dielguide, etc.
Other types of antenna: panel, microstrip patch , guided beam, etc.
Overview: multiple antenna techniques, MMO, beam forming, diversity
Sample problems, focus distance, gain and bandwidth cover also previous
antenna topics
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UHF & Microwave Antennas
- highly directive and beam
width of about 1
o
or less
- antenna dimensions >>
wavelength of signal
- front-to-back ratio of 20 dB
or more
- generally utilize parabolic
reflector as secondary
antenna for high gain
- primary feed is either a
dipole or horn antenna
- use for point-to-point and
satellite communications
Microwave antennas
Aperture antenna
Travelling wave antenna
8lot antenna
Array antenna
Horn antenna
Reflector antenna
Conical horn
Pyramidal horn
Diagonal horn
Paraboloid antenna
Cassegrain antenna
Gregorian antenna
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Horn RefIector Antenna
The mouth of the waveguide
maybe opened out resulting to an
electromagnetic horn.
The most common configuration
are
Sectoral horn that flares out in one
direction only, pyramidal Horn that
flares out in both direction, and
conical Horn that flares out in both
directions and is a logical
termination for a circular
waveguide. Horns are used
extensively in primary networks
where several radio channels
allocated in the same or different
frequency bands are conveyed to
the same antenna limited by size
and being narrow band.
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Hog (Hogg) Horn Antenna
The hog-horn antenna, often used
for terrestrial microwave links,
integrates the feed horn and a
parabolic reflecting surface to
provide an obstruction-free path
for incoming and outgoing
signals.
Another hybrid is the Cass-horn.
Parabolic
Section
Feed
Horn
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Parabolic Reflector Antenna
Power gain and -3 dB
beamwidth are:
D
D
A
p

u

t
q
70
;
2
2 2
= =
where q antenna eIIiciency
(0.55 is typical);
D dish diameter (m); and
wavelength (m)
d depth
F Iocus distance
F = D
2
J {16d)
F
d
Gain at 55% efficiency:
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Offset
43
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DepIoyabIe Mesh
Deployable MESH
Space borne; for aperture size exceeding 4.6 m
Below 30 GHz (manufacturing issues)
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Cassegrain Antenna
Horn
Hyperbolic reflector
Parabolic reflector
Focus of parabola and
hyperbola
Cassegrain antenna is a type of dual reflector antenna
with a paraboloid main reflector and a hyperboloid
sub-reflector.
This antenna has several advantages vs parabolic
Short transmission line (T.L.)
Absence of discontinuity at the horn feed
Ability to place equipment at secondary focus
Low sidelobes
Gregorian is similar but the sub-reflector is concave
Dielguide is a variant that has a dielectric cone
(refracting signal) from feed to smaller reflector
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SIot Antennas
SIot Antenna
grounded
> a >
suppress higher mode transmit energy
Zg = q
Waveguide slot antennas are often used as omnidirectional
microwave antennas.
The slot array was invented in 1943 at McGill University in
Montreal.
Unique features of these antennas are horizontal
polarization and omni directional gain around the azimuth.
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Other Antennas
Cavity Antenna
g
w.g. or co-ax fitting
tuning disk
g microwave
window
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MuIti Antenna Transmission Techniques
Diversity for improved system performance
Beam forming for improved coverage
SDMA for improved capacity
Multilayer transmission for higher data rates at given bandwidth