Enhancing the Emotional Intelligence of Salespeople

Jane Z. Sojka, Ohio University Dawn R. Deeter-Schmelz, Ohio University

We are paying a drastic price, in our personal lives and organizations, for our attempts to separate our hearts from our heads and our emotions from our intellect. It cant be done. We need them both, and we need them working together. Robert K. Cooper (1997, 32)

Abstract
In todays rapidly changing sales environment, successful salespeople must acquire skills that give them a competitive advantage. Emotional intelligence (EI), defined as perceiving, interpreting, and reacting to ones own and others emotions, is offered as one critical skill that will allow salespeople to guide their behavior and think in ways that can enhance their sales performance. In this paper, we review emotional intelligence and discuss how it is related to existing theories of sales performance. Research propositions are then developed based on the Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) sales performance model. Strategies for sales practitioners are proposed, and additional opportunities for future research are identified.

Introduction
Coopers dramatic quotation suggests todays need for managers, employees, and salespeople who possess both emotional and intellectual skills. According to Mayer and Salovey, emotional intelligence (EI) is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones own and others emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and actions (1993, 433). Evolving from the multiple intelligences theories espoused by Gardner (1983, 1991) and Williams and Sternberg (1988), emotional intelligence acknowledges that not all problem-solving situations are cognitive; in fact, perceiving, interpreting, and reacting to ones own and others emotions are critical capabilities in terms of socialization skills. Ironically, while traditional

psychological research originally viewed emotions as disruptive to logical thought and subsequent rational functioning in the world (Woodworth 1940), recent research indicates that interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligencetwo key components in emotional intelligencemay be more essential to success in life than IQ (Cooper and Sawaf 1997; Goleman 1995, 1998b; Mayer and Salovey 1995, 1997; Salovey and Mayer 1990; Weisinger 1998). Furthermore, unlike IQ, which is considered relatively stable and unchangeable, EI skills can be improved through learning and practice (Cherniss and Goleman 1998; Goleman 1998a). Anecdotal evidence suggests EI is particularly important in sales, where salespeople are required to be adaptive and cope with difficult customers (Weitz, Castleberry, and Tanner 2000). Moreover, well-established models of sales performance (e.g., Walker, Churchill, and Ford 1977) contend that personal characteristics, such as intelligence and personality, impact sales performance indirectly through mediator variables. Importantly, although EI would be classified as a personal variable, we could find no evidence of research examining the role of EI in sales outcome variables. Accordingly, this paper explores EI as an antecedent of sales performance and job satisfaction. In the following sections, we review the EI literature and the five dimensions of EI. Next, we develop testable research propositions based on the Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) model of sales performance. Finally, managerial implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Authors note: Special thanks to Mary Tucker for her assistance in preparing this paper. The authors would also like to thank the editor, Ashok Gupta, and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

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Emotional Intelligence: A Review

considered the primary type of intelligence. Yet more current research suggests that in addition to cognitive As described by Weisinger, EI involves the intelliabilities, alternative abilities, such as interpersonal and gent use of emotions: you intentionally make your intrapersonal skills requiring emotion management, emotions work for you by using them to help guide your should also be considered forms of intelligence (Gardner behavior and thinking in ways that enhance your results 1983). Seemingly, it is appropriate to include emotional (1998, xvi). Emotional intelligence plays an important intelligence as an integral part of the personal characterisrole in business. Indeed, business leaders, who must tics variable in the determinants of sales performance understand, guide, and motivate their constituents, have model (See Figure 1). been shown to have a high degree of emotional intelliThe importance of employing emotionally intelligent gence (Goleman 1998b). Emotional intelligence is much salespeople becomes apparent when examining the more than emotional self-control; it is the active and changing circumstances in todays sales environment. intentional use of emotional knowledge to achieve When the buying process was based on product/service desired behavioral results. Consequently, EI has been differentiation, buyers purchases were based upon which shown to be an essential quality of managers (Cooper product/service most closely fit their specific needs. 1997; Goleman 1998b) and accountants (Kirch, Tucker, However, with reverse engineering, reduced product and Kirch 2000), an important component of team development lead times, increased information flow communication (Yost and Tucker 2000), a contributing among all parties, and technological advancements, many factor to improved employee performance and organizaproducts that were formerly differentiated between brands tional commitment (Abraham 1999), and is suggested as have now become commodities (Rackham 1999). When an essential element of business education (Tucker, products become commodities, as Rackham argues, McCarthy, Sojka and Barone 2000). buyers are no longer able to select products based on Theoretical research in sales suggests EI may also be differences between brands and, instead, are likely to an essential quality of successful salespeople. As noted search for other areas of differences upon which to make in the seminal work of Walker, Churchill, and Ford a final purchase selection. One variable upon which to (1977), personal variables such as EI are considered compare product/service offerings is the salesperson antecedent variables influencing the salespersons selling the product; differences between salespeople motivation, aptitude, and role perceptions that, in turn, become a critical attribute for comparison and the are linked directly to performance. According to their salesperson preferred by the buyer is likely to be the one model, personal variables include characteristics of the closing the sale (Berry, Zeithaml, and Parasuraman salesperson such as education, personality, experience, 1985). Furthermore, in service industries where there is and intelligence. It is worth noting that when the no tangible product to evaluate, buyers frequently Walker, Churchill, and Ford model was originally evaluate the salesperson selling the service because it conceptualized in 1977, cognitive intelligence was simplifies the decision process (Berry, Zeithaml and Parasuraman 1985). Finally, more organizations are seeking Figure 1 long-term relationships with customers. Model of Emotional Intelligence and Salesperson Performance As Dwyer, Schurr, and Oh (1987) point out, all relationshipsincluding business Personal Variables: and personalcontain emotional facets. Emotional Intelligence Consequently, salespeople who under Personality IQ stand emotional intelligence and how to Education use it will be at an advantage during the Experience sales process and are likely to perform better than salespeople lacking emotional intelligence. Motivation

Aptitude

Performance

Rewards

Satisfaction

The Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence

Although the names vary depending upon researcher (e.g., Epstein 1998; Feldman 1999; Goleman 1995; Salovey and Mayer 1990; Weisinger 1998) the dimensions of EI can be broken into two main categories: interpersonal (empathy

Role Perceptions
*partial model adapted from Walker, Churchill and Ford (1977)

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and perceiving others emotions) and intrapersonal (selfawareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation). Each of these dimensions can be directly related to the skills needed by salespeople who want to be successful in identifying, building, and maintaining customer relationships. Interpersonal Empathy. Broadly defined as the capability of putting oneself in someone elses shoes (Peterson 1995; Rasmusson 1999), empathy has long been known as a critical component of relationship selling as salespeople work to identify prospects, understand customer problems, develop them as customers, adapt to their needs, and keep them satisfied (Jolson 1997; Pilling and Eroglu 1994; Spiro and Weitz 1990). But to be empathetic, individuals must first accurately perceive emotions in others (Batson 1987; Hoffman 1984). One of the primary ways that humans show emotions is through facial expressions (Ekman, Friesen and Ancoli 1980). To be fluent in comprehending and interpreting the emotional expressions of others, an individual needs to be competent at interpreting facial responses. This ability to recognize the emotional content of visual stimuli, as in the case of facial expressions, has been linked to individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence (Mayer, DiPaolo, and Salovey 1990). The importance of understanding non-verbal communication during the buyer-seller interaction is widely recognized (Bonoma and Felder 1977; Slesinski 1986; Williams, Spiro and Fine 1990). Perceptive salespeople recognize, for example, that the stiffening of facial and body position may indicate a negative reaction that calls for a change in tactics (Alper 1991; Slesinski 1986). Under the umbrella of emotional intelligence, however, empathy takes the reading of nonverbal communication to a higher level. Salespeople who can empathize with others are able to recognize the buyers emotions and then link those feelings with their own experiences. Perceiving Others Emotions. The second interpersonal skill associated with emotional intelligence is referred to as emotional mentoring (Weisinger 1998) or perceiving the emotions of others. Individuals with high levels of emotional intelligence are able to perceive, understand, and help others communicate their feelings effectively. This skill is especially relevant to sales. Salespeople must identify and understand customers needs and beliefs if they are to successfully adapt their message to specific customers (Weitz, Sujan and Sujan 1986); helping buyers communicate their feelings effectively plays a key role in this process. Moreover, sensitivity to the expressive behavior of others has been linked with perceived performance in buyer-seller interactions (Goolsby, Lagace and Boorom 1992). If the salesperson possesses the ability to perceive others emotions and is successful in helping the customer communicate effectively, the representative will have a much clearer idea as to how to satisfy that customers needs.

Intrapersonal Self-Awareness. Emotional intelligence is also composed of intrapersonal skills that acknowledge the importance of self-knowledge. Self-awareness reflects an accurate perception of how one is projecting ones self. This concept is similar to what other researchers have identified as self-monitoring: the salespersons predisposition to control the images and impressions of buyers in buyer-seller interactions (Goolsby, Lagace and Boorom 1992; Snyder 1979). Self-awareness is critical if salespeople are to adapt their behaviors to the specific needs of their buyers (Halln, Johanson and Seyed-Mohamed 1991; Weitz, Sujan and Sujan 1986) and perform effectively (Caldwell and OReilly 1982; Spiro and Weitz 1990). For example, a truly emotionally intelligent salesperson will know if he/she is acting too aggressively for the situation because of a good sense of self-awareness. This self-awareness can then be used to adjust the salespersons projected image to more appropriately suit the situation. Self-Regulation. Emotionally intelligent individuals also have a high degree of self-regulation or an ability to manage emotions. Selling can be an emotionally charged situation, particularly when there is a lot at stake, e.g., a large account, and/or when a buyer adopts a win/lose attitude (Perdue, Day and Michaels 1986). Negotiation outcomes, as well as the buyers negotiating behavior, are at least partially influenced by the sellers behavior during the negotiation process (Clopton 1984). Consequently, regardless of what might be happening at the bargaining table, it is probably most helpful if the salesperson remains relatively calm without overtly expressing dismay, disappointment, anger, frustration or any of the other emotions that he/she might be experiencing. Self-Motivation. Finally, individuals with emotional intelligence possess a high degree of self-motivation. They tend to stay intrinsically motivated and do not rely on outside sources for reinforcement. The ability to self-motivate is especially critical for outside salespeople who may not always be in contact with the home office. Indeed, the performance of salespeople is, in part, a function of their level of motivation (Walker, Churchill and Ford 1977). Salespeople who are internally driven are interested in the work itself, i.e., sales, and as a consequence try to develop expertise in this area (Pittman, Emery and Boggiano 1983). Intrinsically motivated salespeople are more likely to focus on learning more about selling by varying their behavior from one customer to the next in an attempt to adapt effectively to each customers needs (Weitz, Sujan and Sujan 1986). Because successful salespeople must be highly motivated, it seems logical that EI training would be beneficial to their careers and ultimate performance.

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Investigating Emotional Intelligence: Building on Existing Theory

As previously discussed, and as shown in Figure 1, the Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) model put forth the proposition that personal characteristics are the antecedents of motivation, aptitude, and role perceptions, which in turn are antecedents of sales performance. Sales performance then leads to rewards, which subsequently influences job satisfaction. Research has provided empirical evidence for various aspects of this model. Of ultimate interest, of course, is the role EI will play in this model. The following sections will explicate the proposed relationships. Motivation, Aptitude, and Role Perceptions In their original position paper, Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) argued that personal variables would influence sales performance through three mediating variables: the salespersons (1)level of motivation, (2)sales aptitude or ability, and (3)perceptions of how the sales role should be performed. Existing evidence provides some support for the proposition that personal characteristics will impact motivation, aptitude, and role perceptions, although this evidence is somewhat weak. For example, Ingram and Bellenger (1983) found a weak relationship between personal variables and valence for rewards, a correlate of motivation, where the personal variables included income, job tenure, education level, family size, age, and marital status. Fisher and Gitelson (1983) found similar variables to be correlated with role conflict and ambiguity. However, EI is a type of social intelligence, and as such is a much different variable than other previously tested personal characteristics. Consequently, we would expect much stronger relationships between EI and the performance antecedents. Specifically, because one component of EI is self-motivation, we expect a positive relationship between EI and motivation. Similarly, because salespeople skilled in EI possess the ability to empathize with customers and perceive others emotions, we expect these salespeople to score more highly on sales aptitude. Finally, because EI-enhanced salespeople are more skilled in understanding others as well as themselves, we expect these salespeople to have a greater understanding of their roles (i.e., more clarity and less ambiguity). Accordingly, the following research proposition is offered: RP1: The more highly a salesperson scores on emotional intelligence: a) the greater that salespersons motivation; b) the greater that salespersons aptitude for sales; c) the more accurate that salespersons perceptions of the sales role. Sales Performance Extant research links motivation, role perceptions, and aptitude to salesperson performance. For example, in their

meta-analysis investigating the determinants of salesperson performance, Churchill et al. (1985) found support for each of these variables as predictors of performance. Tyagi (1985) found a positive relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and salesperson work performance. Dubinsky and Hartley (1986a) found significant paths between (1) role perceptions and performance, and (2) work motivation and performance, although the latter relationship was negative rather than positive. Behrman and Perreault (1984) found a significant negative relationship between role ambiguity and performance, as did Fisher and Gitelson (1983) in a metaanalysis of forty-three studies. Given that the relationships between motivation, aptitude, role perceptions, and sales performance are well established, we expect EI to impact salesperson performance indirectly through these three mediating variables, with greater EI skills resulting in higher levels of performance. Hence, the following research proposition is offered: RP2: Through increases in motivation, aptitude, and accuracy of role perceptions, high levels of EI will result in improved salesperson performance. Job Satisfaction Within their model of sales performance, Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) hypothesized that sales performance would impact job satisfaction indirectly through rewards. Since that time, a number of studies have explored this relationship. In general, these studies have demonstrated that sales performance and job satisfaction are empirically linked (Bagozzi 1980; Behrman and Perrault 1984; Brown and Peterson 1994; Dubinsky and Hartley 1986a), although this link is somewhat weak (cf. Brown and Peterson 1994). Of course, our specific interest is the possibility of a link between EI and a salespersons job satisfaction. Such a relationship seems likely. Motivation and role perceptions (i.e., role ambiguity) have been directly or indirectly linked with the job satisfaction of salespeople (e.g., Bagozzi 1980; Behrman and Perrault 1984; Brown and Peterson 1993, 1994; Churchill, Ford and Walker 1976; Dubinsky and Hartley 1986a, b) in addition to sales performance. Consequently, we would expect EI to have an influence on salesperson job satisfaction. Given that some evidence supports the sales performance to job satisfaction link, we expect the impact of EI to be indirect, through job performance. Drawing from the Walker, Churchill, and Ford (1977) model, the following research proposition is therefore offered: RP3: Through increases in motivation, aptitude, and accuracy of role perceptions, and through improved salesperson performance, high levels of EI will result in improved salesperson job satisfaction.

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Managerial Implications: Enhancing Emotional Intelligence of Salespeople

For practitioners, enhancing a salespersons emotional intelligence could be viewed as a three-step process: 1) assess the salespersons current level of EI; 2) improve the salespersons EI via suggested exercises; 3) evaluate sales performance for feedback purposes. By establishing a baseline, each individual salesperson will have an idea as to which aspects of EI he/she needs to improve the most. A salesperson may be very strong in the intrapersonal dimensions of self-regulation and self-awareness, but may need to improve the interpersonal skill of perceiving others emotions. By using an individual assessment, salespeople can tailor the program of exercises to most accurately fit their needs. Although no single EI testing tool has emerged as the dominant favorite for assessment purposes, there are several assessment scales available (e.g. Feldman 1999; Salovey et al. 1995; Schutte et al. 1998; Weisinger 1998). Each scale has benefits and drawbacks depending upon time factors, ease of use, parsimony, and scoring simplicity.

Weisingers (1998) assessment tool is particularly helpful because it separates each dimension of the EI construct and allows for self-scoring. It is suitable for use in either a seminar setting or for a self-paced learning experience. Respondents rate their ability (1 = low ability, 7 = high ability) on forty-four items relating to EI and then score themselves on each EI dimension. Although there are no absolute cut-off points, salespeople are able to observe patterns in their responses and identify the dimensions in which they need to improve. Once salespeople have assessed their EI strengths and weaknesses, exercises to enhance their EI can be used. While there are a number of books available with ideas on how to improve emotional intelligence in business situations (e.g. Epstein 1998; Feldman 1999; Weisinger 1998) none speak specifically to the needs of the salesperson. Table 1 highlights examples of exercises, taken from a collection of researchers, which have then been adapted for a sales environment. These exercises are far from comprehensive or exhaustive. In fact many EI exercises from the management or education field can be adapted for the sales environment. In addition, these

Table 1 Exercises for Developing Emotional Intelligence in Salespeople

Develop empathy through consideration of the customers point of view. Salespeople should think of an important sales call that they will be making next week, and consider that presentation from the customers point of view. The salesperson should consider how that customer would react to the presentation, as well as the ramifications of the presentation for the customer. Additionally, the salesperson should think about the emotions that need to be communicated in the message, the language that should be used to convey these emotions, and how the customer might react to the emotions. The salesperson may even want to write out a script and practice it with another salesperson to verify that the desired emotions are being conveyed (Feldman 1999). Improve ability to perceive others emotions via improvement of the accuracy of perceptions of emotions displayed by others. Salespeople first write down the names of four people considered to be crucial to their success. The people named by the salesperson can either be within the corporation (such as the shipping manager who has the capability to expedite parts when needed) or outside the corporation (such as the gatekeeper for a particularly important customer). After choosing these significant individuals, the salesperson should write two specific ways in which they let each person know that they consider that individual vital to their success. Would these significant individuals agree with the salespersons answer? There are two ways to resolve this exercise. It is ideal if the relationship with one or more of these significant individuals is such that the salesperson is comfortable asking if this individual feels valued. The salesperson might be surprised at the individuals answer and the individual will certainly appreciate the salespersons concern. A second action is to ask the salesperson to use their empathy skills, put themselves in the shoes of the significant individual, and think about ways that can express how much the salesperson values the individual. If a salesperson has a difficult time developing a specific plan, this exercise can be turned into a group project to see how others have dealt with similar situations (Cooper 1997). Improve self-awareness through identification of sources of emotional tension. Salespeople identify a current challenge at work that creates emotional tension, and then write down the feelings or emotions that occur. The salespeople can then ask themselves, Why am I having those feelings? For the purposes of this exercise, the focus is not so much on the feeling itself, but on what is causing that feeling. Then, salespeople can analyze the effects of their emotions on their performance. Does it enhance or inhibit performance? Finally, salespeople can begin to develop new ways to think about the situation (Feldman 1999). Enhance self-regulation through identification of alternative expressions of emotion most appropriate for a given situation. Salespeople should write about a situation in which they expressed negative emotions. After recounting the negative incident, the salesperson should then re-write the script without negative emotions (Epstein 1998 and Weisinger 1998). Develop self-motivation through critical examination of beliefs that may be limiting capabilities. Salespeople think about significant individuals in their lives (such as parents, siblings, spouses, etc.) and what these individuals have told the salespeople about their limiting capabilities. Salespeople then select one characteristic that someone has assigned to them and note how this tendency may be limiting their performance. Next, salespeople consider the benefits of moving beyond this tendency. Finally, the salespeople identify two options for going beyond the identified tendency (Feldman 1999).

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sample exercises have been designed so that salespeople can either work on their EI skills alone or with a group, depending upon individual preferences. As presented, a sales manager need not hire an expensive consultant nor send the sales staff to a costly training seminar. Instead, there are several in-house approaches the sales manager could use to enhance the sales staffs emotional intelligence. One scenario would be a half or full day retreat where the sales manager has each salesperson complete a diagnostic EI test and then the sales staff practices the exercises. Another possibility would be that after the initial assessment, training could take place as a part of scheduled sales staff meetings with each meeting devoted to a different facet of EI. At the completion of the course, sales performance could be evaluated. Still another possibility for EI training is a self-paced workbook format, possibly utilizing the exercises in Table 1, where each salesperson takes a diagnostic test, determines his/her areas of EI that need improvement, and practices the prescribed exercises as time permits. In this case, sales performance could be monitored on an ongoing basis with expectations for an improvement trend. Finally, other exercises might be developed and/or adapted to the sales environment, and their efficacy explored.

Conclusion
EI may be a critical skill that offers practitioners the potential to improve the performance of salespeople (cf. Abraham 1999). A greater understanding of the role EI plays in sales performance can be developed most effectively by conducting investigations in a programmatic manner. This paper provides an important first step, presenting testable hypotheses from which future research can be generated.

References
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Directions for Future Research

In addition to testing the proposed inclusion of emotional intelligence in the determinants of sales performance model (Walker, Churchill and Ford 1977), researchers might also examine EI from alternative perspectives. For example, because the customer ultimately determines whether a sales interaction has been successful (Michaels and Day 1985), researchers might examine salesperson EI from the buyers perspective. Does EI improve the quality of buyer-seller relationships from the buyers perspective? Does EI in salespeople translate into higher levels of customer satisfaction? Research is needed to answer these important questions. Once the EI construct has been fully explored with salespeople and customers, researchers might turn their attention to EI among sales managers. Although businesses offer sales management training on traditional topics such as coaching, motivating skills, and time management (Shepherd and Ridnour 1995), salespeople often fail to share complete information with sales managers, leading to information asymmetry and the inability of sales managers to manage effectively (Anderson, Mehta and Strong 1997). It seems likely that managers possessing high levels of EI would be more effective at communicating with their salespeople, thereby reducing the information asymmetry and increasing sales management effectiveness. Particular components of sales management that might be affected include the ability to train salespeople and gain their trust (Anderson, Mehta and Strong 1997). 48

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Conceptualization, measurement, and nomological validity. Journal of Marketing Research (Feb.)27:61-69. Tucker, M., A.M. McCarthy, J.Z. Sojka, and F.J. Barone. 2000. Training tomorrows leaders: Enhancing the emotional intelligence of business students. Journal of Education for Business 75(6):331-337. Tyagi, P.K. 1985. Relative importance of key job dimensions and leadership behaviors in motivating salesperson work performance. Journal of Marketing 49(Summer):76-86. Walker, Jr., O.C., G.A. Churchill, Jr., and N.M. Ford. 1977. Motivation and performance in industrial selling: Existing knowledge and needed research. Journal of Marketing Research (May)14:156-168. Weisinger, H. 1998. Emotional intelligence at work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Weitz, B.A., S.B. Castleberry, and J.F. Tanner, Jr. 2000. Selling: Building partnerships. Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Weitz, B.A., H. Sujan, and M. Sujan. 1986. Knowledge, motivation, and adaptive behavior: A framework for improving selling effectiveness. Journal of Marketing (Oct.)50:174-191. Williams, K.C., R.L. Spiro, and L.M. Fine. 1990. The customer-salesperson dyad: An interaction/communication model and review. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management (Summer)10:29-43. Williams, W. and R. Sternberg. 1988. Group intelligence: Why some groups are better than others. Intelligence 12(4):351377. Woodworth, R.S. 1940. Psychology. 4th ed. New York: Henry Holt. Yost, C.A. and M.L. Tucker. 2000. Are effective teams more emotionally intelligent? Confirming the importance of effective communication in teams. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal XXXXII (2):101-109.

About the Authors

Jane Z. Sojka (Ph.D., Washington State University) is Associate Professor of Marketing, Ohio University. Her research interests include personal selling and sales management, personality traits, advertising, and ethics. She has published in the Mid-American Journal of Business, Marketing Letters, Journal of Marketing Communications, Journal of Education for Business, and various conference proceedings. Dawn R. Deeter-Schmelz (Ph.D., University of South Florida) is Assistant Professor of Marketing, Ohio University. Her research interests include customer service teams, sales and industrial marketing, and e-commerce. She has published in the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Marketing Theory & Practice, Journal of Marketing Education, and Journal of Business Logistics, among others.

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