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BUSINESS LAW
Essentials of a contract: Proposal or Offer: Proposal is the initial stage of a contract. Definition1: When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or abstain from doing something with a view to obtaining assent of that other person. Definition2: A proposal is a statement (by one party) of willingness to enter into a contract on stated terms provided that it is accepted by the party to whom it is addressed. Essentials of a proposal: Intention to create legal relationship: The maker of the proposal must intent to enter into contractual relationship. Proposal must be certain (clear): The terms of an offer must be definite and certain. Communication of Proposal: It means that proposal must be communicated to the other party. Kinds of Proposals: 1) Express Proposal: A proposal made by words of mouth or by writing is an express proposal. 2) Implied Proposal: A proposal made neither verbally nor in writing is an implied proposal. It is made by the conduct of the party. A common example is taking goods to the cash counter in a super-market. That is an implied proposal. 3) Specific Proposal: An offer made to an individual or to a specific group of persons. It can only be accepted by the person to whom it is made. 4) General Proposal: An offer may be made to the public at large. It may be accepted by anyone who complies with the terms of the offer. 5) Counter Proposal: A statement (by the offeree) which does not accept all the terms and conditions proposed by the offerer, but which in fact introduces a new terms is a new proposal and it is called a counter proposal. A counter proposal is capable of being accepted or rejected. The legal effect of a counter proposal is that terminates the original proposal. 6) Cross Proposal: Two manifestations of willingness to make the same bargain are said to be cross proposals if the following conditions are fulfilled. I) subject matter of both the offers must be same; ii) terms of both the offers must be same; and iii) they must be made simultaneously. ACCEPTANCE Definition: When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies assent to it, the proposal is said to be accepted. The acceptance should be absolute and unconditional. It is called Mirror Image Rule. Promise, Promiser and Promisee Proposal+ Acceptance= Promise. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise. Promise is an accepted proposal. Promiser: The person making the proposal is called the promise or the one whose proposal is accepted and he becomes bound by his promise. From the desk of Ghulam Murtaza Korai IoBM Page 1
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INVITATION TO PROPOSAL OFFER An offer is a promise to be bound on particular terms. It may (If it is accepted by an offeree) result in a legally enforceable contract. Acceptance is necessary for the formation of a contract but once the offeree has assented to the terms offered, a contract comes into effect and both parties are bound. The proposer can no longer withdraw his offer nor can the offeree withdraw his acceptance. INVITATION TO TREAT An invitation to treat is simply an expression of willingness to enter into negotiations which it is hoped will lead to the conclusion of a contract at a later date. Example of Common Situations of Invitations to Treat Display of goods for sale The display of goods constitutes an invitation to treat and that the offer is made by the customer when he presents the goods at the cash counter where the offer may be accepted by the shopkeeper. Tenders Tenders an other example of invitation to treat. They occur where someone wishes particular work to be done and issues a statement asking interested parties to submit the terms on which they are willing to carry out the work. The person who invites the tender makes an invitation to treat. The person who submits the tender is the offerer and the other party is at liberty to accept or reject the offer. From the desk of Ghulam Murtaza Korai IoBM Page 2
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Effect of Undue Influence When consent to agreement is caused by undue influence, the agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused.
Burden or Onus of Proof Burden of proof that the consent for the agreement was obtained by undue influence lies on the party intending to avoid the contract.
c) Fraud: Fraud is intentional. It is an intention to deceive the party on whom it is employed or induced. The induced also enters into a contract. It includes: False Assertion: A false representation of a fact made knowingly or without belief in its truth constitutes fraud. Active Concealment: Active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of fact is fraud. For example, where a seller sells goods already sold by him to third person. His conduct amounts to active concealment and fraud. Empty Promise: Making a promise without the intention of performing it is a fraud. For example, buying goods under a contract of sale with the intention of not paying the price is fraud.
d) Misrepresentation: It is misstatement but innocent. There is no intention to deceive. When a person makes a positive statement that a fact is true when his information does not warrant it to be so, though he believes it to be true this amounts to misrepresentation. If a party to an agreement induces (however innocently) the other party to make a mistake as to the nature or quality of the subject matter of the agreement, this act also amounts to misrepresentation.
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Effects: if there is no free consent Voidability of agreement without free consent A contract is voidable at the option of a party whose consent to the contract is obtained by means of: 1. Coercion; or 2. Undue influence; or 3. Fraud; or 4. Misrepresentation.
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