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Caspar van der Wal FND group talk, modified to web-tutorial - 4 November 2004
It takes very little time to do a critical evaluation of actual noise levels that show up.
It is more subtle than we like to admit, but worth spending some time on.
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Outline
Ideal world
Volt meter
saib
time
Stable gain
Vout
Drifting offset 0
Vin
Ideal world
G Volt meter
saib
time
Simple averaging = low-pass filtering works! .but is inefficient and not always effective because of the 1/f character of the unwanted signals.
So, what about measuring at higher frequencies, and then band-pass filtering?
1 Filter transmission 0
In practice it is not possible to realize ultra-narrow band-pass filters that are -stable -flexible
Idea: Control or bias at some high frequency. Amplify the measured signal (full spectrum) up to a level where noise does not hurt it anymore. Mix (multiply) it with a high-level reference signal at exactly the same frequency as the wanted signal. Low-pass filter the mixed signal (can be realized ultra narrow).
Oscillator
S
V = A sin( t) V ( ) = A ( ) sin( t + ( ) )
R S M S S S R S R S S R
= V V = A A cos( ( - )+ ) - A A cos( ( + )+ )
S R R R S S S R
YCD
= A A cos(),
CA
V mix
LPF
DC output
also V
= A A sin()
What you should NOT conclude now: If you use lock-in detection, there is little need to worry about interference and shielding etc. Because: Heating of a sample results from the (total current through the sample) .
kaep-kaep xam
= I
If you study non-linear behavior, you get higher harmonics of unwanted signals (as noise or apparent signal) in your desired signal. If you study variations in non-linear behavior, you get a varying amount of higher harmonics of unwanted signals in your desired signal.
Non-linearities
saib I
0 dB
FPL Bd3-
-120 dB 0 Hz f 50 Hz
<<T
Signal
elpmas fo roivaheB
time For T <<T successive sampled data points are not independent, no new information.
C peR
ENBW
1/(4 T ) 1/(8 T ) 3/(32 T ) 5/(64 T )
C C C C
TRep-1%
C C C C
5 T 7 T 9 T 10 T
For 6 dB case, LPF is simple RC filter. T = RC-time = RC (always defined for single filter!)
Bd3C
ENBW = 1/(4RC)
Example 6 dB vs 24 dB filter slope Say f = 1 kHz Assume narrow-band noise contribution at 1.05 kHz Assume noise = 10 times the signal (80 dB) Like to see signal 1% accurate (-40 dB) Need to LPF 50 Hz by 120 dB 0 dB
FPL 4 FER
0 Hz
50 Hz
s1 s 00051
peRT
CT
Bd3-f
Dynamic reserve
Oscillator
S
Dynamic reserve: ratio between peak-peak voltage of total signal and peak-peak of wanted signal. Dynamic range: ratio between peak-peak voltage of total signal and resolution of wanted signal.
CA
V mix
LPF
DC output
B d 0 2 = 0 1x e su elpo ep n i- kc oL :etoN
time
Use OFFSET and EXPAND (x10 or x100) if you have a small signal on top of a constant background.
V (mV)
58.1 B (mT)
, etc.
XCD
time
Gain
zHV /V 1 zH V
P-PV,SMRV,XCDV
:stinu etoN
DSN
SMR
DSN
time
Observed V
ENBW=1/4T
P-P
SMR
XCD
FER
= 20 Hz /6
at sample:
V4T
SMR
= Gain
V4T
DSN
Conclusions
The Lock-in is an effective averaging tool to beat 1/f part of the unwanted components in measured signals. Improving your signal:noise ratio (in terms of amplitudes) x 10, means 100 times faster data taking: The difference between results and no results.
IV-meetkast
Next time: Why use the IV-meetkast? Shielding Ground loops Clean ground Inductive interference Capacitive interference