he theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various

specific (primarily sensory) modalities, rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that there are a wide variety of cognitive abilities which are only very weakly correlated with one another, despite the close correlations between aspects of intelligence generally measured by traditional intelligence (IQ) tests or psychometrics. For example, the theory predicts that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily generally more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this task. The child who takes more time to master simple multiplication 1) may best learn to multiply through a different approach, 2) may excel in a field outside of mathematics, or 3) may even be looking at and understand the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. Such a fundamentally deeper understanding can result in what looks like slowness and can hide a mathematical intelligence potentially higher than that of a child who quickly memorizes the multiplication table despite a less detailed understanding of the process of multiplication. The theory has been met with mixed responses. Empirical evidence reveals high correlations between different tasks (rather than the low correlations which Gardner's theory predicts). Nevertheless many educationalists[who?] support the practical value of the approaches suggested by the theory.

Contents
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1 The multiple intelligences o 1.1 Spatial o 1.2 Linguistic o 1.3 Logical-mathematical o 1.4 Bodily-kinesthetic o 1.5 Musical o 1.6 Interpersonal o 1.7 Intrapersonal o 1.8 Naturalistic o 1.9 Existential 2 Use in education 3 Critical reception o 3.1 The definition of intelligence o 3.2 Tautology o 3.3 Neo-Piagetian criticism o 3.4 Spatial intelligence o 3.5 Modern IQ tests measure many abilities o 3.6 Lack of empirical evidence 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References

7 Further reading 8 External links

The multiple intelligences

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010) Gardner has articulated eight basic types of intelligence to date, without claiming that this is a complete list.[1] Gardner's original list included seven of these; in 1999 he added a naturalist intelligence. He has also considered existential intelligence and moral intelligence, but does not find sufficient evidence for these based upon his articulated criteria,[2] which include:[3]

the potential for brain isolation by brain damage, its place in evolutionary history, the presence of core operations, susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression), a distinct developmental progression, the existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people, support from experimental psychology and psychometric findings.

The theory's eight currently accepted intelligences are: (Ref: Educational Psychology, Robert Slavin. 2009, 117)

Spatial Linguistic Logical-mathematical Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic

Spatial
This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles.

Linguistic
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading,

writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and by discussing and debating about what they have learned. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.

Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific thinking and investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations. It correlates strongly with traditional concepts of "intelligence" or IQ.

Bodily-kinesthetic
The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully (206). Gardner elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses so they become like reflexes. In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed muscle memory - they remember things through their body such as verbal memory. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots, dancers, musicians, actors, surgeons, doctors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.[4]

Musical
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.

Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists, singers, conductors, disc-jockeys, orators, writers and composers.

Interpersonal
This area has to do with interaction with others. In theory, people who have a high interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers and social workers.[5]

Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. People with intrapersonal intelligence are intuitive and typically introverted. They are skillful at deciphering their own feelings and motivations. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes you unique, you can predict your own reactions/ emotions. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include philosophers, psychologists, theologians, lawyers, and writers. People with intrapersonal intelligence also prefer to work alone.

Naturalistic
This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to ones natural surroundings. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include naturalists, farmers and gardeners.

Existential
Some proponents of multiple intelligence theory proposed spiritual or religious intelligence as a possible additional type. Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an "existential" intelligence may be a useful construct.[6] The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.[7] Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and infinitesimal. Careers or callings which suit those with this intelligence include shamans, priests, mathematicians, physicists, scientists, cosmologists and philosophers.

Use in education

Traditionally, schools have emphasized the development of logical intelligence and linguistic intelligence (mainly reading and writing). IQ tests (given to about 1,000,000 students each year)[citation needed] focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence as well. While many students function well in this environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that students will be better served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence. Many teachers[who?] see the theory as simple common sense. Some say that it validates what they already know: that students learn in different ways. On the other hand, James Traub's article in The New Republic notes that Gardner's system has not been accepted by most academics in intelligence or teaching. George Miller, the esteemed psychologist credited with discovering the mechanisms by which short term memory operates, wrote in The New York Times Book Review that Gardner's argument boiled down to "hunch and opinion" (p. 20). Gardner's subsequent work has done very little to shift the balance of opinion. A recent issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and Law devoted to the study of intelligence contained virtually no reference to Gardner's work. Most people who study intelligence view M.I. theory as rhetoric rather than science, and they are divided on the virtues of the rhetoric. The application of the theory of multiple intelligences varies widely. It runs the gamut from a teacher who, when confronted with a student having difficulties, uses a different approach to teach the material, to an entire school using MI as a framework. In general, those who subscribe to the theory strive to provide opportunities for their students to use and develop all the different intelligences, not just the few at which they naturally excel.[citation needed] Of the schools implementing Gardner's theory, the most well-known is New City School, in St. Louis, Missouri, which has been using the theory since 1988. The school's teachers have produced two books for teachers, Celebrating Multiple Intelligences and Succeeding With Multiple Intelligences and the principal, Thomas Hoerr, has written Becoming a Multiple Intelligences School as well as many articles on the practical applications of the theory. The school has also hosted four conferences, each attracting over 200 educators from around the world and remains a valuable resource for teachers interested in implementing the theory in their own classrooms.[citation needed] Thomas Armstrong argues that Waldorf education organically engages all of Gardner's original seven intelligences.[8]

Critical reception
The definition of intelligence
One major criticism of the theory is that it is ad hoc: that Gardner is not expanding the definition of the word "intelligence"; rather, he denies the existence of intelligence as traditionally understood and instead uses the word "intelligence" whenever other people have

traditionally used words like "ability". This practice has been criticized by Robert J. Sternberg (1983, 1991), Eysenck (1994), and Scarr (1985) Defenders of MI theory argue that the traditional definition of intelligence is too narrow, and thus broader definition more accurately reflects the differing ways in which humans think and learn. They would state that the traditional interpretation of intelligence collapses under the weight of its own logic and definition, noting that intelligence is usually defined as the cognitive or mental capacity of an individual, which by logical necessity would include all forms of mental qualities, not simply the ones most transparent to standardized I.Q. tests. Some of these criticisms arise from the fact that Gardner has not provided a test of his multiple intelligences. He originally defined it as the ability to solve problems that have value in at least one culture, or as something that a student is interested in. However, he added a disclaimer that he has no fixed definition, and his classification is more of an artistic judgment than fact: Ultimately, it would certainly be desirable to have an algorithm for the selection of an intelligence, such that any trained researcher could determine whether a candidate's intelligence met the appropriate criteria. At present, however, it must be admitted that the selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic judgment than of a scientific assessment. (Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1985) Gardner argues that by calling linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities intelligences, but not artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities, the former are needlessly aggrandized. Certain critics balk at this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores "the connotation of intelligence...[which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes one successful in school."[9] Gardner writes "I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others cannot"[10] Critics hold that given this statement, any interest or ability is now redefined as "intelligence". Thus, by adopting this theory, studying intelligence becomes difficult, because it diffuses into the broader concept of ability or talent. Gardner's addition of the naturalistic intelligence and conceptions of the existential and moral intelligences are seen as fruits of this diffusion. Defenders of the MI theory would argue that this is simply a recognition of the broad scope of inherent mental abilities, and that such an exhaustive scope by nature defies a simple, one-dimensional classification such as an assigned IQ value.

Tautology
The theory and definitions have been critiqued by Perry D. Klein as being so unclear as to be tautologous and thus unfalsifiable. Having a high musical ability means being good at music while at the same time being good at music is explained by having a high musical ability.[11]

Neo-Piagetian criticism

Andreas Demetriou suggests that theories which overemphasize the autonomy of the domains are as simplistic as the theories that overemphasize the role of general intelligence and ignore the domains. He agrees with Gardner that there indeed are domains of intelligence that are relevantly autonomous of each other.[citation needed] In fact, some of the domains, such as verbal, spatial, mathematical, and social intelligence are identified by most lines of research in psychology. However, in his theory, one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, Gardner is criticized for underestimating the effects exerted on the various domains of intelligences by processes that define general processing efficiency, such as speed of processing, executive functions, and working memory, and meta-cognitive processes underlying self-awareness and self-regulation.[citation needed] All of these processes are integral components of general intelligence that regulate the functioning and development of different domains of intelligence. Thus, it is argued that the domains are to a large extent expressions of the condition of the general processes. At the same time, the domains may vary because of their constitutional differences but also differences in individual preferences and inclinations. Moreover, their functioning both channels and influences the operation of the general processes.[12][13] Thus, one cannot satisfactorily specify the intelligence of an individual or design effective interventions programs unless both the general processes and the domains of interest are evaluated (Demetriou & Kazi, 2006; Demetriou, Mouyi, & Spanoudis, 2010).

Spatial intelligence
Gardner argues that IQ tests only measures linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. Psychologist Alan S. Kaufman argues that IQ tests have measured spatial abilities for 70 years.[14]

Modern IQ tests measure many abilities

Modern IQ tests are greatly influenced by the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory which incorporates a general intelligence but also many more narrow abilities. While IQ tests do give an overall IQ score, they now also give scores for many more narrow abilities.[14]

Lack of empirical evidence

According to a 2006 study many of Gardner's "intelligences" actually correlate with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence. According to the study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involved a blend of g, of cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases, of non-cognitive abilities or of personality characteristics.[15] Linda S. Gottfredson (2006) has argued that the results of thousands of studies support the importance of IQ for school and job performance. IQ also predicts or correlates with numerous other life outcomes. In contrast, empirical support for non-g intelligences is lacking or very poor. She argued that despite this the ideas of multiple non-g intelligences are very attractive to many due to the suggestion that everyone can be smart in some way.[16]

A critical review of MI theory argues that there is little empirical evidence to support it: "To date there have been no published studies that offer evidence of the validity of the multiple intelligences. In 1994 Sternberg reported finding no empirical studies. In 2000 Allix reported finding no empirical validating studies, and at that time Gardner and Connell conceded that there was "little hard evidence for MI theory" (2000, p. 292). In 2004 Sternberg and Grigerenko stated that there were no validating studies for multiple intelligences, and in 2004 Gardner asserted that he would be "delighted were such evidence to accrue" (p. 214), and he admitted that "MI theory has few enthusiasts among psychometricians or others of a traditional psychological background" because they require "psychometric or experimental evidence that allows one to prove the existence of the several intelligences" (2004, p. 214)." (Waterhouse, 2006a, p. 208). The same review presents evidence to demonstrate that cognitive neuroscience research does not support the theory of Multiple Intelligences: "the human brain is unlikely to function via Gardners multiple intelligences. Taken together the evidence for the intercorrelations of subskills of IQ measures, the evidence for a shared set of genes associated with mathematics, reading, and g, and the evidence for shared and overlapping "what is it?" and "where is it?" neural processing pathways, and shared neural pathways for language, music, motor skills, and emotions suggest that it is unlikely that each of Gardners intelligences could operate "via a different set of neural mechanisms" (1999, p. 99). Equally important, the evidence for the "what is it?" and "where is it?" processing pathways, for Kahnemans two decision-making systems, and for adapted cognition modules suggests that these cognitive brain specializations have evolved to address very specific problems in our environment. Because Gardner claimed that the intelligences are innate potentialities related to a general content area, MI theory lacks a rationale for the phylogenetic emergence of the intelligences." (From Waterhouse, 2006a, p. 213). A number of articles have surveyed the use of Gardner's ideas and conclude that there is little to no academically substantiated evidence that his ideas work in practice. Steven A. Stahl found that most of the previous studies which claimed to show positive results had major flaws: Among others, Marie Carbo claims that her learning styles work is based on research. {I discuss Carbo because she publishes extensively on her model and is very prominent in the workshop circuit...} But given the overwhelmingly negative findings in the published research, I wondered what she was citing, and about a decade ago, I thought it would be interesting to take a look. Reviewing her articles, I found that out of 17 studies she had cited, only one was published. Fifteen were doctoral dissertations and 13 of these came out of one universitySt. Johns University in New York, Carbos alma mater. None of these had been in a peer-refereed journal. When I looked closely at the dissertations and other materials, I found that 13 of the 17 studies that supposedly support her claim had to do with learning styles based on something other than modality.[17]

To date, the current No Child Left Behind high-stakes test legislation in the United States does not encompass the multiple intelligences framework in the exams' design and/or implementation.[18]

howard gardner, multiple intelligences and education

Howard Gardner's work around multiple intelligences has had a profound impact on thinking and practice in education - especially in the United States. Here we explore the theory of multiple intelligences; why it has found a ready audience amongst educationalists; and some of the issues around its conceptualization and realization.
contents: introduction howard gardner - a life howard gardner on multiple intelligences the appeal of multiple intelligences are there additional intelligences? howard gardner's multiple intelligences some issues and problems conclusion further reading and references how to cite this article

I want my children to understand the world, but not just because the world is fascinating and the human mind is curious. I want them to understand it so that they will be positioned to make it a better place. Knowledge is not the same as morality, but we need to understand if we are to avoid past mistakes and move in productive directions. An important part of that understanding is knowing who we are and what we can do... Ultimately, we must synthesize our understandings for ourselves. The performance of understanding that try matters are the ones we carry out as human beings in an imperfect world which we can affect for good or for ill. (Howard Gardner 1999: 180-181)

Howard Earl Gardner's (1943- ) work has been marked by a desire not to just describe the world but to help to create the conditions to change it. The scale of Howard Gardner's contribution can be gauged from following comments in his introduction to the tenth anniversary edition of his classic work Frames of Mind. The theory of multiple intelligences:
In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings initially a blank slate - could be trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers believe precisely the opposite; that there exists a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early 'naive' theories of that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence and its matching domains. (Gardner 1993: xxiii)

One of the main impetuses for this movement has been Howard Gardner's work. He has been, in Smith and Smith's (1994) terms, a paradigm shifter. Howard Gardner has questioned the idea that intelligence is a single entity, that it results from a single factor, and that it can be measured simply via IQ tests. He has also challenged the cognitive development work of Piaget. Bringing forward evidence to show that at any one time a child may be at very different stages for example, in number development and spatial/visual maturation, Howard Gardner has successfully undermined the idea that knowledge at any one particular developmental stage hangs together in a structured whole. In this article we explore Howard Gardner's contribution and the use to which it has been put by educators.
Howard Gardner - a life

Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943. His parents had fled from Nrnberg in Germany in 1938 with their three-year old son, Eric. Just prior to Howard Gardner's birth Eric was killed in a sleighing accident. These two events were not discussed during Gardner's childhood, but were to have a very significant impact upon his thinking and development (Gardner 1989: 22). The opportunities for risky physical activity were limited, and creative and intellectual pursuits encouraged. As Howard began to discover the family's 'secret history' (and Jewish identity) he started to recognize that he was different both from his parents and from his peers. His parents wanted to send Howard to Phillips Academy in Andover Massachusetts - but he refused. Instead he went to a nearby preparatory school in Kingston, Pennsylvania (Wyoming Seminary). Howard Gardner appears to have embraced the opportunities there - and to have elicited the support and interest of some very able teachers. From there he went to Harvard University to study history in readiness for a career in the law. However, he was lucky enough to have Eric Erikson as a tutor. In Howard Gardner's words Erikson probably 'sealed' his ambition to be a scholar (1989: 23). But there were others:

My mind was really opened when I went to Harvard College and had the opportunity to study under individualssuch as psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, sociologist David Riesman, and cognitive psychologist Jerome Brunerwho were creating knowledge about human beings. That helped set me on the course of investigating human nature, particularly how human beings think. (Howard Gardner quoted by Marge Sherer 1999)

Howard Gardner's interest in psychology and the social sciences grew (his senior thesis was on a new California retirement community) and he graduated summa cum laude in 1965. Howard Gardner then went to work for a brief period with Jerome Bruner on the famous MACOS Project ('Man: A course of study'). Bruner's work, especially in The Process of Education (1960) was to make a profound impact, and the questions that the programme asked were to find an echo in Gardner's subsequent interests. During this time he began to read the work of Claude Levi-Strauss and Jean Piaget in more detail. He entered Harvard's doctoral programme in 1966, and in the following year became part of the Project Zero research team on arts education (with which he has remained involved to the present). Howard Gardner completed his PhD in 1971 (his dissertation was on style sensitivity in children). He remained at Harvard. Alongside his work with Project Zero (he now co-directs it with David Perkins) he was a lecturer (1971-1986) and then professor in education (1986- ). His first major book, The Shattered Mind appeared in 1975 and some fifteen have followed. Howard Gardner is currently Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and adjunct professor of neurology at the Boston University School of Medicine. Project Zero provided an environment in which Howard Gardner could begin to explore his interest in human cognition. He proceeded in a very different direction to the dominant discourses associated with Piaget and with psychometric testing. Project Zero developed as a major research centre for education - and provided an intellectual home for a significant grouping of researchers. A key moment came with the establishment of the Project on Human Potential in the late 1970s (funded by Bernard van Leer Foundation) to 'assess the state of scientific knowledge concerning human potential and its realization'. The result was Frames of Mind (1983) Howard Gardner's first full-length statement of his theory of multiple intelligences.
Howard Gardner on multiple intelligences - the initial listing Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He reviewed the literature using eight criteria or 'signs' of an intelligence: Potential isolation by brain damage.

The existence of idiots savants, prodigies and other exceptional individuals. An identifiable core operation or set of operations.

A distinctive development history, along with a definable set of 'end-state' performances. An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility. Support from experimental psychological tasks. Support from psychometric findings. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system. (Howard Gardner 1983: 62-69) Candidates for the title 'an intelligence' had to satisfy a range of these criteria and must include, as a prerequisite, the ability to resolve 'genuine problems or difficulties' (ibid.: 60) within certain cultural settings. Making judgements about this was, however, 'reminiscent more of an artistic judgement than of a scientific assessment' (ibid.: 62). Howard Gardner initially formulated a list of seven intelligences. His listing was provisional. The first two have been typically valued in schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final two are what Howard Gardner called 'personal intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 41-43). Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related. Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others.

Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a welldeveloped interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives. In Frames of Mind Howard Gardner treated the personal intelligences 'as a piece'. Because of their close association in most cultures, they are often linked together. However, he still argues that it makes sense to think of two forms of personal intelligence. Gardner claimed that the seven intelligences rarely operate independently. They are used at the same time and tend to complement each other as people develop skills or solve problems. In essence Howard Gardner argued that he was making two essential claims about multiple intelligences. That:
The theory is an account of human cognition in its fullness. The intelligences provided 'a new definition of human nature, cognitively speaking' (Gardner 1999: 44). Human beings are organisms who possess a basic set of intelligences.

People have a unique blend of intelligences. Howard Gardner argues that the big challenge facing the deployment of human resources 'is how to best take advantage of the uniqueness conferred on us as a species exhibiting several intelligences' (ibid.: 45). These intelligences, according to Howard Gardner, are amoral - they can be put to constructive or destructive use.
The appeal of multiple intelligences to educators

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has not been readily accepted within academic psychology. However, it has met with a strongly positive response from many educators. It has been embraced by a range of educational theorists and, significantly, applied by teachers and policymakers to the problems of schooling. A number of schools in North America have looked to structure curricula according to the intelligences, and to design classrooms and even whole schools to reflect the understandings that Howard Gardner develops. The theory can also be found in use within pre-school, higher, vocational and adult education initiatives. This appeal was not, at first, obvious.
At first blush, this diagnosis would appear to sound a death knell for formal education. It is hard to teach one intelligence; what if there are seven? It is hard to enough to teach even when anything can be taught; what to do if there are distinct limits and strong constraints on human cognition and learning? (Howard Gardner 1993: xxiii)

Howard Gardner responds to his questions by first making the point that psychology does not directly dictate education, 'it merely helps one to understand the conditions within which education takes place'. What is more:
Seven kinds of intelligence would allow seven ways to teach, rather than one. And powerful constraints that exist in the mind can be mobilized to introduce a particular concept (or whole system of thinking) in a way that children are most likely to learn it and least likely to distort it. Paradoxically, constraints can be suggestive and ultimately freeing. (op. cit.)

Mindy L. Kornhaber (2001: 276), a researcher involved with Project Zero, has identified a number of reasons why teachers and policymakers in North America have responded positively to Howard Gardner's presentation of multiple intelligences. Among these are that:
... the theory validates educators' everyday experience: students think and learn in many different ways. It also provides educators with a conceptual framework for organizing and reflecting on curriculum assessment and pedagogical practices. In turn, this reflection has led many educators to develop new approaches that might better meet the needs of the range of learners in their classrooms.

The response to Howard Gardner is paralleled by the adoption of Kolb's model of experiential learning by adult and informal educators. While significant criticism can be made of the formulation (see below) it does provide a useful set of questions and 'rules of thumb' to help educators to think about their practice. The way in which Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has been translated into policy and practice has been very varied. Howard Gardner did not, initially, spell out the implications of his theory for educators in any detail. Subsequently, he has looked more closely at what the theory might mean for schooling practice (e.g. in The Unschooled Mind, Intelligence Reframed, and The Disciplined Mind). From this work three particular aspects of Gardner's thinking need noting here as they allow for hope, and an alternative way of thinking, for those educators who feel out of step with the current, dominant product orientation to curriculum and educational policy. The approach entails: A broad vision of education. All seven intelligences are needed to live life well. Teachers, therefore, need to attend to all intelligences, not just the first two that have been their tradition concern. As Kornhaber (2001: 276) has noted it involves educators opting 'for depth over breadth'. Understanding entails taking knowledge gained in one setting and using it in another. 'Students must have extended opportunities to work on a topic' (op. cit.). Developing local and flexible programmes. Howard Gardner's interest in 'deep understanding', performance, exploration and creativity are not easily accommodated within an orientation to the 'delivery' of a detailed curriculum planned outside of the immediate educational context. 'An "MI setting" can be undone if the curriculum is too rigid or if there is but a single form of assessment' (Gardner 1999: 147). In this respect the educational implications of Howard Gardner's work stands in a direct line from the work of John Dewey.

Looking to morality. 'We must figure out how intelligence and morality can work together', Howard Gardner argues, 'to create a world in which a great variety of people will want to live' (Gardner 1999: 4). While there are considerable benefits to developing understanding in relation to the disciplines, something more is needed.
Are there additional intelligences?

Since Howard Gardner's original listing of the intelligences in Frames of Mind (1983) there has been a great deal of discussion as to other possible candidates for inclusion (or candidates for exclusion). Subsequent research and reflection by Howard Gardner and his colleagues has looked to three particular possibilities: a naturalist intelligence, a spiritual intelligence and an existential intelligence. He has concluded that the first of these 'merits addition to the list of the original seven intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 52).
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value' (ibid.: 48).

The case for inclusion of naturalist intelligence appears pretty straightforward, the position with regard to spiritual intelligence is far more complex. According to Howard Gardner (1999: 59) there are problems, for example, around the 'content' of spiritual intelligence, its privileged but unsubstantiated claims with regard to truth value, 'and the need for it to be partially identified through its effect on other people'. As a result:
It seems more responsible to carve out that area of spirituality closest 'in spirit' to the other intelligences and then, in the sympathetic manner applied to naturalist intelligence, ascertain how this candidate intelligence fares. In doing so, I think it best to put aside the term spiritual, with its manifest and problematic connotations, and to speak instead of an intelligence that explores the nature of existence in its multifarious guises. Thus, an explicit concern with spiritual or religious matters would be one variety - often the most important variety - of an existential intelligence.

Existential intelligence, a concern with 'ultimate issues', is, thus, the next possibility that Howard Gardner considers - and he argues that it 'scores reasonably well on the criteria' (ibid.: 64). However, empirical evidence is sparse - and although a ninth intelligence might be attractive, Howard Gardner is not disposed to add it to the list. 'I find the phenomenon perplexing enough and the distance from the other intelligences vast enough to dictate prudence - at least for now' (ibid.: 66). The final, and obvious, candidate for inclusion in Howard Gardner's list is moral intelligence. In his exploration, he begins by asking whether it is possible to delineate the 'moral domain'. He suggests that it is difficult to come to any consensual definition, but argues that it is possible to come to an understanding that takes exploration forward. Central to a moral domain, Howard Gardner suggests, 'is a concern with those rules, behaviours and

attitudes that govern the sanctity of life - in particular, the sanctity of human life and, in many cases, the sanctity of any other living creatures and the world they inhabit' (ibid.: 70). If we accept the existence of a moral realm is it then possible to speak of moral intelligence? If it 'connotes the adoption of any specific moral code' then Howard Gardner does not find the term moral intelligence acceptable (ibid.: 75). Furthermore, he argues, researchers and writers have not as yet 'captured the essence of the moral domain as an instance of human intelligence' (ibid.: 76).
As I construe it, the central component in the moral realm or domain is a sense of personal agency and personal stake, a realization that one has an irreducible role with respect to other people and that one's behaviour towards others must reflect the results of contextualized analysis and the exercise of one's will.... The fulfilment of key roles certainly requires a range of human intelligences including personal, linguistic, logical and perhaps existential - but it is fundamentally a statement about the kind of person that has developed to be. It is not, in itself, an intelligence. 'Morality' is then properly a statement about personality, individuality, will, character - and, in the happiest cases, about the highest realization of human nature. (ibid.: 77)

So it is, that Howard Gardner has added an eighth intelligence - naturalist intelligence - to his list. He has also opened the door to another possibility - especially that of existential intelligence - but the court is out on that one.
Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences - some issues and problems

There are various criticisms of, and problems around, Howard Gardner's conceptualization of multiple intelligences. Indeed, Gardner himself has listed some of the main issues and his responses (1993: xxiii-xxvii; 1999: 79-114). Here, I want to focus on three key questions that have been raised in debates. (There are plenty of other questions around - but these would seem to be the most persistent): Are the criteria Howard Gardner employs adequate? John White (1997) has argued that there are significant issues around the criteria that Howard Gardner employs. There are questions around the individual criteria, for example, do all intelligences involve symbol systems; how the criteria to be applied; and why these particular criteria are relevant. In respect of the last, and fundamental question, White states that he has not been able to find any answer in Gardner's writings (ibid.: 19). Indeed, Howard Gardner himself has admitted that there is an element of subjective judgement involved. Does Howard Gardner's conceptualization of intelligence hold together? For those researchers and scholars who have traditionally viewed intelligence as, effectively, what is measured by intelligence tests - Howard Gardner's work will always be problematic. They can still point to a substantial tradition of research that demonstrates correlation between different abilities and argue for the existence of a general intelligence factor. Howard Gardner (1993: xxiv) disputes much of the evidence and argues that it is not possible, as yet, to know how far intelligences actually correlate. More recent developments in thinking

around intelligence such as Robert Sternberg's (1985, 1996) advancement of a 'triarchic model' have shared Gardner's dislike of such standard intelligence theory. However, in contrast to Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg does not look strongly at the particular material that the person is processing. Instead he looks to what he calls the componential, experiential and contextual facets of intelligence. A further set of criticisms centre around the specific intelligences that Howard Gardner identified. For example, it can be argued that musical intelligence and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are better approached as talents (they do not normally need to adapt to life demands). Is there sufficient empirical evidence to support Howard Gardner's conceptualization? A common criticism made of Howard Gardner's work is that his theories derive rather more strongly from his own intuitions and reasoning than from a comprehensive and full grounding in empirical research. For the moment there is not a properly worked-through set of tests to identify and measure the different intelligences.
I once thought it possible to create a set of tests of each intelligence - an intelligence-fair version to be sure - and then simply to determine the correlation between the scores on the several tests. I now believe that this can only be accomplished if someone developed several measures for each intelligence and then made sure that people were comfortable in dealing with the materials and methods used to measure each intelligence. (Gardner 1999: 98)

Howard Gardner himself has not pursued this approach because of a more general worry with such testing - that it leads to labelling and stigmatization. It can be argued that research around the functioning of the brain generally continues to support the notion of multiple intelligence (although not necessarily the specifics of Howard Gardner's theory). There are further questions around the notion of selfhood that Howard Gardner employs something that he himself has come to recognize. In the early 1990s he began to look to the notion of distributed cognition as providing a better way of approaching the area than focusing on what goes on in the mind of a single individual (Hatch and Gardner 1993) (see the discussion of social/situational orientations to learning).
Conclusion

While there may be some significant questions and issues around Howard Gardner's notion of multiple intelligences, it still has had utility in education. It has helped a significant number of educators to question their work and to encourage them to look beyond the narrow confines of the dominant discourses of skilling, curriculum, and testing. For example, Mindy Kornhaber and her colleagues at the Project SUMIT (Schools Using Multiple Intelligences Theory) have examined the performance of a number of schools and concluded that there have been significant gains in respect of SATs scores, parental participation, and discipline (with the schools themselves attributing this to MI theory). To the extent that Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences theory has helped educators to reflect on their practice, and given them a basis to broaden their focus and to attend to what might assist people to live their lives well, then it has to be judged a useful addition.

Project SUMIT (2000) uses the metaphor of Compass Points -'routes that educators using the theory have taken and which appear to benefit students'. They have identified the following markers that characterize schools with some success in implementing practices that attend to multiple intelligences theory.
Culture: support for diverse learners and hard work. Acting on a value system which maintains that diverse students can learn and succeed, that learning is exciting, and that hard work by teachers is necessary.

Readiness: awareness-building for implementing MI. Building staff awareness of MI and of the different ways that students learn. Tool: MI is a means to foster high quality work. Using MI as a tool to promote high quality student work rather than using the theory as an end in and of itself. Collaboration: informal and formal exchanges. Sharing ideas and constructive suggestions by the staff in formal and informal exchanges. Choice: meaningful curriculum and assessment options. Embedding curriculum and assessment in activities that are valued both by students and the wider culture. Arts. Employing the arts to develop children's skills and understanding within and across disciplines. Informal educators can usefully look at this listing in respect of their projects and agencies. The multiple intelligences themselves also provide a good focus for reflection. Arguably, informal educators have traditionally been concerned with the domains of the interpersonal and the intrapersonal, with a sprinkling of the intelligences that Howard Gardner identifies with the arts. Looking to naturalist linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences could help enhance their practice.
Further reading and references

The main Howard Gardner writings on multiple intelligences are as follows: Gardner, Howard (1983; 1993) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences, New York: Basic Books. The second edition was published in Britain by Fontana Press. 466 + xxix pages. (All references in this article refer to this second, 10th Anniversary, edition). A major addition to the literature of cognitive psychology being the first full length explication of multiple intelligences. Gardner, Howard (1989) To Open Minds: Chinese clues to the dilemma of contemporary education, New York: Basic Books. This book includes a significant amount of material on Gardner's early life.

Gardner, H. (1991) The Unschooled Mind: How children think and how schools should teach, New York: Basic Books. Gardner, Howard (1999) Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st century, New York: Basic Books. 292 + x pages. Useful review of Gardner's theory and discussion of issues and additions. Gardner, Howard (1999) The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts And Standardized Tests, The K-12 Education That Every Child Deserves, New York: Simon and Schuster (and New York: Penguin Putnam).
References

Brualdi, A, C. (1996) 'Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's Theory. ERIC Digest', Eric Digests, [http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/multiple.htm. Accessed June 15, 2008] Bruner, J (1960) The Process of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Gardner, Howard (1975) The Shattered Mind, New York: Knopf. Gardner, Howard (2006) Changing Minds. The art and science of changing our own and other people's minds. Boston MA.: Harvard Business School Press. Gardner, H., Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Damon, W. (2001) Good Work: Where Excellence and Ethics Meet, New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-9. T. Hatch and H. Gardner (1993) 'Finding cognition in the classroom: an expanded view of human intelligence' in G. Salomon (ed.) Distributed Cognitions. Psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kornhaber, M. L. (2001) 'Howard Gardner' in J. A. Palmer (ed.) Fifty Modern Thinkers on Education. From Piaget to the present, London: Routledge. Project SUMIT (2000) SUMIT Compass Points Practices. [http://pzweb.harvard.edu/Research/SUMIT.htm. Accessed June 15, 2008] Scherer, M. (1999) 'The Understanding Pathway: A Conversation with Howard Gardner', Educational Leadership 57(3) [www.georgejacobs.net/MIArticles/Gardner%20ASCD %201999.doc. Accessed June 15, 2008]. Smith, L. G. and Smith, J. K. (1994) Lives in Education. A narrative of people and ideas 2e, New York: St Martin's Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1985) Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J. (1996) Successful intelligence. New York: Simon & Schuster. White, J. (1998) Do Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences add up? London: Institute of Education, University of London. Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Sternberg, R. J., & Gardner, H. (1996). Practical intelligence for school. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. To cite this article: Smith, Mark K. (2002, 2008) 'Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences', the encyclopedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm. Mark K. Smith 2002, 2008

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What is Multiple Intelligence?

Conceived by Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences are seven different ways to demonstrate intellectual ability.

What are the types of Multiple Intelligence?

Visual/Spatial Intelligence ability to perceive the visual. These learners tend to think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain information. They enjoy looking at maps, charts, pictures, videos, and movies. Their skills include: puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction, sketching, painting, creating visual metaphors and

analogies (perhaps through the visual arts), manipulating images, constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, interpreting visual images. Possible career interests: navigators, sculptors, visual artists, inventors, architects, interior designers, mechanics, engineers Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence ability to use words and language. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and are generally elegant speakers. They think in words rather than pictures. Their skills include: listening, speaking, writing, story telling, explaining, teaching, using humor, understanding the syntax and meaning of words, remembering information, convincing someone of their point of view, analyzing language usage. Possible career interests: Poet, journalist, writer, teacher, lawyer, politician, translator Logical/Mathematical Intelligence ability to use reason, logic and numbers. These learners think conceptually in logical and numerical patterns making connections between pieces of information. Always curious about the world around them, these learner ask lots of questions and like to do experiments. Their skills include: problem solving, classifying and categorizing information, working with abstract concepts to figure out the relationship of each to the other, handling long chains of reason to make local progressions, doing controlled experiments, questioning and wondering about natural events, performing complex mathematical calculations, working with geometric shapes Possible career paths: Scientists, engineers, computer programmers, researchers, accountants, mathematicians Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence

ability to control body movements and handle objects skillfully. These learners express themselves through movement. They have a good sense of balance and eye-hand co-ordination. (e.g. ball play, balancing beams). Through interacting with the space around them, they are able to remember and process information. Their skills include: dancing, physical co-ordination, sports, hands on experimentation, using body language, crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build, expressing emotions through the body Possible career paths: Athletes, physical education teachers, dancers, actors, firefighters, artisans Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence ability to produce and appreciate music. These musically inclined learners think in sounds, rhythms and patterns. They immediately respond to music either appreciating or criticizing what they hear. Many of these learners are extremely sensitive to environmental sounds (e.g. crickets, bells, dripping taps). Their skills include: singing, whistling, playing musical instruments, recognizing tonal patterns, composing music, remembering melodies, understanding the structure and rhythm of music Possible career paths: musician, disc jockey, singer, composer Interpersonal Intelligence ability to relate and understand others. These learners try to see things from other people's point of view in order to understand how they think and feel. They often have an uncanny ability to sense feelings, intentions and motivations. They are great organizers, although they sometimes resort to manipulation. Generally they try to maintain peace in group settings and encourage co-operation.They use both verbal (e.g. speaking) and non-verbal language (e.g. eye contact, body language) to open communication channels with others. Their skills include:

seeing things from other perspectives (dual-perspective), listening, using empathy, understanding other people's moods and feelings, counseling, cooperating with groups, noticing people's moods, motivations and intentions, communicating both verbally and non-verbally, building trust, peaceful conflict resolution, establishing positive relations with other people. Possible Career Paths: Counselor, salesperson, politician, business person Intrapersonal Intelligence ability to self-reflect and be aware of one's inner state of being. These learners try to understand their inner feelings, dreams, relationships with others, and strengths and weaknesses. Their Skills include: Recognizing their own strengths and weaknesses, reflecting and analyzing themselves, awareness of their inner feelings, desires and dreams, evaluating their thinking patterns, reasoning with themselves, understanding their role in relationship to others

click here to take your learning styles test

Information about learning styles and Multiple Intelligence (MI) is helpful for everyone especially for people with learning disabilities and Attention Deficit Disorder. Knowing your learning style will help develop coping strategies to compensate for your weaknesses and capitalize on your strengths. Thi page provides an explanation of what learning styles and multiple intelligence are all about, an intera assessment of your learning style/MI, and practical tips to make your learning style work for you. For ease of use, the page has been divided into six categories:

Learning Styles Explained Multiple Intelligences Explained What are learning styles? Types of learning styles

What is Multiple Intelligence? Types of multi Intelligence

Interactive Multiple Intelligence Test What is your dominant Intelligence?

Interactive Learning Styles Test What is your learning style?

Learning Styles/MI Links Making Your Learning Style Work for You... Practical tips on how to use your learning styles to help you learn Web Pages

Learning Styles Explained

Please Pick a topic:
What are learning Styles? What are the types of learning styles? Visual Learners Auditory Learners

What are Multiple Intelligences? What are Multiple Intelligences? | Take a Test | Results | Notes It has been claimed by some researchers that our intelligence or ability to understand the world around us is complex. Some people are better at understanding some things than others. For some of us it is relatively easy to understand how a flower grows but it is immensely difficult for us to understand and use a musical instrument. For others music might be easy but playing football is difficult. Instead of having one intelligence it is claimed that we have several different intelligences. These are listed below: Kinaesthetic - Body Smart Linguistic - Word Smart Logical - Number Smart Interpersonal - People Smart Intrapersonal - Myself Smart Musical - Music Smart Visual/Spatial - Picture Smart Naturalistic - Nature Smart What special intelligences do you have? You can find out by answering a few simple questions.

Kinaesthetic - Body Smart back to top You may be body smart. You will enjoy sports and are good at swimming, athletics, gymnastics and other sports. This is sometimes called being Kinaesthetic smart. Linguistic - Word Smart back to top You may be word smart. You will enjoy reading, writing and talking about things. This is sometimes called being Linguistic smart. Logical - Number Smart back to top You may be number smart. You will be good at mathematics and other number activities; you are also good at solving problems. This is sometimes called being Logical smart. Interpersonal - People Smart back to top You may be people smart. You will like to mix with other people and you will belong to lots of clubs. You like team games and are good at sharing. This is sometimes called being Interpersonal smart. Intrapersonal - Myself Smart back to top You may be myself smart. You will know about yourself and your strengths and weaknesses. You will probably keep a diary. This is sometimes called being Intrapersonal smart.

Musical - Music Smart back to top You may be music smart. You will enjoy music and can recognise sounds, and timbre, or the quality of a tone. This is sometimes called being Musical smart. Visual/Spatial - Picture Smart back to top You may be picture smart. You will be good at art and also good at other activities where you look at pictures like map reading, finding your way out of mazes and graphs. This is sometimes called being Visual/Spatial smart. Naturalistic - Nature Smart back to top You may be nature smart. You will like the world of plants and animals and enjoy learning about them. This is sometimes called being Naturalistic smart.

Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:

Linguistic intelligence ("word smart") Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts dont receive much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning arent addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom. The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more (see Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom). The good news is that the theory of multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates children. The bad news is that there are thousands of schools still out there that

teach in the same old dull way, through dry lectures, and boring worksheets and textbooks. The challenge is to get this information out to many more teachers, school administrators, and others who work with children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in ways harmonious with their unique minds (see In Their Own Way). The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much happier in a job where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist). The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other programs of selfdevelopment (see 7 Kinds of Smart). How to Teach or Learn Anything 8 Different Ways One of the most remarkable features of the theory of multiple intelligences is how it provides eight different potential pathways to learning. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligences suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning. Whether you are a kindergarten teacher, a graduate school instructor, or an adult learner seeking better ways of pursuing self-study on any subject of interest, the same basic guidelines apply. Whatever you are teaching or learning, see how you might connect it with

words (linguistic intelligence) numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence) pictures (spatial intelligence) music (musical intelligence) self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence) a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence) a social experience (interpersonal intelligence), and/or an experience in the natural world. (naturalist intelligence)

For example, if youre teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics, you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when there's very little supply, your stomach's demand for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan's "Too Much of Nothing?"). You dont have to teach or learn something in all eight ways, just see what the possibilities are, and then decide which particular pathways interest you the most, or seem to be the most

effective teaching or learning tools. The theory of multiple intelligences is so intriguing because it expands our horizon of available teaching/learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical methods used in most schools (e.g. lecture, textbooks, writing assignments, formulas, etc.). To get started, put the topic of whatever youre interested in teaching or learning about in the center of a blank sheet of paper, and draw eight straight lines or "spokes" radiating out from this topic. Label each line with a different intelligence. Then start brainstorming ideas for teaching or learning that topic and write down ideas next to each intelligence (this is a spatial-linguistic approach of brainstorming; you might want to do this in other ways as well, using a tape-recorder, having a group brainstorming session, etc.). Have fun! Resources

Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom 3rd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2009. Armstrong, Thomas. 7 Kinds of Smart: Identifying and Developing Your Many Intelligences. New York: Plume, 1999. Armstrong, Thomas. In Their Own Way: Discovering and Encouraging Your Child's Personal Learning Style, New York: Tarcher/Putnam, 1987. Armstrong, Thomas. Youre Smarter Than You Think: A Kids Guide to Multiple Intelligences. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit, 2002. Armstrong, Thomas. The Multiple Intelligences of Reading and Writing: Making the Words Come Alive. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2003. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Multiple Intelligences CD-ROM, and Multiple Intelligences Video Series; 1250 N. Pitt St., Alexandria, VA 22314-1453 (800-933-2723). Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic,1983 Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic, 1993. Gardner, Howard. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic, 2000. National Professional Resources, 25 South Regent St., Port Chester, NY 10573, 914937-8879. Producer of several videos on MI including, Howard Gardner, "How Are Kids Smart?" Jo Gusman, "MI and the Second Language Learner", and Thomas Armstrong, Multiple Intelligences: Discovering the Giftedness in All". New City School, Celebrating Multiple Intelligences ( 5209 Waterman Ave., St. Louis, MO 63108). Skylight Publications, 200 E. Wood St., Suite 250, Palatine, IL 60067 (div. Simon and Schuster). Publisher of many MI materials. Zephyr Press, PO Box 66006, Tucson, AZ 85728 (602-322-5090). Publisher of many MI materials.

Click Here To Schedule a Speaking Engagement with Dr. Armstrong

Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains." Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logicalquantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means." The learning styles are as follows: Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs. Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects. Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.

Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail. Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners. Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture. Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details. At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning styles, it becomes apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more effective. It satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may embody or that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of decisions must be made when choosing media that is appropriate to learning style. Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient. Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective objectives; several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to be learned. Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as music. Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound recognition. Audio narration is recommended for poor readers. Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement visuals. Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the movement. Several models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides

decision aid questions based upon objectives. Visual media which portray motion are best to show psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by showing the skill as a model against which students can measure their performance. Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is being learned. Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach motor and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use with individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to present information realistically but it may be equally important that the presentation corresponds with the way learner's represent information internally. Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in a home or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print instruction should be delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner to set the learning pace. The ability to provide corrective feedback for individual learners is important but any medium can provide corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to allow comparison of the two answers. Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media may be differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had limited success in identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several models are based on this method. Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed good readers can control the pace; and print allows easier review. Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills, verbal information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and media capable of presenting the stimuli. Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning processes are called events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned before selecting the media to present it. Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices the task which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed, and select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral approach so that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide feedback about the student's response, an interactive medium might be

chosen, but any medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such as error proneness and anxiety should influence media selection. Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and can be used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.

howard gardner's multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theories model, free multiple intelligences tests, and VAK learning styles
The Multiple Intelligences concepts and VAK (or VARK or VACT) learning styles models offer relatively simple and accessible methods to understand and explain people's preferred ways to learn and develop. Occasionally well-intentioned people will write that the use of such models and tests is wrong because it 'pigeon-holes' people, and ignores the point that we are all a mixture of styles and preferences, and not just one single type, which is true. Please remember that over-reliance on, or extreme interpretation of, any methodology or tool can be counter-productive. In the case of the Multiple Intelligences model, and arguably to greater extent VAK (because VAK is such a simple model), remember that these concepts and tools are aids to understanding overall personality, preferences and strengths - which will almost always be a mixture in each individual person. Therefore, as with any methodology or tool, use Multiple Intelligences concepts, VAK and other learning styles ideas with care and interpretation according to the needs of the situation. In addition to the VAK guide below, further VAK detail and VAK tests are available on the VAK tests page.

multiple intelligences theory

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory was first published in Howard Gardner's book, Frames Of Mind (1983), and quickly became established as a classical model by which to understand and teach many aspects of human intelligence, learning style, personality and behaviour - in education and industry. Howard Gardner initially developed his ideas and theory on multiple intelligences as a contribution to psychology, however Gardner's theory was soon embraced by education, teaching and training communities, for whom the appeal was immediate and irresistible - a sure sign that Gardner had created a classic reference work and learning model.

Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania USA in 1943 to German Jewish immigrant parents, and entered Harvard in 1961, where, after Gardner's shift from history into social relations (which included psychology, sociology, and anthropology) he met his early mentor Erik Erikson. Later Gardner was also influenced by psychologists Jeane Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and philosopher Nelson Goodman, with whom Gardner co-founded 'Project Zero' in 1967 (focusing on studies of artistic thought and creativity). Project Zero's 1970's 'Project on Human Potential', whose heady aim was to address 'the state of scientific knowledge concerning human potential and its realization', seems to have been the platform from which Gardner's multiple intelligences ideas grew, and were subsequently published in Gardner's Frames Of Mind 1983 book. A wonderful example of 'thinking big' if ever there was one. At time I write this summary (Apr 2005) Howard Gardner is the John H and Elisabeth A Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education; he serves as adjunct Professor at Harvard University, Boston University School of Medicine, and remains senior director of Harvard Project Zero. Gardner has received honorary degrees from at least twenty foreign institutions, and has written over twenty highly regarded books on the human mind, learning and behaviour. How ironic then that Gardner, who has contributed so much to the understanding of people and behaviour, was born (according to his brief auto-biographical paper 'One Way To Make Social Scientist', 2003), cross-eyed, myopic, colour-blind and unable to recognise faces. There's hope for us all.

howard gardner's multiple intelligences theory

This simple grid diagram illustrates Howard Gardner's model of the seven Multiple Intelligences at a glance.
intelligence type Linguistic LogicalMathematical Musical BodilyKinesthetic Spatial-Visual Interpersonal capability and perception words and language logic and numbers music, sound, rhythm body movement control images and space other people's feelings

Intrapersonal

self-awareness

Free multiple intelligences tests based on Howard Gardner's model are available below in MSExcel self-calculating format, manual versions in MSExcel and pdf, and manual test versions for young people.

Gardner said that multiple intelligences were not limited to the original seven, and he has since considered the existence and definitions of other possible intelligences in his later work. Despite this, Gardner seems to have stopped short of adding to the seven (some might argue, with the exception of Naturalist Intelligence) with any clearly and fully detailed additional intelligence definitions. This is not because there are no more intelligences - it is because of the difficulty of adequately and satisfactorily defining them, since the additional intelligences are rather more complex than those already evidenced and defined. Not surprisingly, commentators and theorists continually debate and interpret potential additions to the model, and this is why you might see more than seven intelligences listed in recent interpretations of Gardner's model. As mentioned above, Naturalist Intelligence seems most popularly considered worthy of inclusion of the potential additional 'Gardner' intelligences.

gardner's suggested possible additional intelligences

intelligence type Naturalist capability and perception natural environment

Spiritual/Exist religion and 'ultimate ential issues' Moral ethics, humanity, value of life

If you think about the items above it's easy to see why Gardner and his followers have found it quite difficult to augment the original seven intelligences. The original seven are relatively cut and dried; the seven intelligences are measurable, we know what they are, what they mean, and we can evidence or illustrate them. However the potential additional human capabilities, perceptions and attunements, are highly subjective and complex, and arguably

contain many overlapping aspects. Also, the fact that these additional intelligences could be deemed a measure of good or bad poses extra questions as to their inclusion in what is otherwise a model which has hitherto made no such judgement (good or bad, that is - it's a long sentence...).

gardner's multiple intelligences - detail

The more detailed diagram below expands the detail for the original seven intelligences shown above, and also suggests ideas for applying the model and underpinning theories, so as to optimise learning and training, design accelerated learning methods, and to assess training and learning suitability and effectiveness.
intelligenc description e type 1Linguistic words and language, written and spoken; retention, interpretation and explanation of ideas and information via language, understands relationship between communication and meaning 2Logicallogical Mathematithinking, cal detecting patterns, scientific reasoning and deduction; analyse problems, perform related tasks, preferred activities or learning style tests clues

typical roles

writers, lawyers, write a set of words and journalists, instructions; language speakers, trainers, speak on a copy-writers, subject; edit a english teachers, written piece or poets, editors, work; write a linguists, speech; translators, PR commentate on consultants, an event; apply media positive or consultants, TV negative 'spin' and radio to a story presenters, voiceover artistes scientists, perform a engineers, mental computer experts, arithmetic accountants, calculation; statisticians, create a researchers, process to analysts, traders, measure bankers something bookmakers, difficult; insurance brokers, analyse how a numbers and logic

mathematical negotiators, deal- machine works; calculations, makers, trouble- create a understands shooters, directors process; devise relationship a strategy to between cause achieve an aim; and effect assess the towards a value of a tangible outcome business or a or result proposition 3Musical musical ability, awareness, appreciation and use of sound; recognition of tonal and rhythmic patterns, understands relationship between sound and feeling musicians, singers, composers, DJ's, music producers, piano tuners, acoustic engineers, entertainers, party-planners, environment and noise advisors, voice coaches perform a music, sounds, musical piece; rhythm sing a song; review a musical work; coach someone to play a musical instrument; specify mood music for telephone systems and receptions

4Bodilybody Kinestheti movement c control, manual dexterity, physical agility and balance; eye and body coordination

dancers, juggle; physical demonstrators, demonstrate a experience and actors, athletes, sports movement, divers, sportstechnique; flip a touch and feel people, soldiers, beer-mat; fire-fighters, PTI's, create a mime performance to explain artistes; something; toss ergonomists, a pancake; fly a osteopaths, kite; coach fishermen, drivers,workplace crafts-people; posture, assess gardeners, chefs, work-station acupuncturists, ergonomics healers, adventurers artists, designers, design a cartoonists, story- costume; pictures, shapes,

5SpatialVisual

visual and spatial

perception; interpretation and creation of visual images; pictorial imagination and expression; understands relationship between images and meanings, and between space and effect 6Interperso perception of nal other people's feelings; ability to relate to others; interpretation of behaviour and communications; understands the relationships between people and their situations, including other people

boarders, architects, photographers, sculptors, townplanners, visionaries, inventors, engineers, cosmetics and beauty consultants

interpret a images, 3D painting; create space a room layout; create a corporate logo; design a building; pack a suitcase or the boot of a car

therapists, HR interpret moods human contact, professionals, from facial communication mediators, expressions; s, cooperation, leaders, demonstrate teamwork counsellors, feelings through politicians, body language; eductors, sales- affect the people, clergy, feelings of psychologists, others in a teachers, doctors, planned way; healers, coach or organisers, carers, counsel another advertising person professionals, coaches and mentors; (there is clear association between this type of intelligence and what is now termed 'Emotional Intelligence' or EQ) self-reflection, self-discovery

7Intraperso self-awareness, arguably anyone consider and nal personal (see note below) decide one's cognisance, who is self-aware own aims and personal and involved in personal objectivity, the the process of changes capability to changing personal required to

understand oneself, one's relationship to others and the world, and one's own need for, and reaction to change

thoughts, beliefs achieve them and behaviour in (not necessarily relation to their reveal this to situation, other others); people, their consider one's purpose and aims own 'Johari - in this respect Window', and there is a decide options similarity to for Maslow's Selfdevelopment; Actualisation consider and level, and again decide one's there is clear own position in association relation to the between this type Emotional of intelligence and Intelligence what is now model termed 'Emotional Intelligence' or EQ

Roles and intrapersonal intelligence: Given that a 'role' tends to imply external style/skills, engagement, etc., the intrapersonal ability is less liable to define or suggest a certain role or range of roles than any of the other characteristics. That said, there is a clear correlation between intrapersonal ability/potential and introverted non-judgemental roles/working styles. Intrapersonal capability might also be seen as the opposite of ego and self-projection. Selfawareness is a prerequisite for self-discipline and self-improvement. Intrapersonal capacity enables an emotionally mature ('grown-up') response to external and internal stimuli. The intrapersonal characteristic might therefore be found among (but most definitely not extending to all) counsellors, helpers, translators, teachers, actors, poets, writers, musicians, artists, and also any other role to which people can bring emotional maturity, which commonly manifests as adaptability, flexibility, facilitation, reflection, and other 'grown-up' behaviours. There are also associations between intrapersonal capacity and Erikson's 'generative' perspective, and to an extent Maslow's self-actualization, that is to say: both of these 'life-stages' surely demand a reasonably strong level of self-awareness, without which adapting one's personal life, outlook and responses to one's environment is not easy at all.

multiple intelligences tests

free Multiple Intelligences test (based on Howard Gardner's model) - in MSExcel selfcalculating format, and other versions: free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test in MSExcel

free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test in pdf format free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test for young people in MSExcel free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test for young people in pdf format Multiple Intelligences descriptions - pdf format If you are using a test to help people identify and develop unique personal potential, especially for young people, try using the test in conjunction with the Fantasticat idea.

gardner's multiple intelligences - principles and interpretation

Howard Gardner asserts certain principles relating to his multiple intelligence theory, which are explained and interpreted here, along with implications and examples: The multiple intelligences theory represented/represents a definition of human nature, from a cognitive perspective, ie., how we perceive; how we are aware of things. This provides absolutely pivotal and inescapable indication as to people's preferred learning styles, as well as their behavioural and working styles, and their natural strengths. The types of intelligence that a person possesses (Gardner suggests most of us are strong in three types) indicates not only a persons capabilities, but also the manner or method in which they prefer to learn and develop their strengths - and also to develop their weaknesses. So for example:

A person who is strong musically and weak numerically will be more likely to develop numerical and logical skills through music, and not by being bombarded by numbers alone. A person who is weak spatially and strong numerically, will be more likely to develop spatial ability if it is explained and developed by using numbers and logic, and not by asking them to pack a suitcase in front of an audience. A person who is weak bodily and physically and strong numerically might best be encouraged to increase their physical activity by encouraging them to learn about the mathematical and scientific relationships between exercise, diet and health, rather than forcing them to box or play rugby.

The pressure of possible failure and being forced to act and think unnaturally, have a significant negative influence on learning effectiveness. Happy relaxed people learn more readily than unhappy stressful people.

A person's strength is also a learning channel. A person's weakness is not a great learning channel. Simple huh? When you add in what we know about personal belief and confidence it all begins to make even more sense. Develop people through their strengths and we not only stimulate their development - we also make them happy (because everyone enjoys working in their strength areas) - and we also grow their confidence and lift their belief (because they see they are doing well, and they get told they are doing well too). Developing a person's strengths will increase their response to the learning experience, which helps them to develop their weaknesses as well as their strengths. Having illustrated that sensible use of a person's natural strengths and types of intelligence is a good thing it's important to point out that intelligence in itself is not a measure of good or bad, nor of happy or sad. The different intelligences - in Gardner's context (and normally in most other interpretations and definitions of the term) - are not a measure or reflection of emotion type. Intelligences are emotionally neutral. No type of intelligence is in itself an expression of happiness or sadness; nor an expression of feeling good or good or bad. In the same way, the multiple intelligences are morally neutral too. No type of intelligence is intrinsically right or wrong. In other words intelligences are amoral, that is, neither moral nor immoral - irrespective of a person's blend of intelligences. Intelligences are separate to the good or bad purposes to which people apply whatever intelligences they possess and use. Intelligences are not in themselves good or bad. The types of intelligences that a person possesses are in themselves no indication or reflection - whatsoever - of whether the person is good or bad; happy or sad, right or wrong. People possess a set of intelligences - not just one type and level of intelligence. This was a primary driver of Gardner's thinking; the fact, or assertion, that intelligence is not a single scalable aspect of a person's style and capability. Historically, and amazingly a perception that still persists among many people and institutions and systems today, intelligence was/is thought to be measurable on a single scale: a person could be judged - supposedly - to have a high or low or average intelligence; or a person would be considered 'intelligent or 'unintelligent'. Gardener has demonstrated that this notion is ridiculous. Intelligence is a mixture of several abilities (Gardner explains seven intelligences, and alludes to others) that are all of great value in life. But nobody's good at them all. In life we need people who collectively are good at different things. A well-balanced world, and wellbalanced organisations and teams, are necessarily comprised of people who possess different mixtures of intelligences. This gives the group a fuller collective capability than a group of identically able specialists.

Incredibly many schools, teachers, and entire education systems, persist in the view that a child is either intelligent or not, and moreover that the 'intelligent' kids are 'good' and the 'unintelligent' kids are 'bad'. Worse still many children grow up being told that they are not intelligent and are therefore not of great worth; (the "you'll never amount to anything" syndrome is everywhere). Schools aren't the only organisations which, despite all that Gardner has taught us, commonly still apply their own criteria (for example IQ - 'Intelligence Quotient' - tests) to judge 'intelligence', and then label the candidate either worthy or not. Adult people in work in organisations and business are routinely judged by inappropriate criteria, and then written off as being worthless by the employer. This type of faulty assessment is common during recruitment, ongoing management, and matters of career development and performance review. The fact is that we are all intelligent in different ways. The most brilliant scientific professor may well have exceptional intelligence in a number of areas (probably Logical-Mathematical, and one or two others) but will also be less able in other intelligences, and could well be inept in some. By the same token a person who struggles with language and numbers might easily be an excellent sportsman, or musician, or artist. A hopeless academic, who is tone-deaf and can't add up, could easily possess remarkable interpersonal skills. Many very successful business-people were judged to be failures at school. They were of course judged according to a very narrow definition of what constitutes intelligence. Many very successful and fulfilled people in life were also judged to be failures at school brilliant scientists, leaders, writers, entertainers, sports-people, soldiers, humanitarians, healers, religious and political leaders - all sorts of happy, fulfilled remarkable people - they too were judged according to a very narrow definition of what constitutes intelligence. Each one of us has a unique and different mix of intelligence types, and commonly the people with the least 'conventional' intelligence (as measured using old-fashioned narrow criteria), actually possess enormous talent - often under-valued, unknown and under-developed. Gardner, and others of course, pointed out that managing people and organising a unique mixture of intelligence types is a hugely challenging affair. It starts however with the recognition that people have abilities and potential that extend far beyond traditional methods of assessment, and actually far beyond Gardner's seven intelligences, which after all are only a starting point.

Gardner was one of the first to teach us that we should not judge and develop people (especially children, young people, and people at the beginnings of their careers) according to an arbitrary and narrow definition of intelligence. We must instead rediscover and promote the vast range of capabilities that have a value in life and organisations, and then set about valuing people for who they are, what they can be, and helping them to grow and fulfil their potential.

other intelligences and models

Gardner said from the beginning that there could be additional intelligences worthy of inclusion within the model, and I certainly agree. Notably Gardner discussed Naturalist Intelligence (perception of and relationship with the natural environment); Spiritual or Existential Intelligence (as would concern one's relationship with the universe or God, depending on one's personal philosophy); and Moral Intelligence (one's relationship with other living things and their well-being). Thus the model is extendable to modern ideas beyond those listed in the seven basic intelligences. As already discussed, defining additional intelligences is not easy. But they do exist, and people do possess capabilities, potential and values far beyond the seven original 'multiple intelligences'. Gardner knew - as we can now see - that his multiple intelligences theory left some room to grow, however, while so many are still stuck on IQ and the 'Three R's' (the hackneyed 'Reading Writing and Arithmetic' - I ask you - how can so many buy into a framework that has so effortlessly assumed such a ridiculous description?...), the seven intelligences are a bloody good first step towards valuing and developing people in a more compassionate and constructive way. If first we concentrate on encouraging schools and industry to think beyond IQ and the bleeding three R's - then perhaps soon we'll be ready for morality and spiritualism.

VAK - visual, auditory, kinesthetic learning styles model

The VAK (or VARK or VACT) learning styles model and related VAK/VARK/VACT tests (and for that matter the Multiple Intelligences concepts) offer reasonably simple and accessible methods to understand and explain people's preferred ways to learn. Occasionally well-intentioned people will write that the use of such models and tests can be problematical. This is true of course of any tool if undue reliance is placed on the methodology, or if the results of tests are treated as absolute and exclusive of other styles and considerations in the overall mix of a person's personality and needs.

As with any methodology or tool, use VAK and other learning styles concepts with care. The concepts are an aid, not a dogma to be followed and applied rigidly. In addition to the VAK guide below, further VAK detail and VAK tests are available on the VAK tests page. The explanation and understanding of Gardner's Seven Intelligences can be further illuminated and illustrated by looking at another classical intelligence and learning styles model, known as the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic (or Kinaesthetic - either is correct) learning styles model or 'inventory', usually abbreviated to VAK. Alternatively the model is referred to as Visual-Auditory-Physical, or Visual-Auditory-Tactile/Kinesthetic. The VAK concept, theories and methods (initially also referred to as VAKT, for Visual-AuditoryKinesthetic-Tactile) were first developed by psychologists and teaching specialists such as Fernald, Keller, Orton, Gillingham, Stillman and Montessori, beginning in the 1920's. The VAK multi-sensory approach to learning and teaching was originally concerned with the teaching of dyslexic children and other learners for whom conventional teaching methods were not effective. The early VAK specialists recognised that people learn in different ways: as a very simple example, a child who could not easily learn words and letters by reading (visually) might for instance learn more easily by tracing letter shapes with their finger (kinesthetic). The VAK theory is a favourite of the accelerated learning community, and continues to feature - although not nearly as strongly as it should do - in the teaching and education of young people. The Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic learning styles model does not overlay Gardner's multiple intelligences; rather the VAK model provides a different perspective for understanding and explaining a person's preferred or dominant thinking and learning style, and strengths. Gardner's theory is one way of looking at thinking styles; VAK is another.
learning style Visual Auditory description seeing and reading listening and speaking

Kinesthetitouching and c doing

According to the VAK model, most people possess a dominant or preferred learning style, however some people have a mixed and evenly balanced blend of the three styles.

A person's learning style is a reflection of their mix of intelligences. It is also a reflection of their brain type and dominance, for which a wonderful perspective is provided by Katherine Benziger's brain dominance model. It is also helpful to look at Kolb's learning styles model.

vak visual-auditory-kinesthetic learning styles

The VAK learning styles model provides a very easy and quick reference inventory by which to assess people's preferred learning styles, and then most importantly, to design learning methods and experiences that match people's preferences: Visual learning style involves the use of seen or observed things, including pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films, flip-chart, etc. Auditory learning style involves the transfer of information through listening: to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises. Kinesthetic learning involves physical experience - touching, feeling, holding, doing, practical hands-on experiences. The word 'kinesthetic' describes the sense of using muscular movement - physical sense in other words. Kinesthesia and kinesthesis are root words, derived from the Greek kineo, meaning move, and aisthesis, meaning sensation. Kinesthetic therefore describes a learning style which involves the stimulation of nerves in the body's muscles, joints and tendons. This relates to the colloquial expression 'touchy-feely'. It is easy to begin to assess your own or another person's learning style within the VisualAuditory-Kinesthetic model.

vak visual-auditory-kinesthetic learning styles indicators and quick free test

Here are some common indicators, which can be converted into a questionnaire very easily. Ask the person to score each statement and then total each column to indicate learning style dominance. There are no right and wrong answers. See also the longer version free VAK learning styles test.
visual operate new equipment read instructions auditory listen to explanation kinesthetic/physical/tactile have a go

travel directions look at a map cook a new dish follow a recipe teach someone write something instructions you'd say.. you'd say.. you'd say.. faulty goods leisure buying gifts shopping choose a holiday choose a new car

ask for spoken directions call a friend for explanation explain verbally

follow your nose and maybe use a compass follow your instinct, tasting as you cook demonstrate and let them have a go

I see what you I hear what you are I know how you feel mean saying show me tell me let me try you have a go send or take it back to the store playing sport or DIY tools and gadgets try on and test

watch how I dolisten to me it explain write a letter phone

museums and music and galleries conversation books look and imagine read the brochures read the reviews music discuss with shop staff

listen to imagine the experience recommendations discuss with friends test-drive what you fancy

You can use this grid as a simple learning style indicator questionnaire - for example score each box out of five or ten and then put the total for each column in the boxes below. The totals will indicate your relative learning style preference and mix. There are no right or wrong answers.
totals indicate preferred learning style(s)

See also the longer version free VAK learning styles test questionnaire, including assessment and scoring instructions.

vark and vact learning styles models

Consistent with many other classical models and theories (for example Tuckman's Forming Norming etc., Conscious Competence learning stages model, and others), certain people have chosen to augment the VAK model. This has been done by the addition of R for 'Reading'. Or by the addition of T for 'Tactile'. Accordingly you may see the VAK model represented in this elongated VARK or VACT forms. You might even see it expressed as VARKT, combining the two variations. I leave it to you to decide whether it's worth introducing these fourth and/or fifth elements to what is otherwise an adequate and nicely balanced model, in which the Visual style arguably (and many would suggest, certainly) covers a person's preference towards absorbing via the written or printed word, which is obviously a visual sensory activity, and in which the Kinesthethic style arguably encompasses a preference for tactile experiences (touching and holding things), because this is obviously a sensory activity related to muscular movement and sensation (see the definition of Kinesthetic above). It's up to you. As ever, use these models and theories in ways that suit your purposes. Apply your own judgement and interpretation so that you get the best out of them, and where possible even improve and adapt them for your own situation. As the quote says, "A dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than the giant himself" (Didacus Stella, circa AD60). Also relevant to the subject of intelligence, particularly the fact that 'intelligence', however it is defined, is never as important as the way we use our brains, and make the best of ourselves: "Many highly intelligent people are poor thinkers. Many people of average intelligence are skilled thinkers. The power of a car is separate from the way a car is driven." (Edward de Bono, b.1933, British psychologist, writer and expert on thinking.) (More inspirational quotes.)

Relevant publications and references: One Way To Make Social Scientist - Howard Gardner, 2003 Multiple Intelligences: Theory in practice - Howard Gardner, 1993

Frames of Mind: Theory of multiple intelligences - Howard Gardner, 1983 Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century - Howard Gardner, 1999 Leading Minds: An anatomy of leadership - Howard Gardner, 1995 The Shattered Mind - Howard Gardner, 1975 Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences - Mark Smith, 2005 (Encyclopedia of Informal Education, www.infed.org)

see also

Free multiple intelligences test - based on this Gardner model - in MSExcel self-calculating format, or manual MI test version, or manual MI test version for young people Free VAK learning styles test - long version VAK questionnaire and links to VAK tests in MSWord and pdf Erik Erikson's Life Stages Theory Love and Spirituality in Management and Business - bringing compassion and humanity to work Personality Styles and Models Kolb's Learning Styles Kirkpatrick's Learning Evaluation Model Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains (Educational Objectives) 360 degree appraisals tips Employment termination, dismissal, redundancy, letters templates and style Exit interviews, questions examples, tips Grievance procedures letters samples for employees Group selection recruitment method Induction training checklist, template and tips Job interviews - tips, techniques, questions, answers Job descriptions, writing templates and examples Performance appraisals - process and appraisals form template Team briefing process Training evaluation processes Training and developing people - how to

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What is the theory of multiple intelligences (M.I.)?

Howard Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened, or ignored and weakened. He believes each individual has nine intelligences: Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence -- well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words Mathematical-Logical Intelligence -- ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns Musical Intelligence -- ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber Visual-Spatial Intelligence -- capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence -- ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully Interpersonal Intelligence -- capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others. Intrapersonal Intelligence -- capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes Naturalist Intelligence -- ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature Existential Intelligence -- sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.

Howard Gardner1 defined the first seven intelligences in FRAMES OF MIND (1983). He added the last two in INTELLIGENCE REFRAMED (1999). Gardner is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University's Graduate School of Education, as well as Co-Director of Harvard Project Zero. 1. Based on his study of many people from many different walks of life in everyday circumstances and professions, Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences. He performed interviews with and brain research on hundreds of people, including stroke victims, prodigies, autistic individuals, and so-called "idiot savants." According to Gardner,

All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying amounts. Each person has a different intellectual composition. We can improve education by addressing the multiple intelligences of our students. These intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either work independently or together. These intelligences may define the human species.

To help understand how you learn best, take this short Multiple Intelligences Self-Inventory. There are just a few questions to answer, which should take approximately five minutes to complete. How does this theory differ from the traditional definition of intelligence? Gardner's multiple intelligences theory challenged traditional beliefs in the fields of education and cognitive science. According to a traditional definition, intelligence is a uniform cognitive capacity people are born with. This capacity can be easily measured by short-answer tests. According to Howard Gardner, intelligence is:

The ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture; A set of skills that make it possible for a person to solve problems in life; The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves gathering new knowledge.

An educational system based on national standards and efficient, relatively cheap, universal multiple choice testing is central to the traditional concept of intelligence. In practice a student's score on an I.Q.2 test or WISC3 ranks his or her strengths and weaknesses. It qualifies students for special services (such as programs for the gifted or for those with learning disabilities). An unfortunate use of IQ tests in schools is that it often results in labeling students. 2. 3.

Many educators, researchers, students and parents have long rejected multiple choice testing as a measure of intelligence. Multiple intelligence theory has served as a rallying point for a reconsideration of the educational practice of the last century.

Intelligence can be measured by short-answer tests: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient

Assessment of an individual's multiple intelligences can foster learning and problem-solving styles. Short answer tests are not used

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISCIV) Woodcock Johnson test of Cognitive Ability Scholastic Aptitude Test

because they do not measure disciplinary mastery or deep understanding. They only measure rote memorization skills and one's ability to do well on short answer tests. Some states have developed tests that value process over the final answer, such as PAM (Performance Assessment in Math) and PAL (Performance Assessment in Language) Human beings have all of the intelligences, but each person has a unique combination, or profile. We can all improve each of the intelligences, though some people will improve more readily in one intelligence area than in others. There are many more types of intelligence which reflect different ways of interacting with the world M.I. pedagogy implies that teachers teach and assess differently based on individual intellectual strengths and weaknesses. Teachers structure learning activities around an issue or question and connect subjects. Teachers develop strategies that allow for students to demonstrate multiple ways of understanding and value their uniqueness.

People are born with a fixed amount of intelligence. Intelligence level does not change over a lifetime.

Intelligence consists of ability in logic and language. In traditional practice, teachers teach the same material to everyone.

Teachers teach a topic or "subject."

Workshop: Tapping Into Multiple Intelligences Explanation | Demonstration | Exploration | Implementation | Get Credit

Concept to Classroom | About the Series | Resources | Sitemap | Credits Thirteen | Thirteen Ed Online | thirteencelebration.org 2004 E

What do multiple intelligences have to do with my classroom? There are numerous ways to express oneself, and probably even more ways to gain knowledge and understand the universe. Individuals are capable, the theory of multiple intelligences advocates, of deep understanding and mastery in the most profound areas of human experience. Even long before the theory emerged and was named in 1983 by Howard Gardner, numerous teachers fostered the intelligences of their students. Think of it this way: J.K. Rowling, Richard Feynmann, Lauryn Hill, Julian Schnabel, Mia Hamm, Colin Powell, Deepak Chopra, Jane Goodall, and Gary Larson are students on your seating chart.

J.K. is writing the next Harry Potter adventure on scraps of paper. Richard is daydreaming the equations enabling a quantum computer. Lauryn softly hums the tunes for the sequel to "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill." Julian has painted brilliant fall leaves on each windowpane. Mia can't wait to get to PE. Colin has organized the school's charity fund drive. Deepak provides in-class spiritual counseling. Jane adds a new animal to the class menagerie daily. Gary scrawls witty absurdities in the margins of his notebook.

The next time you have a chance to reflect on your class, imagine your students as individuals who have fully realized and developed their intelligences.

How has M.I. theory developed since it was introduced in 1983? Multiple intelligence theory has evolved and been embraced widely. After the publication of FRAMES OF MIND in 1983 (See our Resources), Howard Gardner became a celebrity among many teachers and school administrators. In addition to writing many more books and articles on multiple intelligences theory, Gardner has served as a consultant to a variety of school districts. The multiple intelligences movement now includes publishers, symposiums, Web sites, "how-to" manuals, educational consultants who consider themselves "M.I. specialists", as well as a number of critics.

Howard Gardner and others have revised and expanded the theory Howard Gardner, formulator of the theory, continues to be its chief spokesperson. He has been acclaimed as the most influential educational theorist since John Dewey4. 4. Gardner has written and published 18 books and hundreds of articles. Chief among them are:

FRAMES OF MIND (1983) introduced the theory of multiple intelligences. THE DISCIPLINED MIND: WHAT ALL STUDENTS SHOULD UNDERSTAND (1999) proposes a pedagogical approach centered around profoundly important topics and shows how they might be taught with a "multiple intelligence" approach. INTELLIGENCE REFRAMED: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE FOR THE 21st CENTURY (1999) reports on the evolution of and revisions to the theory of multiple intelligences.

Among the many prominent professors, teacher educators, consultants and expert teachers who have made valuable contributions to the field of multiple intelligences are: Stephen Jay Gould, Vincent Astor Research Professor of Biology at NYU, most recently authored FULL HOUSE: THE SPREAD OF EXCELLENCE FROM PLATO TO DARWIN. His National Book Award-winning THE PANDA'S THUMB, and National Critic's Award-winning THE MISMEASURE OF MAN are among his many other distinguished works in the areas of science, evolution and human intelligence. Robert J. Sternberg, IBM Professor of Psychology and Education at Yale University proposes a Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which is complementary to M.I. His book in the area of cognitive psychology is BEYOND IQ: A TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE.

Carolyn Chapman is a consultant and trainer who has authored IF THE SHOE FITS . . . : DEVELOPING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN THE CLASSROOM and co-authored MULTIPLE ASSESSMENTS FOR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES. She and Lynn Freeman, another consultant, wrote MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES CENTERS AND PROJECTS. Ellen Weber, Director of Secondary Education at Houghton College, is one of this workshop's experts. She is the author of recent works STUDENT ASSESSMENT THAT WORKS: A PRACTICAL APPROACH and ROUNDTABLE LEARNING: BUILDING UNDERSTANDING THROUGH ENHANCED M.I. STRATEGIES. Thomas Armstrong is an author and speaker whose books include MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN THE CLASSROOM, AWAKENING YOUR CHILD'S NATURAL GENIUS, and AWAKENING GENIUS IN THE CLASSROOM. Jane Carlson-Pickering developed the M.I.Smart! Program for the Chariho Regional School District. She teaches a graduate course about multiple intelligences at Rhode Island College. She is also one of this workshop's experts. Countless educators have incorporated multiple intelligence theory into their work. The multiple intelligences approach encourages teachers to regard intellectual ability more broadly. Teachers are able to see that visual arts, music and dance can be just as valuable to students' understanding of the world they live in as traditional academic subjects. Numerous teachers and administrators have applied aspects of multiple intelligence theory in their classrooms and schools. Through the serious and in-depth study of just a few subjects, rather than a minimal amount of attention to many subjects, Howard Gardner believes that students will develop a passion for exploring truly profound ideas.

Click above to view a video of Howard Gardner talking with students at the Ross School in New York about the advantages

of a curriculum that "connects". The multiple intelligences movement includes book and software publishers, symposiums, literally thousands of Web sites (We provide our selected best choices in the workshop's M.I.Resources section), "how-to" manuals, and educational consultants.

Who are the critics of this theory and what do they say? E.D. Hirsch Jr., author of CULTURAL LITERACY: WHAT EVERY AMERICAN NEEDS TO KNOW (1988), and others have argued that multiple intelligence theory doesn't encourage educators to teach "core knowledge" -- a common collection of "essential facts that every American needs to know." Hirsch and Gardner most recently "debated" the state of education today in the New York Times (9/11/99). Each submitted an article responding to the issue of what and how students should be taught. You can find information about the article in the M.I. Resources section of this workshop. Responding to advocates of core cultural knowledge, Gardner proposes that the K-12 curriculum be organized around the most fundamental questions of existence. Possible courses of study that he recommends would examine in depth profound topics such as Darwin's theory of evolution and the Holocaust. In his book THE DISCIPLINED MIND: WHAT ALL STUDENTS SHOULD UNDERSTAND, Gardner writes, "students should probe with sufficient depth a manageable set of examples so that they come to see how one thinks and acts in the manner of a scientist, a geometer, an artist, an historian." Advocates of psychometric evaluation who criticize M.I. include Linda S. Gottfredson, Richard Lynn, Hans Eysenck, and Charles Murray. Linda Gottfredson, a sociologist by training, is currently professor of educational studies at the University of Delaware. She states that most mainstream psychologists have concluded that there is such a thing as "g", or general intelligence. In other words, Gottfredson argues that all of us do differ in intelligence and this difference can be scrupulously measured. Critics of the theory say that:

It's not new. Critics of multiple intelligence theory maintain that Gardner's work isn't groundbreaking -- that what he calls "intelligences" are primary abilities that educators and cognitive psychologists have always acknowledged. It isn't well defined. Some critics wonder if the number of "intelligences" will continue to increase. These opposing theorists believe that notions such as bodilykinesthetic or musical ability represent individual aptitude or talent rather than intelligence. Critics also believe that M.I. theory lacks the rigor and precision of a real

science. Gardner claims that it would be impossible to guarantee a definitive list of intelligences. It's culturally embedded. M.I. theory states that one's culture plays an important role in determining the strengths and weaknesses of one's intelligences. Critics counter that intelligence is revealed when an individual must confront an unfamiliar task in an unfamiliar environment. It defeats National Standards. Widespread adoption of multiple intelligence pedagogy would make it difficult to compare and classify students' skills and abilities across classrooms. It is impractical. Educators faced with overcrowded classrooms and lack of resources see multiple intelligence theory as utopian.

What are some benefits of using the multiple intelligences approach in my school? Benefit You may come to regard intellectual ability more broadly. Drawing a picture, composing, or listening to music, watching a performance -- these activities can be a vital door to learning -as important as writing and mathematics. Studies show that many students who perform poorly on traditional tests are turned on to learning when classroom experiences incorporate artistic, athletic, and musical activities. Take music, for example. As educator, David Thornburg of the Thornburg Institute notes, "The mood of a piece of music might communicate, clearer than words, the feeling of an era being studied in history. The exploration of rhythm can help some students understand fractions. The exploration of the sounds of an organ can lead to an understanding of vibrational modes in physics. What caused the great scientist Kepler to think of the motions of planets in musical terms? Astronomy students could program a synthesizer to play Kepler's 'music of the spheres' and explore history, science, math and music all at once." Benefit You will provide opportunities for authentic learning based on your students' needs, interests and talents. The multiple intelligence classroom acts like the "real" world: the author and the illustrator of a book are equally valuable creators. Students become more active, involved learners. Benefit Parent and community involvement in your school may increase. This happens as students demonstrate work before panels and audiences. Activities involving apprenticeship learning bring members of the community into the learning process. Benefit

Students will be able to demonstrate and share their strengths. Building strengths gives a student the motivation to be a "specialist." This can in turn lead to increased self-esteem. Benefit When you "teach for understanding," your students accumulate positive educational experiences and the capability for creating solutions to problems in life. How can applying M.I. theory help students learn better? Students begin to understand how they are intelligent. In Gardner's view, learning is both a social and psychological process. When students understand the balance of their own multiple intelligences they begin

To manage their own learning To value their individual strengths

Teachers understand how students are intelligent as well as how intelligent they are. Knowing which students have the potential for strong interpersonal intelligence, for example, will help you create opportunities where the strength can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence theory is not intended to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their students. Students approach understanding from different angles. The problem, "What is sand?" has scientific, poetic, artistic, musical, and geographic points of entry. Students that exhibit comprehension through rubrics5, portfolios6, or demonstrations come to have an authentic understanding of achievement. The accomplishment of the lawyer is in winning her case through research and persuasive argument, more than in having passed the bar exam. 5. 6.

Students become balanced individuals who can function as members of their culture. Classroom activities that teach to the intelligences foster deep understanding about the essential questions of life, such as: Where do we come from? What's the world made of? What have humans achieved? What can we achieve? How does one lead a good life?

Howard Gardner asks students at the Ross School to ponder a question.

How can I find out more about M.I. theory? There is certainly no shortage of books, articles and Web sites. To help you on your journey as you explore this topic we have compiled an annotated list of M.I. Resources. In addition to participating in this online workshop, you are encouraged to contact nearby schools that are already implementing M.I. theory into their programs. To help find such schools, you can start by contacting the Department of Education at a local university or college. Many undergraduate and graduate schools of education publicize M.I. initiatives on their Web pages. There are numerous elementary, middle and high schools - public and private - which focus their Web pages on M.I. How will we explore multiple intelligences theory in the classroom? We will explore three kinds of examples: Those where teachers can use multiple intelligences theory to structure subject matter Some examples where teachers use multiple intelligences theory to identify opportunities for expression and demonstration of understanding A few where students' understanding of their own multiple intelligences helps shape their education.

How do I apply multiple intelligences (M.I.) theory in my classroom? There are many different ways to apply multiple intelligences theory in the classroom. You probably employ a variety of intelligences already. At all levels of education, teachers are transforming subject-specific lessons and curriculum units into meaningful M.I. experiences.

History courses study period music and art. Science units incorporate visual, musical and kinesthetic experiences. Language arts classes reading Civil War literature visit re-enactments and build a topographical map.

As educators explore more effective methods of assessment, they frequently encourage their students to demonstrate understanding through M.I. activities.

Elementary school students compose and perform songs about math concepts which satisfy the rubrics they and their teachers have developed. Middle school students create multimedia presentations combining animations, MIDI compositions, and writing to satisfy interdisciplinary unit requirements. High school students demonstrate mastery of self-formulated research questions through art, writing portfolios, and giving speeches before panels of local citizens.

While you look at the following grid, think of

Other events, artifacts, content and activities you might incorporate into the subject matter you teach. A variety of appropriate ways students in your classroom might demonstrate understanding.

Verbal-Linguistic

Books, stories, poetry, speeches, author visits Exercises, drills, problem solving Tapes, CD's, concert going Posters, art work, slides, charts, graphs, video tapes,

Writing stories, scripts, poems, storytelling Counting, calculating, theorizing, demonstrating, programming computers Performing, singing, playing, composing Drawing, painting, illustrating, graphic design,

Mathematical-Logical

Musical Visual-Spatial

laser disks, CD-ROMs and DVDs, museum visits Bodily-Kinesthetic Movies, animations, exercises, physicalizing concepts, rhythm exercises Teams, group work, specialist roles

collage making, poster making, photography Dance recital, athletic performance or competition Plays, debates, panels, group work

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Journals, memoirs, diaries, Reflection time, meditation changing behaviors, habits, exercises personal growth Terrariums, aquariums, class pets, farm, botanical garden and zoo visits, nature walks, museum visits Working on causes, charity work, astrology charts Collecting, classifying, caring for animals at nature centers

Naturalist

Existential

Community service

The ultimate goal of M.I. theory -- to increase student understanding -- is something for which good teachers have long striven. Excellent educators have always addressed the needs of their variously intelligent students. In this sense the real values of M.I. theory are:

To legitimize the powerful and wide-reaching curricula many teachers have always delivered. To systematize and broadcast the theory and methodology of an enriched curriculum.

Classroom activities frequently activate and utilize more than one of the multiple intelligences. Now consider how you would add to and interpret the items on the following list:

Group discussion - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Journal writing - Intrapersonal; Verbal/Linguistic Choreography - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Constructing timelines - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial Putting on a play - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal; VisualSpatial Making a video - Logical-Mathematical, Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal; Visual-Spatial Writing a report or essay - Verbal-Linguistic Making graphs - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial Designing posters - Verbal-Linguistic, Visual-Spatial Communicating with peers or experts online - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Hands-on experimentation - Kinesthetic; Logical/Mathematical

Composing a song - Musical/Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic Building a model or 3-D displays - Kinesthetic; Logical-Mathematical

In this section of the M.I. Workshop (Exploration), you will have many opportunities to both analyze what you're already doing well, and to explore some new techniques that you can add to your repertoire.

What are some simple ways to get started? Most importantly, start small . . . no matter how grandly you're planning. Minor adjustments to your curriculum make a big difference in students' motivation and understanding. Here are six strategies for applying M.I. theory to your class: Add an interdisciplinary element to a favorite unit. For example, think of how you might liven up a math lesson by inviting students to write song lyrics, invent dances, or write stories that help them recall important math facts or procedures. Emphasize the core curriculum, but invite student expression in areas previously considered outside the scope of that content. As you'll see later in this section, setting up "learning stations" is another way to add fresh dimensions to lessons and units.

Collaborate with other teachers in your school or district. Try a team-teaching approach with a colleague who is also interested in M.I.: a partner to help you figure things out. By brainstorming the possible links between your teaching, you may discover M.I ways to teach the same or complementary subject matter. For example, instead of lecturing to students about grammatical rules followed by a short answer quiz, a language arts teacher may collaborate with a physical View our animation education teacher and invent a game where students are verbs, nouns, here. adjectives, etc., and teams can only be made of complete sentences. If your school maps curriculum, called Curriculum Mapping1, examine your colleagues' maps for opportunities to collaborate on M.I. projects in the future. (See our workshop on Assessment, Evaluation, and Curriculum Redesign.) 1. Offer students a variety of presentation options for projects. In addition to writing reports, let students "show what they know" by giving oral

presentations accompanied by visual aids they create to organize the information and remove the pressure to know everything by heart. Other presentation options include role-playing exercises, plays, debates, murals, Web publishing, and multimedia computer presentations (using multimedia software such as HyperStudio). Apply M.I. thinking to group projects. To help students develop "interpersonal intelligence," use cooperative learning techniques. In the case of M.I. work, after ascertaining some of your students' multiple intelligence strengths, you may wish to organize cooperative learning groups so that there is an interesting distribution in each group. Students with strong interpersonal skills often make wonderful theatrical directors, while those with a strong visual intelligence love painting imaginative sets. Have your resident naturalist and interpersonalist collaborate to organize your nature walk. Involve the community, parents, family, and guest speakers.

Compose a panel of education-friendly local citizens to review your students' M.I. demonstrations of understanding. Bring an outside expert into the class to enhance lessons. For example, when teaching about geometry, invite the contractor who is building a house down the street to discuss how he uses geometry in construction. Motivate students through field trips to local businesses (e.g. newspaper offices, restaurants, theater companies, museums, radio and TV stations, music studios, book stores, and dairy farms) to see how material studied in class can apply to the outside world.

Find an on-line collaborator in the Concept to Classroom Discussion Boards. M.I. works well on the Internet. You might find a teacher in another state or country who is interested in sharing Web sites and e-mail with you. If you are an experienced M.I. practitioner, consider mentoring someone who is just getting his or her feet wet. What are some of the challenges I may face? When trying out new techniques in the classroom for the first time, unexpected problems may come up. Here are a few potential problem areas. Assessment becomes more complicated. Take the case of a report. If the modification you have added to report-writing is to write an illustrated report, then evaluation will likely include assessment of not only the writing but also the illustration. One student may produce brilliant writing and inadequate illustration while another may illustrate well and write poorly. There are several ways to address this sort of dilemma:

Develop methods of assessment that don't indicate one intelligence is more valuable than another. These may include rubrics . . . letting students know at the outset the criteria for weighting different parts of the project. Additionally, try to incorporate a component of your assessment that shows development of M.I. over time in a few areas. This way, students and parents will see that students are not "locked into" a

particular intelligence, but actually have room (and school support) to develop in other areas. Show students concrete examples of finished assignments or projects before they begin their assignments. Exhibit both the minimum expected, and an example of the highest caliber (against which the students can measure their achievement.) Allow for flexibility and feedback during the process. Provide extra time (either during "free" periods, or after school) for students to work on their projects. In class discussion, students may help you formulate appropriate standards for M.I. evaluation. Without turning over the responsibility for evaluation, engage students in the process. Some rubrics include peer evaluation. Some classes set up student panels to review demonstrations.

The Schedule may seem to block some of your plans. Incorporating multiple intelligence activities into your work does not necessarily entail more time. However, when students are doing activities that they enjoy, they become entranced, in what psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi calls a state of "flow." When the students are absorbed in their work, you may feel frustrated with the amount of time the schedule allows. Assigning projects and performance-based tasks can mean restructuring part of the daily schedule, altering the physical setup of the classroom, or allowing extended time for completion of assigned work. Some solutions:

If your room is not large enough to accommodate group activities, move to the auditorium or the cafeteria for one period. If your unit is only three class periods, allow students additional time for independent work on a portfolio or presentation. Bring other teachers (the art teacher, the physical education instructor) into the unit. Using a language arts and art class effectively doubles your time.

Lesson design may be a problem. Consult some of the sample lesson plans we provide. We will also give you practice in the next section of the course. Before you begin, we would like to offer some advice:

Make natural and common sense choices rather than forcing material. Not every lesson or assignment has to have all of the intelligences and all modalities of instruction.

M.I. Resources consist of both materials and people. You will need both as you answer each question and meet each challenge.

Use the list of resources from this course as a foundation. Introduce your ideas about using multiple intelligence theory in a faculty meeting. An inventory of M.I. strengths in your staff could reveal a corps of willing supporters. Get support from your building and district administrators. Their involvement is vital for any systematic reform to take place in the school. Call on "experts" to be guest speakers for your class. Be sure to seek the guidance of school administrators as you engage community members in activities. Work with your library or media-center staff to collect in-school resources and put up a Web page with links to important M.I. sites. How do I assess students' progress? When applying M.I. theory, the primary purpose of assessment is to further understanding. Whether assessment results in a letter or number grade, or a narrative report, is not as important as the role it plays in student growth. There are many possible means of assessment. A good place to start with the development of meaningful assessment tools for your class is by developing rubrics. Take a look at the lesson plan examples we presented in the "Demonstration" section of this workshop. The student must know in advance how his or her demonstration of understanding will be assessed. Involving the student in choosing the criteria that will appear on the rubric is key. Student participation may range from participating in a class review of criteria chosen by you to drawing up their own individual rubric. A key point is that both student and teacher must understand the criteria for assessment. If the criteria established to evaluate a paper doesn't contain a standard for assessing spelling correctness, poor spelling should not have an impact on the assessment. If the criteria are well chosen, they should serve as the basis for constant coaching throughout the learning process. As you refine your use of rubrics, you will see how they can be replicated and modified to suit different studies and different students. Assessment of student projects can be simplified considerably by providing students with a detailed list of the types of information that the assignment should address at the minimum level of completion. For example, in an assignment about cell biology, students may be asked to address three major processes (from a list of many) to illustrate in a presentation. Use milestones or target dates to help students plan their long-term assignments. In order to help students stay on-track on elaborate, time-consuming projects, ask them to submit outlines or "rough sketches" before they actually write out or develop detailed aspects of a project. For students who lack strong "intrapersonal intelligence," it can be very helpful to show them how to "back up" their schedule from the due date.

By helping students break up tasks into manageable "bites," you can keep them from feeling overwhelmed. Assessment is the subject of one of our upcoming workshops, "Assessment, Student Evaluation, and Restructuring Curriculum." In it, you will learn about assessment methods for various strategies, communities, and goals. How does M.I. curriculum align with state and national standards? The application of multiple intelligence theory both enhances current curriculum and is congruent with major initiatives in the area of standards. M.I. theory builds good teaching and learning into an existing curriculum. It expands the number of ways that students can represent their understanding and knowledge of the topic being studied. The effect of activating M.I. is to improve the understanding and self-esteem of more and more students. Engaging students through musical experiences in writing assignments should make more students successful in writing. Exploring how a painter expressed a feeling similar to that in the music and writing assignment, should draw still more students into the circle of success. Students who experience a multiple intelligence oriented education will not struggle on standardized intelligence tests or norm-referenced state mastery tests. They will likely do better. Multiple intelligence practice and standards: New standards relate to the concept of "performance-based assessment." Many schools have adopted standards in which students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge in a variety of ways, including essays, oral presentations and/or a portfolio of student work. Published standards in various disciplines advocate concepts of M.I. theory. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) states: "Students should have numerous, varied learning experiences that illuminate the cultural, historical, and scientific evolution of mathematics. These experiences should be designed to evoke students' appreciation of mathematics' role in the development of contemporary society and to promote their understanding of relationships among the fields of mathematics and the disciplines it serves: the humanities and the physical, social, and life sciences." The National Science Education Standards document advises: "Work together as colleagues within and across disciplines and grade levels. Individual and collective planning is a cornerstone of science teaching; it is a vehicle for professional support and growth. In the vision of science education described in the Standards, many planning decisions are made by groups of teachers at grade and building levels to construct coherent and articulated programs within and across grades. Schools must provide teachers with time and access to their colleagues and others who can serve as resources if collaborative planning is to occur." To explore these issues further, take a look at our Assessment, Evaluation and Curriculum Redesign and Teaching to Academic Standards workshops.

How does technology complement the M.I. approach?

Computer technology helps research. The Internet can provide a wealth of resources that allow students to experience information presented in a myriad of formats: slide shows, interactive animation, simulation, sounds, charts, video, and text. To give an example of the wealth of material computer technology offers, consider the Library of Congress' American Memories collection. There are over fifty extensive multimedia collections available for study and use by students. They range from sheet music to historical photographs, and from pioneer diaries to examinations of athletes' achievements. The ability of the World Wide Web to allow teachers as well as students to link related material representative of different intelligences helps facilitate multiple intelligence research. A student could collect links on a topic such as clouds. Each link could lead to information about clouds from a different M.I. perspective. See a similar example from one of our M.I. experts in the "Expert View" button below.

Computer technology provides a medium for M.I. expression In a school with available computer technology, a single student can

research a thesis, and catalogue and organize his or her information using the internet connected computer in the library media center. scan drawings, take digital photographs in art class. write an essay or story on a computer in the writing lab. compose a tune in music. combine them all and add animation in a computer lab. give a speech and multimedia presentation in social studies.

Broad curricular themes like photosynthesis, the Civil War, or Beat poetry all lend themselves to a project like this. Cassette recorders can allow students to provide "soundscapes" or musical accompaniment to a writing class or a visual demonstration. Students can use camcorders to videotape themselves reading their work. Digital or 35 mm cameras may also be available for photojournalism. Developed pictures can be delivered on CD-ROM for use in computer projects. When your school has a Web site you and your students could use it as a medium for presenting demonstrations. You could invite people to view your work on the Web and

provide a discussion board and email links for feedback. There are a number of schools that do this. Go to the M.I. Resource section for examples How do I work with my school, the parents, and the community? Below is a comprehensive list of things you can do to involve families and the community in your school.

Enlist support from administrators and supervisors early. Keep people informed about any initiatives designed to enhance learning. The director of curriculum in your school district can help with staff-development opportunities, consultants, and support for attending conferences. Their help can also come in handy later, if you need to make adjustments to schedules, room assignments, or budgets to facilitate your project. Build relationships with colleagues in other disciplines. This is a critical component of any interdisciplinary project. Science and math teachers might collaborate with music and arts educators or performing arts faculty on projects that benefit everyone. If you initiate collaborations, be sure to give people enough lead time and information. Look for curricular overlap. Poll your colleagues about their curriculum for the upcoming months, in an effort to coordinate and team-teach several overlapping areas. A more elaborate practice of creating curriculum maps for an entire grade level or school aims to precisely target those specific areas of overlap and thereby provide opportunities for rich interdisciplinary connections. Bring in outside speakers and guest lecturers. You may wish to poll your students to find relatives or neighbors with first-hand knowledge of subjects your class is studying. Some schools and districts have compiled a list -- which identifies members of the community who have expressed an interest in donating a small amount of time to help students in your area. Some examples: An artist came in to teach some grade 2 students about the ancient art of origami. A former Peace Corps volunteer who had lived in Africa came in to give students a slide show presentation of her experiences. In her presentation, she was able to include artifacts, clothing, and musical instruments from the area she visited. In appreciation, students can develop homemade thank-you cards. Get the word out. Use school newspapers, the school P.A. system, and library bulletin boards to share the news of events in your classroom. For extended, collaborative class projects, you might even contact a local news station to do a feature on your students' accomplishments. Send notes to parents and guardians. Inform them about the nature of the project, the due dates, expectations of students, and any special requests that you may want them to attend to. Notifying family members is especially important if you are planning a larger event, a science fair, a Renaissance evening, or a debate. In

addition, a very useful communication tool between parents and teachers is making lesson plans public via the Web and providing "newsletters" to go out to the families. These tools increase discourse between the teacher and parent and thereby increase awareness.

Educate parents and guardians about the theory of multiple intelligences. Family members need to understand how M.I. enhances the student's learning experience, if you want to get their support. Unless it's pencil and paperwork, some parents won't see the value of it. Be sure to let them know that M.I. classroom application can be aligned with the national and state standards. Set aside special time for student presentations of projects and performances. Students become more motivated when they know there is an audience for their work; they rise to the occasion. Start small. Begin by informally inviting colleagues to your classes, and scale up to include school-wide assemblies, presentations to parents and guests, and other community events. Successful projects tend to garner administrative support, and parental involvement and often acquire a momentum of their own. Successful implementation of these type of student presentations quickly become institutionalized into annual "Greek festivals," "Medieval Banquets," or "Rocket Launches" that the entire school community looks forward to and supports. These projects provide optimum opportunities for authentic assessment.

Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone

Being intelligent does not always mean that someone tests well -- a problem with which teachers and school administrators have struggled since the earliest days of organized education. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences helps educators think differently about "IQ," and about what being "smart" means. The theory is changing the way some teachers teach. When Howard Gardner's book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic Books, 1983) burst on the scene, it seemed to answer many questions for experienced teachers. We all had students who didn't fit the mold; we knew the students were bright, but they didn't excel on tests. Gardner's claim that there are several different kinds of intelligence gave us and others involved with teaching and learning a way of beginning to understand those students. We would look at what they could do well, instead of what they could not do. Later Gardner books, such as The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach (Basic Books, 1991) and Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice (Basic Books, 1993) helped us understand how multiple intelligences could help us teach and evaluate our students in new and better ways.

WHO IS HOWARD GARDNER?

Howard Gardner, Ph.D. is a professor at Harvard University and the author of many books and articles. His theory of multiple intelligences has challenged long-held assumptions about intelligence -- especially about a single measure of intelligence. Dr. Gardner also co-directs Harvard's Project Zero.

THE ORIGINAL SEVEN INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner first identified and introduced to us seven different kinds of intelligence in Frames of Mind.

Linguistic intelligence: a sensitivity to the meaning and order of words. Logical-mathematical intelligence: ability in mathematics and other complex logical systems. Musical intelligence: the ability to understand and create music. Musicians, composers and dancers show a heightened musical intelligence. Spatial intelligence: the ability to "think in pictures," to perceive the visual world accurately, and recreate (or alter) it in the mind or on paper. Spatial intelligence is highly developed in artists, architects, designers and sculptors. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: the ability to use one's body in a skilled way, for self-expression or toward a goal. Mimes, dancers, basketball players, and actors are among those who display bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence: an ability to perceive and understand other individuals -- their moods, desires, and motivations. Political and religious leaders, skilled parents and teachers, and therapists use this intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence: an understanding of one's own emotions. Some novelists and or counselors use their own experience to guide others.

Then, Gardner identified an eighth intelligence, the naturalist intelligence.

HOWARD GARDNER TALKS ABOUT AN EIGHTH INTELLIGENCE

Gardner discussed the "eighth intelligence" with Kathy Checkley, in an interview for Educational Leadership, "The First Seven... and the Eighth." Gardner said, "The naturalist

intelligence refers to the ability to recognize and classify plants, minerals, and animals, including rocks and grass and all variety of flora and fauna. The ability to recognize cultural artifacts like cars or sneakers may also depend on the naturalist intelligence. (S)ome people from an early age are extremely good at recognizing and classifying artifacts. For example, we all know kids who, at 3 or 4, are better at recognizing dinosaurs than most adults." Gardner identified Charles Darwin as a prime example of this type of intelligence. The naturalist intelligence meshed with Gardner's definition of intelligence as "the human ability to solve problems or to make something that is valued in one or more cultures." And the naturalist intelligence met Gardner's specific criteria:

"Is there a particular representation in the brain for the ability? "Are there populations that are especially good or especially impaired in an intelligence? "And, can an evolutionary history of the intelligence be seen in animals other than human beings?"

IMPLEMENTING GARDNER'S THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

When asked how educators should implement the theory of multiple intelligences, Gardner says, "(I)t's very important that a teacher take individual differences among kids very seriously The bottom line is a deep interest in children and how their minds are different from one another, and in helping them use their minds well." An awareness of multiple-intelligence theory has stimulated teachers to find more ways of helping all students in their classes. Some schools do this by adapting curriculum. In "Variations on a Theme: How Teachers Interpret MI Theory," (Educational Leadership, September 1997), Linda Campbell describes five approaches to curriculum change:

Lesson design. Some schools focus on lesson design. This might involve team teaching ("teachers focusing on their own intelligence strengths"), using all or several of the intelligences in their lessons, or asking student opinions about the best way to teach and learn certain topics. Interdisciplinary units. Secondary schools often include interdisciplinary units. Student projects. Students can learn to "initiate and manage complex projects" when they are creating student projects. Assessments. Assessments are devised which allow students to show what they have learned. Sometimes this takes the form of allowing each student to devise the way he or she will be assessed, while meeting the teacher's criteria for quality. Apprenticeships. Apprenticeships can allow students to "gain mastery of a valued skill gradually, with effort and discipline over time." Gardner feels that apprenticeships "should take up about one-third of a student's schooling experience."

With an understanding of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, teachers, school administrators, and parents can better understand the learners in their midst. They can allow students to safely explore and learn in many ways, and they can help students direct their own learning. Adults can help students understand and appreciate their strengths, and identify real-world activities that will stimulate more learning.

Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind proposed the theory of multiple intelligence, wherein he emphasized the need to broaden the concept of intelligence to include all potential capacities one may have. He believed that intelligence is more than just the capacity to logically solve problems and should not be confined to an IQ test alone. An Overview of the Eight Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Intelligence: The capacity to efficiently use language and vocabulary, either orally or in writing. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to logically deduce a numerical or a scientific problem. Musical Intelligence: A strong auditory intelligence characterized by a sense of rhythm, music and hearing. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: This area deals with physical activity. Persons with this type of intelligence learn faster and better using hands on approach. Spatial Intelligence: This intelligence is characterized by a strong visual memory and the ability to mentally manipulate objects. It is all about images and space and the capacity to visualize it. Interpersonal Intelligence: The capacity to understand and perceive other people's moods, feelings, motivations and intentions. Intrapersonal Intelligence: This intelligence is characterized by the ability to understand and introspect our own needs, desires and limitations. Naturalistic Intelligence: An affinity towards the natural habitat and those who live in it; that is plants and animals, forms this intelligence. Multiple Intelligence Activities Each person possesses more than one form of intelligence and this is reflected in

our ability to multitask. However, the following activities can help decide our leanings towards a particular activity. Linguistic Intelligence is all About Expression, Using Words

Write a story and read it aloud. Impromptu speaking. Debate. Read books or articles. Write a poem, an essay, plays or news articles. Conduct an interview (role-play) or do talk shows. Write and present theories. Play games that use tongue twisters and spellings. Write journals or diaries. Document and present a thesis.

Logical Intelligence is an Area of Numerical and Logical Skills

Solve problems. Create number patterns. Conduct an experiment on a particular theory. Solve puzzles. Develop a computer program to solve mathematical queries. Describe the patterns or symmetry of any chemicals. Play games using money. Make spreadsheets for calculations. Conduct experiments using deductive / inductive reasoning. Collect data and sequence or organize them. Learn about scientific models and explain them. Solve geometric problems. Make predictions using theories. Make a scientific model using measurements.

Musical Intelligence Involves all Rhythmic Auditory Inclinations

Sing songs. Play or compose music. Write lyrics or short jingles. Create rhythmic patterns. Play different musical instruments in a group. Partcipate in choir or solo singing. Hum and rap. Demonstrate the working of a musical instrument. Explain differences and similarities in tones and sounds. Practice singing in a group.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence Involves Physical Activity

Role-play an event. Make a castle of cards or a sand castle. Build or construct a model of some structure. Repair a mechanical equipment. Plan and go on a field trip. Demonstrate a hands-on activity Dance. Learn martial arts. Play games. Do physical exercises. Trekking or mountain climbing.

Spatial Intelligence is all About Visualizing Space and Images

Demonstrate a piece of art. Make visual metaphors or analogies. Map historical events and stories using graphs. Make 3D projects. Sketch, paint or draw. Visualize patterns and create them. Play visual puzzles. Play photo memory games.

Interpersonal Intelligence Involves Being People-Smart

Participate in group projects. Combined learning. Party in a group. Conduct a meeting to solve problems. Resolve conflict. Discuss and debate an issue. Brainstorm on any subject. Interpret others' feelings. Join a sports activity group. Form activity or social clubs. Participate in group book reading and share views.

Intrapersonal Intelligence Involves Being Aware of Self

Pursue a new goal. Share meaningful personal experience. Write about your perceptions. Focus on some particular weakness and strengthen it. Reflect on your actions. Indulge in some individual reading, study and projects.

Naturalistic Intelligence Involves Nature and Environment

Take care of animals and plants.

Participate in nature clubs. Get involved in an environment protection program. Build a birdhouse. Keep an observation journal of the plants or animals in your care. Study cloud formation. Collect different colored rocks. Research one particular plant or animal and demonstrate its importance in the nature cycle. Make a note of the difference in temperature and pollution. Map and demonstrate the ozone layer. Explain importance of recycling.

Multiple intelligence activities will provide children and adults an opportunity to enhance their level of intelligence and fully realize their potential. By Loveleena Rajeev

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ligence Theory was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that traditional ways of testing for intelligence may be biased to certain types of individuals. Think back to the good old school days. Do you remember the girl who was always picked for the lead role in musicals? Who could forget the boisterous class clown? Or whatever happened to the boy who never stopped drawing detailed doodles of cars and planes? Much like then, the perception still exists that intelligence can be measured in relation to reading, writing and arithmetic skills alone, and a persons future success is judged accordingly. Dr. Howard Gardner, a Harvard Psychologist and Professor of Education, has demonstrated through his extensive research that this notion is, and always has been ridiculous. Instead, he became one of the first to express how we should not judge others according to this narrow definition of intelligence. The original Multiple Intelligence theory was developed in 1983 and first published in his book, Frames of Mind. The book

strongly suggests that everybody has a different mind, and no two profiles of intelligence are the same. Therefore, the traditional concept of measuring intelligence by I.Q testing is far too restricted. From the 8 primary intelligences, an individual may excel in one, two or even three of these, but nobodys good at them all. Equally the same rule applies to a child prodigy or mentally/physically disadvantaged person. A brain damaged child could have a severely impaired use of language, but be able to paint or play music magnificently. Dr Gardner indicates that by introducing a broader range of learning methods, (known as the intelligences) educators and indeed parents, can home in on an individuals strengths and weaknesses by determining their preferred learning style. This would consequently give them the opportunity to learn in ways more productively to their unique minds. A good way to measure this theory is to try the free Multiple Intelligence Quiz at BoffinSquad.co.uk.The results may show a higher achiever who rarely struggles in any school subject may get a less varied graph of results, and may need less individual attention than someone who stands out musically but shows very little logical understanding. This person would probably benefit much more if they could incorporate musical rhythms into maths and not be bombarded by numbers alone. If a child is not learning the way you are teaching, then you must teach in the way the child learns." (Rita Dunn, - from Anne Bruetsch's Multiple Intelligences Lesson Plan Book)Recently Gardner has posited the existence of a 9th intelligence he calls "Existential". Although Existential is positioned to be identified as an intelligence, at this time Gardner feels that there isn't any neurological evidence of a separately functioning biological existential ability. That is a central criterion in identifying an ability as an "intelligence.Read on to understand about each of the 8 intelligences

Development of MI Theory
(back to outline)

After years of research, Howard Gardner proposed a new theory and definition of intelligence in his 1983 book entitled Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. The basic question he sought to answer was: Is intelligence a single thing or various independent intellectual faculties? Gardner is Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He also holds an adjunct faculty post in psychology at Harvard and in neurology at Boston University School of Medicine. He is best known for his work in the area of Multiple Intelligences, which has been a career-long pursuit to

understand and describe the construct of intelligence (Gardner, 1999a; Project Zero Website, 2000). Gardner describes his work with two distinct populations as the inspiration for his theory of Multiple Intelligences. Early in his career, he began studying stroke victims suffering from aphasia at the Boston University Aphasia Research Center and working with children at Harvard's Project Zero, a laboratory designed to study the cognitive development of children and its associated educational implications (Gardner, 1999a). In Intelligence Reframed, Gardner states, Both of the populations I was working with were clueing me into the same message: that the human mind is better thought of as a series of relatively separate faculties, with only loose and nonpredictable relations with one another, than as a single, all-purpose machine that performs steadily at a certain horsepower, independent of content and context. (p.32) Gardner concluded from his work with these two populations that strength in one area of performance did not reliably predict comparable strength in another area. With this intuitive conclusion in mind, Gardner set about studying intelligence in a systematic, multidisciplinary, and scientific manner, drawing from psychology, biology, neurology, sociology, anthropology, and the arts and humanities. This resulted in the emergence of his Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI Theory) as presented in Frames of Mind (1983). Since the publication of that work, Gardner and others have continued to research the theory and its implications for education in general, curriculum development, teaching, and assessment. For the purposes of this Hot Topic, the focus will be on a description of the theory, major criticisms, and the implications for assessment.

Definition of MI Theory
(back to outline)

According to Gardner (1999a), intelligence is much more than IQ because a high IQ in the absence of product

Definition of MI Theory
(back to outline)

According to Gardner (1999a), intelligence is much more than IQ because a high IQ in the absence of productivity does not equate to intelligence. In his definition, "Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture" (p.34). Consequently, instead of intelligence being a single entity described psychometrically with an IQ score, Gardner's definition views it as many things. He endeavored to define intelligence in a much broader way than psychometricians. To achieve this goal Gardner (1983; 1999a) established several

criteria for defining intelligence. In identifying capabilities to be considered for one of the "multiple intelligences" the construct under consideration had to meet several criteria rather than resting on the results of a narrow psychometric approach. To qualify as an "intelligence" the particular capacity under study was considered from multiple perspectives consisting of eight specific criteria drawn from the biological sciences, logical analysis, developmental psychology, experimental psychology, and psychometrics. The criteria to consider "candidate intelligences" (Gardner, 1999a, p. 36) are: 1) the potential for brain isolation by brain damage, 2) its place in evolutionary history, 3) the presence of core operations, 4) susceptibility to encoding, 5) a distinct developmental progression, 6) the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people, 7) support from experimental psychology, and 8) support from psychometric findings (Gardner, 1999a). To illustrate the specifics of these criteria, a brief description and example of each is provided. The potential for brain isolation by brain damage means that one "candidate intelligence" (Gardner 1999a, p.36) can be dissociated from others. This criterion came from Gardner's work in neuropsychology. For example, stroke patients who are left with some forms of "intelligence" intact despite damage to other cognitive abilities such as speech. From an evolutionary perspective, the candidate intelligence has to have played a role in the development of our species and its ability to cope with the environment. In this case, Gardner (1999a) uses inference to conclude that spatial abilities were critical to the survival of our species. Early hominids had to be able to navigate diverse terrains using spatial abilities. The pressure of the environment then resulted in selection for this ability. Both of these criteria emerged from the biological sciences. From the perspective of logical analysis, an intelligence must have an identifiable core set of operations. Acknowledging the fact that specific intelligences operate in the context of the environment, Gardner (1999a) argues that it is crucial to specify the capacities that are central to the intelligence under consideration. For example, linguistic intelligence consists of core operations such as recognition and discrimination of phonemes, command of syntax and acquisition of word meanings. In the area of musical intelligence, the core operations are pitch, rhythm, timbre, and harmony. Another criteria related to logical analysis states that an intelligence must be susceptible to encoding in a symbol system. According to Gardner, (1999a) symbol systems are developed versus occurring naturally, and their purpose is to accurately and systematically convey information that is culturally meaningful. Some examples of encoding include written and spoken language, mathematical systems, logical equations, maps, charts and drawings. Gardner (1999a) established two criteria from developmental psychology. The first is the presence of a developmental trajectory for the particular ability toward an expert end-state. In other words, individuals do not necessarily exhibit their "intelligence" in its raw state. Rather,

they prepare to use their intelligence by passing through a developmental process. Thus, people who want to be mathematicians or physicists, spend years studying and honing their logical/mathematical abilities in a distinctive and socially relevant way. The second criteria borrowed from the discipline of developmental psychology, is the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and exceptional people. Gardner (1999a) refers to these as accidents of nature that allow researchers to observe the nature of a particular intelligence in great contrast to other average or impaired abilities. One example of this type of highlighted intelligence is the autistic person who excels at numerical calculations or musical performance. Finally, Gardner (1999a) draws his last two criteria from traditional psychology and psychometrics to determine if a candidate intelligence makes it onto the list of specific abilities he calls Multiple Intelligences. There must be support from experimental psychology that indicates the extent to which two operations are related or different. Observing subjects who are asked to carry out two activities simultaneously can help determine if those activities rely on the same mental capacities or different ones. For example, a person engaged in working a crossword puzzle is unlikely to be able to carry on a conversation effectively, because both tasks demand the attention of linguistic intelligence, which creates interference. Whereas, the absence of this sort of competition allows a person to be able to walk and converse at the same time suggesting that two different intelligences are engaged. In spite of the fact that Gardner proposed his theory in opposition to psychometrics, he recognizes the importance of acknowledging psychometric data (1999a). From the preceding eight criteria, Gardner (1983; 1999a) proposed and defined seven intelligences. Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to detect patterns, think logically, reason deductively and carry out mathematical operations. Linguistic intelligence involves the mastery of spoken and written language to express oneself or remember things. These first two forms of intelligence are typically the abilities that contribute to strong performance in traditional school environments and to producing high scores on most IQ measures or tests of achievement. Spatial intelligence involves the potential for recognizing and manipulating the patterns of both wide spaces such as those negotiated by pilots or navigators, and confined spaces such as those encountered by sculptors, architects or championship chess players. Musical intelligence consists of the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, rhythms, and patterns and to use them for performance or composition. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence involves the use of parts of the body or the whole body to solve problems or create products. Athletes, dancers, surgeons and craftspeople are likely to have highly developed capacity in this area. The last two intelligences are the personal intelligences: interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal intelligence indicates a person's ability to recognize the intentions, feelings and motivations of others. People who possess and develop this quality are likely to work well with others and may choose fields like sales, teaching, counseling or politics in order to use them. Intrapersonal intelligence is described as the ability to understand oneself and use that information to regulate one's own life. According to Gardner each of these seven "intelligences" has a specific set of abilities that can be observed and measured (1999a, 1983). More recently, Gardner (1998) has nominated three additional candidate intelligences: Naturalist, Spiritual and Existential intelligence and evaluated them in the context of the eight criteria he established in his research and outlined earlier in this paper. He defines a naturalist as a person "who demonstrates expertise in recognition and classification of the numerous

species - the flora and fauna - of her or his environment." (1998, p. 115). Gardner is comfortable with declaring that a Naturalist intelligence meets the criteria he set forth, however he is less sure about how to define and incorporate Spiritual and Existential intelligences. "the monopoly of those who believe in a single general intelligence has come to an end." (Gardner, 1999a, p.203)

Criticism of MI Theory
(back to outline)

When reviewing criticism of Multiple Intelligences theory, addressing the historically everpresent question of whether intelligence is one thing or many things is unavoidable. The fundamental criticism of MI theory is the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct (Morgan, 1996). Morgan, (1996) refers to Gardner's approach of describing the nature of each intelligence with terms such as abilities, sensitivities, skills and abilities as evidence of the fact that the "theory" is really a matter of semantics rather than new thinking on multiple constructs of intelligence and resembles earlier work by factor theorists of intelligence like L.L. Thurstone who argued that a single factor (g) cannot explain the complexity of human intellectual activity. According to Morgan (1996), identifying these various abilities and developing a theory that supports the many factors of intelligence has been a significant contribution to the field. Furthermore, he believes that MI theory has proven beneficial to schools and teachers and it may help explain why students do not perform well on standardized tests but it in Morgan's opinion it does not warrant the complete rejection of g. Gardner (1995) admittedly avoided addressing criticism of his theory for nearly a decade after the publication of Frames of Mind. However, in a 1995 article that appeared in Phi Delta Kappan he responds to several "myths" about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. These myths provide a summary of the major commentary on and criticism of Gardner's theory. The first myth is that if there are seven intelligences we must be able to measure them with seven specific tests. Gardner is vocal about his disdain for a singularly psychometric approach to measuring intelligence based on paper and pencil tests. Secondly, he responds to the belief that an intelligence is the same as a domain or a discipline. Gardner reiterates his definition of an intelligence and distinguishes it from a domain which he describes as a culturally relevant, organized set of activities characterized by a symbol system and a set of operations. For example, dance performance is a domain that relies on the use of bodilykinesthetic and musical intelligence (Gardner, 1995). Other criticisms include the notion that MI theory is not empirical, is incompatible with g, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless. Gardner (1995) staunchly defends the empiricism of the theory by referring to the numerous laboratory and field data that contributed to its development and the ongoing re-conceptualization of the theory based on new scientific data. Regarding the claim that Multiple Intelligences theory cannot accommodate g, Gardner

argues that g has a scientific place in intelligence theory but that he is interested in understanding intellectual processes that are not explained by g. In response to the criticism that MI theory is incompatible with genetic or environmental accounts of the nature of intelligence, Gardner states that his theory is most concerned with the interaction between genetics and the environment in understanding intelligence. Finally, the notion that MI theory has expanded the definition of intelligence beyond utility produces a strong reaction from Gardner. He argues passionately that the narrow definition of intelligence as equal to scholastic performance is simply too constrictive. In his view, MI theory is about the intellectual and cognitive aspects of the human mind. Gardner is careful to point out that MI theory is not a theory of personality, morality, motivation, or any other psychological construct (1995, 1999a, 1999b).

Implications for Assessment

(back to outline)

The two most widely used standardized tests of intelligence are the Wechsler scales and the Stanford-Binet. Both instruments are psychometrically sound, but Gardner believes that these tests measure only linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences, with a narrow focus within content in those domains. According to Gardner, the current psychometric approach for measuring intelligence is not sufficient. In his view, assessment must cast a wider net to measure human cognitive abilities more accurately. Gardner (1993) proposes several improvements for the development of intelligence measures. Before enumerating those improvements, it is important to understand how Gardner defines assessment. In his view, the purpose of assessment should be to obtain information about the skills and potentials of individuals, and provide useful feedback to the individuals and the community at large. Furthermore, Gardner (1993) draws a distinction between testing and assessment. Assessment elicits information about an individual's abilities in the context of actual performance rather than by proxy using formal instruments in a de-contextualized setting. Gardner argues for making assessment a natural part of the learning environment. Assessment is then built into the learning situation much like the constant assessment of skills that occurs in apprenticeship or the self-assessment that occurs in experts who have internalized a standard of performance based on the earlier guidance of teachers. The ecological validity of assessment is also at issue according to Gardner (1993). Predictive validity of traditional intelligence tests may be psychometrically sound, but its usefulness beyond predicting school performance is questionable. Therefore, prediction could be improved if assessments more closely approximated real working conditions. Instruments for measuring intelligence should also be "intelligence-fair" (1993, p.176). Consequently, we need to reduce the bias toward measuring intelligence through logical/mathematical and linguistic abilities and move toward looking more directly at a specific intelligence in operation (e.g., assessing for spatial intelligence by having an individual navigate his or her way around unfamiliar territory). Gardner acknowledges that this approach to assessment may be difficult to implement.

Gardner (1993) emphasizes two additional points about assessment that are critical. The first is that the assessment of intelligence should encompass multiple measures. Relying on a single IQ score from a WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) without substantiating the findings through other data sources does the individual examinee a disservice and produces insufficient information for those who provide interventions. Secondly, all assessments and resulting interventions must be sensitive to individual differences and developmental levels. Finally, Gardner is in favor of assessment for the primary purpose of helping students rather than classifying or ranking them. While these views about assessment are intuitively sensible, Sternberg (1991) argues that the naturalistic approach is a "psychometric nightmare" (p. 266). Quantifying performance on these sorts of assessments is difficult, objectivity is questionable, and cultural bias is still a problem. Hard data is the scientific "gold standard" and psychometric soundness is a prerequisite. Therefore, Sternberg (1991) hesitates endorsing this approach to assessment on the basis that we would simply be replacing one flawed system of measurement with an approach that is equally problematic. Recent research on MI Theory-based assessments provides evidence in support of Sternberg's concern about psychometric quality (e.g., Plucker, Callahan, & Tomchin, 1996).

Criticism of MI Theory
(back to outline)

When reviewing criticism of Multiple Intelligences theory, addressing the historically everpresent question of whether intelligence is one thing or many things is unavoidable. The fundamental criticism of MI theory is the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct (Morgan, 1996). Morgan, (1996) refers to Gardner's approach of describing the nature of each intelligence with terms such as abilities, sensitivities, skills and abilities as evidence of the fact that the "theory" is really a matter of semantics rather than new thinking on multiple constructs of intelligence and resembles earlier work by factor theorists of intelligence like L.L. Thurstone who argued that a single factor (g) cannot explain the complexity of human intellectual activity. According to Morgan (1996), identifying these various abilities and developing a theory that supports the many factors of intelligence has been a significant contribution to the field. Furthermore, he believes that MI theory has proven beneficial to schools and teachers and it may help explain why students do not perform well on standardized tests but it in Morgan's opinion it does not warrant the complete rejection of g. Gardner (1995) admittedly avoided addressing criticism of his theory for nearly a decade after the publication of Frames of Mind. However, in a 1995 article that appeared in Phi Delta Kappan he responds to several "myths" about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. These myths provide a summary of the major commentary on and criticism of Gardner's theory. The first myth is that if there are seven intelligences we must be able to measure them with seven specific tests. Gardner is vocal about his disdain for a singularly psychometric approach to measuring intelligence based on paper and pencil tests. Secondly, he responds to the belief that an intelligence is the same as a domain or a discipline. Gardner reiterates his

definition of an intelligence and distinguishes it from a domain which he describes as a culturally relevant, organized set of activities characterized by a symbol system and a set of operations. For example, dance performance is a domain that relies on the use of bodilykinesthetic and musical intelligence (Gardner, 1995). Other criticisms include the notion that MI theory is not empirical, is incompatible with g, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless. Gardner (1995) staunchly defends the empiricism of the theory by referring to the numerous laboratory and field data that contributed to its development and the ongoing re-conceptualization of the theory based on new scientific data. Regarding the claim that Multiple Intelligences theory cannot accommodate g, Gardner argues that g has a scientific place in intelligence theory but that he is interested in understanding intellectual processes that are not explained by g. In response to the criticism that MI theory is incompatible with genetic or environmental accounts of the nature of intelligence, Gardner states that his theory is most concerned with the interaction between genetics and the environment in understanding intelligence. Finally, the notion that MI theory has expanded the definition of intelligence beyond utility produces a strong reaction from Gardner. He argues passionately that the narrow definition of intelligence as equal to scholastic performance is simply too constrictive. In his view, MI theory is about the intellectual and cognitive aspects of the human mind. Gardner is careful to point out that MI theory is not a theory of personality, morality, motivation, or any other psychological construct (1995, 1999a, 1999b).

Implications for Assessment

(back to outline)

The two most widely used standardized tests of intelligence are the Wechsler scales and the Stanford-Binet. Both instruments are psychometrically sound, but Gardner believes that these tests measure only linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences, with a narrow focus within content in those domains. According to Gardner, the current psychometric approach for measuring intelligence is not sufficient. In his view, assessment must cast a wider net to measure human cognitive abilities more accurately. Gardner (1993) proposes several improvements for the development of intelligence measures. Before enumerating those improvements, it is important to understand how Gardner defines assessment. In his view, the purpose of assessment should be to obtain information about the skills and potentials of individuals, and provide useful feedback to the individuals and the community at large. Furthermore, Gardner (1993) draws a distinction between testing and assessment. Assessment elicits information about an individual's abilities in the context of actual performance rather than by proxy using formal instruments in a de-contextualized setting. Gardner argues for making assessment a natural part of the learning environment. Assessment is then built into the learning situation much like the constant assessment of skills that occurs in apprenticeship or the self-assessment that occurs in experts who have internalized a standard of performance based on the earlier guidance of teachers. The

ecological validity of assessment is also at issue according to Gardner (1993). Predictive validity of traditional intelligence tests may be psychometrically sound, but its usefulness beyond predicting school performance is questionable. Therefore, prediction could be improved if assessments more closely approximated real working conditions. Instruments for measuring intelligence should also be "intelligence-fair" (1993, p.176). Consequently, we need to reduce the bias toward measuring intelligence through logical/mathematical and linguistic abilities and move toward looking more directly at a specific intelligence in operation (e.g., assessing for spatial intelligence by having an individual navigate his or her way around unfamiliar territory). Gardner acknowledges that this approach to assessment may be difficult to implement. Gardner (1993) emphasizes two additional points about assessment that are critical. The first is that the assessment of intelligence should encompass multiple measures. Relying on a single IQ score from a WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) without substantiating the findings through other data sources does the individual examinee a disservice and produces insufficient information for those who provide interventions. Secondly, all assessments and resulting interventions must be sensitive to individual differences and developmental levels. Finally, Gardner is in favor of assessment for the primary purpose of helping students rather than classifying or ranking them. While these views about assessment are intuitively sensible, Sternberg (1991) argues that the naturalistic approach is a "psychometric nightmare" (p. 266). Quantifying performance on these sorts of assessments is difficult, objectivity is questionable, and cultural bias is still a problem. Hard data is the scientific "gold standard" and psychometric soundness is a prerequisite. Therefore, Sternberg (1991) hesitates endorsing this approach to assessment on the basis that we would simply be replacing one flawed system of measurement with an approach that is equally problematic. Recent research on MI Theory-based assessments provides evidence in support of Sternberg's concern about psychometric quality (e.g., Plucker, Callahan, & Tomchin, 1996).

Criticism of MI Theory
(back to outline)

When reviewing criticism of Multiple Intelligences theory, addressing the historically everpresent question of whether intelligence is one thing or many things is unavoidable. The fundamental criticism of MI theory is the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct (Morgan, 1996). Morgan, (1996) refers to Gardner's approach of describing the nature of each intelligence with terms such as abilities, sensitivities, skills and abilities as evidence of the fact that the "theory" is really a matter of semantics rather than new thinking on multiple constructs of intelligence and resembles earlier work by factor theorists of intelligence like L.L. Thurstone who argued that a single factor (g) cannot explain the complexity of human intellectual activity. According to Morgan (1996), identifying these various abilities and developing a theory that supports the many factors of intelligence has been a significant contribution to the field. Furthermore, he believes that MI theory has proven beneficial to schools and teachers

and it may help explain why students do not perform well on standardized tests but it in Morgan's opinion it does not warrant the complete rejection of g. Gardner (1995) admittedly avoided addressing criticism of his theory for nearly a decade after the publication of Frames of Mind. However, in a 1995 article that appeared in Phi Delta Kappan he responds to several "myths" about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. These myths provide a summary of the major commentary on and criticism of Gardner's theory. The first myth is that if there are seven intelligences we must be able to measure them with seven specific tests. Gardner is vocal about his disdain for a singularly psychometric approach to measuring intelligence based on paper and pencil tests. Secondly, he responds to the belief that an intelligence is the same as a domain or a discipline. Gardner reiterates his definition of an intelligence and distinguishes it from a domain which he describes as a culturally relevant, organized set of activities characterized by a symbol system and a set of operations. For example, dance performance is a domain that relies on the use of bodilykinesthetic and musical intelligence (Gardner, 1995). Other criticisms include the notion that MI theory is not empirical, is incompatible with g, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless. Gardner (1995) staunchly defends the empiricism of the theory by referring to the numerous laboratory and field data that contributed to its development and the ongoing re-conceptualization of the theory based on new scientific data. Regarding the claim that Multiple Intelligences theory cannot accommodate g, Gardner argues that g has a scientific place in intelligence theory but that he is interested in understanding intellectual processes that are not explained by g. In response to the criticism that MI theory is incompatible with genetic or environmental accounts of the nature of intelligence, Gardner states that his theory is most concerned with the interaction between genetics and the environment in understanding intelligence. Finally, the notion that MI theory has expanded the definition of intelligence beyond utility produces a strong reaction from Gardner. He argues passionately that the narrow definition of intelligence as equal to scholastic performance is simply too constrictive. In his view, MI theory is about the intellectual and cognitive aspects of the human mind. Gardner is careful to point out that MI theory is not a theory of personality, morality, motivation, or any other psychological construct (1995, 1999a, 1999b).

Implications for Assessment

(back to outline)

The two most widely used standardized tests of intelligence are the Wechsler scales and the Stanford-Binet. Both instruments are psychometrically sound, but Gardner believes that these tests measure only linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligences, with a narrow focus within content in those domains. According to Gardner, the current psychometric approach for measuring intelligence is not sufficient. In his view, assessment must cast a wider net to measure human cognitive abilities more accurately. Gardner (1993) proposes several improvements for the development of intelligence measures. Before enumerating those

improvements, it is important to understand how Gardner defines assessment. In his view, the purpose of assessment should be to obtain information about the skills and potentials of individuals, and provide useful feedback to the individuals and the community at large. Furthermore, Gardner (1993) draws a distinction between testing and assessment. Assessment elicits information about an individual's abilities in the context of actual performance rather than by proxy using formal instruments in a de-contextualized setting. Gardner argues for making assessment a natural part of the learning environment. Assessment is then built into the learning situation much like the constant assessment of skills that occurs in apprenticeship or the self-assessment that occurs in experts who have internalized a standard of performance based on the earlier guidance of teachers. The ecological validity of assessment is also at issue according to Gardner (1993). Predictive validity of traditional intelligence tests may be psychometrically sound, but its usefulness beyond predicting school performance is questionable. Therefore, prediction could be improved if assessments more closely approximated real working conditions. Instruments for measuring intelligence should also be "intelligence-fair" (1993, p.176). Consequently, we need to reduce the bias toward measuring intelligence through logical/mathematical and linguistic abilities and move toward looking more directly at a specific intelligence in operation (e.g., assessing for spatial intelligence by having an individual navigate his or her way around unfamiliar territory). Gardner acknowledges that this approach to assessment may be difficult to implement. Gardner (1993) emphasizes two additional points about assessment that are critical. The first is that the assessment of intelligence should encompass multiple measures. Relying on a single IQ score from a WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) without substantiating the findings through other data sources does the individual examinee a disservice and produces insufficient information for those who provide interventions. Secondly, all assessments and resulting interventions must be sensitive to individual differences and developmental levels. Finally, Gardner is in favor of assessment for the primary purpose of helping students rather than classifying or ranking them. While these views about assessment are intuitively sensible, Sternberg (1991) argues that the naturalistic approach is a "psychometric nightmare" (p. 266). Quantifying performance on these sorts of assessments is difficult, objectivity is questionable, and cultural bias is still a problem. Hard data is the scientific "gold standard" and psychometric soundness is a prerequisite. Therefore, Sternberg (1991) hesitates endorsing this approach to assessment on the basis that we would simply be replacing one flawed system of measurement with an approach that is equally problematic. Recent research on MI Theory-based assessments provides evidence in support of Sternberg's concern about psychometric quality (e.g., Plucker, Callahan, & Tomchin, 1996).

Multiple Intelligence Theory in the Classroom

Multiple Intelligence Theory in the Classroom The theory of Multiple Intelligences was first introduced by Harvard Psychologist Howard Gardner in his 1983 book, Frames of Mind. Prior to Gardner's work it was thought that there were only two intelligences: verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical. Only these two areas were covered in intelligence testing as they were relatively easy to measure. Through Project Zero at Harvard, seven intelligences were identified (Gardner, 1985). In 1998, and eighth intelligence was added . The intelligences are tools for learning and are cross-cultural in nature in that all people possess different degrees of each intelligence. Here is a brief description of each intelligence:

Here is a brief description of each intelligence: 1. Verbal/linguistic: These students will think and express themselves in words and to use language to express their ideas. These students tend to be good storytellers and excel in debating teams. This student has usually developed a good vocabulary. Authors, journalists, speakers, and teachers are common careers for verbal/linguistic learners. 2. Logical/mathematical : This is a student who uses reasoning and problem solving skills in arriving at solutions. They are able to work easily with numbers and carry out complex mathematical problems. Scientists, accountants, engineers, and computer programmers demonstrate this intelligence. 3. Visual/spatial : These students create images and are able to manipulate objects in space. They may draw, doodle, and enjoy puzzles. Architects, pilots, and designers have this intelligence 4. Musical/rhythmic : These students are sensitive to music, such as pitch, tone, melody, and rhythm. These students many hum, sing, or tap their foot to a beat (sometimes heard only in their own heads!) Musician, composers, and audiologists are appropriate careers for those with this type of intelligence. 5. Bodily/kinesthetic : This intelligence is exhibited by good motor and coordination skills. This intelligence is evident in surgeons, athletes, and dancers, athletes. 6. Interpersonal Intelligence : This student will be sensitive to the emotions and needs of others. This type of person will with others, is good at sharing, and is a good team player. This intelligence is evident in social workers, teachers,

counselors, and actors. 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence : This refers to the ability to accurately describe oneself and to use such knowledge in planning and directing their life course. Writers and philosophers often possess this intelligence. 8. Naturalist: The naturalist likes animals and plants. They are able to observe patterns in nature and classify/categorize objects. The outdoors is their preferred milieu. Florists, naturalists, veterinarians, and landscapers are appropriate careers for those exhibiting this intelligence. Gardner claims that instruction should primarily focus on the development of linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. However, Gardner also states that schools should pay equal attention to those students who display evidence of the other intelligences: the artists, musicians, dancers, counselors, and naturalists, It is unfortunate that many children who display these other intelligences are often under-appreciated and, indeed, may be classified as learning disabled or as having attention deficit disorder (this last is especially true with regard to kinesthetic learners who frequently need to move about in order to learn the material.) Their unique ways of approaching new material are simply not well understood in those classroom in which there is a strong linguistic or logical-mathematical bent. The theories of multiple intelligence (and differentiation) propose a major transformation in the way instruction is carried out. This is where differentiated instruction meshes with multiple intelligences: it is through differentiation with its emphasis on learning styles that teachers accommodate each of the eight intelligences. Teachers should be trained to present their lessons using a variety of methods to include the use of music, cooperative learning, debating, role play, dance, art, journal writing, and field trips. There are hundreds of schools throughout the country that use this approach in educating their students. However, there remain thousands of schools which utilize a traditional approach and teach through lectures, worksheets, and textbooks. The challenge facing forward-thinking educators is to disseminate the benefits of this approach to many more teacher, school administrators, parents, and others in the community who work with children, so that each child has the opportunity to learn in a way bet suited to their unique style. How to Teach to the Eight Intelligences One of the most rewarding features of multiple intelligence theory is that it provides teachers with eight potential pathways to learning so that all students can experience success! If a teacher is having difficulty getting a student to understand material via traditional linguistic or logical-mathematical methods,

the theory of multiple intelligences provides several other methods in which the material may be presented to facilitate a positive learning outcome. Indeed, once teachers create a learning profile for each student, there is no need for trial at error at all since instruction can be geared to the student's strengths. This approach can be used at all grade levels, whether kindergarten, middle school, or high school. Whatever subject matter is being taught, keep in mind the following characteristics of each of the eight intelligences: Characteristics of Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence Reads a range of materials for a variety of purposes. Learns and readily applies multiple reading strategies. Acquires a working knowledge of language structure and variation, Creates written work. Adept with print and Internet-based research Uses literacy skills to learn more about topics of academic and personal interest. Uses language to direct learning and communication goals. Characteristics of Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Learns concepts of quantity, time, and cause and effect. Uses abstract symbols to represent concrete objects, and concepts. Perceives patterns and relationships. Uses varied mathematical tools such as calculating, estimating, interpreting, and presenting information in graph and charts. Things mathematically by gathering evidence, making hypotheses, formulating models, and building strong arguments. Uses technology to solve mathematical problems. Characteristics of Kinesthetic Intelligence Explores the environment and objects through touch and physical activity.

Learns best by direct involvement and participation. Remembers best what was done rather than was said. Enjoys concrete learning experiences such as field trips, role-playing, assembling objects, physical exercise, and dance. Displays good balance, grace, and dexterity and skilled in dance, sports, and keyboarding. Creates new forms of dance, sports, or other physical activities. May express interest in such careers as athlete, dancer, surgeon, or builder. Characteristic of Visual-Spatial Intelligence Learns best by seeing or observing. Recognizes faces, objects, shapes, colors, and details. Navigates well through space; e.g. finding the way on a hiking trail, moving a car through traffic, or paddling a kayak on a river. Thinks in pictures. Has a photographic memory and uses visual images to aid in recalling information. Decodes graphs, charts, maps, and diagrams. Enjoys doodling, drawing, painting, and otherwise reproducing observed objects. Capable of mentally manipulating objects-such as turning an object in space and visualizing its new form. Can also move objects to determine how they will interact with other objects, such as gears turning on a part of machinery. Is able to perceive things in different ways or from "new perspective" such as the negative space around a painting, as well as the painting itself. Can detect one form hidden in another as in those "hidden the picture" games; e.g. locate hidden objects within a given drawing-"find the embedded striped cat" in a picture of a zoo. Perceives both subtle as well as obvious patterns; e.g. can easily see both old and young woman in one popular image. Characteristics of Musical Intelligence

Listens and responds with interest to a variety of sounds to include the human voice, environmental sounds, music. Is able to organize those sounds into patterns. Seeks out opportunities to hear music in the learning environment. Is eager to be around musicians and learn from them. Responds to music kinesthetically but performing or dancing; emotionally by responding to the mood and tempo of the music; intellectually by discussing and analyzing the music; and/or aesthetically by evaluating and exploring the meaning of the piece and music in general. Recognizes and discusses different musical styles, periods and cultural influences. Develops the ability to sing or play an instrument alone or with others. Easily learns the notations and vocabulary of music. Offers interpretation for what a musician or composer is trying to communicate through their music. Expresses an interest in such careers as singer, instrumentalist, producer, teacher or composer. Characteristics of Interpersonal Intelligence Bonds well with parents and teachers. Able to form and sustain social relationships. Recognizes and uses a variety of ways in relating to others. Acknowledges the feelings, thoughts, and moods of others and is able to adjust their style to accommodate these changes. Influences the opinion of others. Communicates effectively in verbal and nonverbal ways. Considers alternative perspectives in any social or political issue. Develops skills in mediation, organizing others for a common cause, or working

effectively with others of diverse backgrounds. Expresses an interest in such careers as teaching, social work, management, or sales. Characteristics of Intrapersonal Intelligence Bonds well with parents and teachers. Able to form and sustain social relationships. Recognizes and uses a variety of ways in relating to others. Acknowledges the feelings, thoughts, and moods of others and able to adjust their style to accommodate these changes. Influences the opinion of others. Communicates effectively in verbal and nonverbal ways. Considers alternative perspectives in any social or political issue. Develops skills in mediation, organizing others for a common cause, or working effectively with others of diverse backgrounds. Expresses an interest in such careers as teaching, social work, management, or sales. Characteristics of Naturalist Intelligence Explores the human and natural environment with interest and enthusiasm. Seeks out opportunities to observe, classify, and care for plants or animals. Recognizes patterns among species or classes of plant life. Shows interest how species are interrelated and the interdependence of human and natural systems. Wants to understand "how things work". Uses tools such as microscopes, binoculars, telescopes and takes notes based on observations.

Learns taxonomies for plants and animals. May show interest in such careers as biology, ecology, chemistry, zoology, or wilderness guide. TEACHING TIP! Let's take one lesson and see how we can apply it to each of the intelligences: Lesson/Unit Title: Solving Algebraic Equations Lesson Objective : Students will develop skills in solving algebraic equations. Anticipated Learning Outcome : Students will be able to understand and apply the concepts of solving equations. Classroom Resource Materials: Textbooks, colored pencils, cassette player, floor mats, and tape for class song. Assessment of Learning Outcome: Use Authentic Assessment principles so that each student is evaluated in the learning modality for which they are most suited. Verbal/Linguistic: Students will explain the process of solving the test equations. Logical/Mathematical: Students create flowcharts for problem-solving equations. Visual/Spatial: Provide students with algebraic equations and ask them to color code as in example. Kinesthetic: Students will walk through the equation, as they talk about how to solve it. Musical: Students sing the steps in solving the test questions. Interpersonal: Students tutors their peers in solving test problems. Intrapersonal: Student leads a group in solving the equation. Naturalistic: Student will use principles of categorization and classification to solve algebraic equations. Learning Activities

Verbal-Linguistic: Divide students into pairs to read, discuss, and outline textbook chapter. Allow students to talk about the problem solving process. Mathematical-Logical: In small groups student will outline the equation and develop a flowchart for each step in solving the problem. Kinesthetic: Teacher works with small group of students at a multicolored rubber mats placed on the floor. Teacher works through the problem with students, allowing them to move from color to color upon completion of each step Visual-Spatial: Teacher works with small group of students to color-code each step in solving the equation. Allow students to observe equation is solved. Musical: Students compose song lyrics to the song picked by the class that explains vocabulary terms such as sets, exponents, factors, variables, and constants, etc. Students solve the problem by singing the steps. Interpersonal: Students are selected as tutors/mentors for other students having difficulty in solving the equation. Intrapersonal: Using the concept of variables, individual students are given the opportunity to explain two variables in their own lives and how this relates to the variables in the equation (i.e. the solution depends on the variables provided.) Naturalist: In pairs, students create algebraic equations based on such variables in nature as different species of small mammals (rabbits, cats, foxes, etc) or plants.

Summary of Multiple Intelligence The theory of multiple intelligences serves to expand the repertoire of teachers beyond the traditional linguistic and logical methods (e.g. textbooks, worksheets, rote writing assignments, etc.) Here are several key benefits of using a multiple intelligence approach: You may take a broader perspective when considering intellectual ability. Drawing a picture, building a model, playing an instrument, or acting in play can be seen as legitimate methods for students to learn and are just as important as mathematics and writing. Studies have shown that many students who perform poorly on traditional tests are highly successful when their classroom experiences incorporate artistic, athletic, or musical activities. You will provide opportunities for authentic learning based on student needs, interests and talents. A classroom based on multiple intelligence, results in more active and engaged learners. Parent and community involvement in your school may increase as students demonstrate classroom experiences before a broader audience. Students will be able to demonstrate their strengths which will serve to motivate their increased participation. This can in turn result in enhanced selfesteem. When "teaching to the need" students feel valued and accepted for who they are and gain the confidence to experiment and create solutions when faced with new challenges