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Ai r f l ow ov e r a n Ahme d Body
Introduction
This model describes how to calculate the turbulent flow field around a simple car-like
geometry using the CFD Modules Turbulent Flow, k-c interface. Detailed
instructions guide you through the different steps of the modeling process in
COMSOL Multiphysics.
Model Definition
The Ahmed body represents a simplified, ground vehicle geometry of a bluff body
type. Its shape is simple enough to allow for accurate flow simulation but retains some
important practical features relevant to automobile bodies. The geometry was first
defined by Ahmed, who also measured its aerodynamic properties in wind-tunnel
experiments (Ref. 1). Further experiments have also been performed by Lienhart and
Becker (Ref. 2). The Ahmed body has become a popular benchmark case for RANS
models (Ref. 3).
G E O ME T R Y
The Ahmed body is presented in Figure 1. The total length (L) of the body is 1.044 m
from front to end. It is 0.288 m in height and 0.389 m in width. Cylindrical legs
0.05 m in length are attached to the bottom surface. The angle of the rear slanting
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surface is typically varied between 0 and 40 degrees. This particular geometry has a
slant angle of 25 degrees which is the same slant angle used in Ref. 3.
Length
Width
Height
Figure 1: Ahmed body with 25 degree slant of the rear face.
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The body is placed in a flow domain that is 8L-by-2L-by-2L
(length-by-width-by-height), with its front positioned 2L from the flow inlet face.
Mirror symmetry reduces the computational domain by half, as shown in Figure 2.
8L
2L
L
2L
Inlet
Outlet
Wall function
Slip
Symmetry
Figure 2: The size of the computational domain is reduced by mirror symmetry.
TU R B U L E N C E MO D E L
The Reynolds number base on the length of the body, L, and the inlet velocity is
2.7710
6
which means that the flow is turbulent. The k-c turbulence model will be
applied to account for the turbulence. The k-c turbulence model is describe in Theory
for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module Users Guide.
A common mesh size in Ref. 3 is half a million cells for simulations with wall functions.
However, those simulations do not include the stilts (the legs that support the body),
and the computational domains are smaller. Hence, you can expect to need an even
larger mesh in this simulation to resolve the flow. How large is however difficult to
know in advance. To avoid using a prohibitively large mesh, the modeling is carried
out in a series of simulations were the Reynolds number is initially 25 times lower than
the experiments and then gradually increased. After each simulation, the result is
investigated to determine if it is likely that the mesh is able to sustain a higher Reynolds
number. If not, the mesh must be refined before the Reynolds number is increased.
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The flow is considered to be incompressible. The temperature is assumed to be 293 K
and the reference pressure is 1 atm.
B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S
Air enters the computational domain at a velocity of 40 m/s normal to the inlet
surface. The turbulence intensity in the free stream is set to 0.5%. A turbulent length
scale is also needed at the inlet. Upstream of the test section in a wind tunnel is
equipment, for example honeycombs and screens, to reduce and homogenize the
turbulence. Any turbulent structures that remain can therefore be expected to have a
length scale in the same order of magnitude as the holes in the honeycombs and
screens, that is in the order of a centimeter.
At the outlet, a Pressure condition is applied. The floor of the flow domain and surface
of the Ahmed body are described by wall functions. Wall functions could also be
applied to the outer wall and the ceiling of the wind tunnel. Their main effect on the
flow around the body is however to keep the flow contained, and it will therefore
suffice to model them as slip walls.
Results and Discussion
A key figure for the Ahmed body is the total drag coefficient, C
D
, which is defined as
(1)
where F is the total drag force on the body, A
p
is area of the body projected on a plane
perpendicular to the flow direction (that is the xz-plane), is the density and u

is the
freestream velocity. Evaluating the quantities in Equation 1 gives a drag coefficient
equal to 0.279 which compares well to the experimental value of 0.285. The error is
hence 2.2 and is fairly low since errors in order of 10 is not uncommon for
simulations using wall functions (Ref. 3). A possible explanation to why C
D
is
underestimated is that wall functions are not very good at predicting the transition that
in the experiments takes place on the front of the body. This makes the turbulence
levels too low which in turn results in a too low viscous drag (Ref. 4).
Figure 3 shows streamlines behind the ahmed body. The thickness of the lines is given
by the turbulent kinetic energy. The most notable feature of the flow field is a large
empty region behind the body. The streamlines on the edge of the region are thick
but with low velocity magnitude. This region is a recirculation region. The low
pressure in the recirculation region is the main contribution to the total drag on the
F
A
p
------- C
D
u

2
2
----------- =
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body. The region ends when vortices from the trailing edges of the body merge into
two counter rotating vortices (only one vortex is visible since the other is on the other
side of the symmetry plane).
Figure 3: Streamlines behind the Ahmed Body. The streamlines are colored by the velocity
magnitude and their thickness is proportional to the turbulent kinetic energy.
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More details are visible in Figure 4 and Figure 5 which show arrow plots of the velocity
in the xz-plane 80 mm and 200 mm downstream of the body respectively.
Figure 4: Velocity in the xz-plane at y = L + 0.08 m.
The flow pattern 80 mm downstream of the body shows two major vortices, one
emanating from the outer edge of the slant and one emanating from the interaction
between the floor and the stilts. The flow is qualitatively equal to the experimental
results (Ref. 2). There are however quantitative differences. The upper vortex is smaller
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compared to experiments while the lower vortex is more pronounced than in the
experiments.
Figure 5: Velocity in the xz-plane at y = L + 0.20 m.
The flow pattern 200 mm downstream of the body shows that one major vortex is
beginning to form but remains of the separate vortices can still be detected. The
formation is however not proceeded as far as in the experiments where only one large
vortex can be seen at this position.
In conclusion, the major features of the flow is well captured by the k-c model, but
there are details that deviate from experimental data. This finding is in agreement with
other RANS simulations of the Ahmed body (Ref. 3).
References
1. S.R. Ahmed and G. Ramm, Some Salient Features of the Time-Averaged Ground
Vehicle Wake, SAE-Paper 840300, 1984.
2. H. Lienhart and S. Becker, Flow and Turbulence Structure in the Wake of a
Simplified Car Model, SAE 2003 World Congress, SAE Paper 2003-01-0656,
Detroit, Michigan, USA, 2003.
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3. 9th ERCOFTAC/IAHR Workshop on Refined Turbulence Modelling, Darmstadt
University of Technology, Germany, 2001.
4. A.C Benim, M.Cagan, A. Nahavandi, and E. Pasqualotto, RANS Predictions of
Turbulent Flow Past a Circular Cylinder over the Critical Regime, Proceedings of the
5th IASME/WSEAS International Conference on Fluid Mechanics and
Aerodynamics, Athens, Greece, 2007.
Model Library path: CFD_Module/Single-Phase_Benchmarks/ahmed_body
Modeling Instructions
MO D E L WI Z A R D
1 Go to the Model Wizard window.
2 Click Next.
3 In the Add physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Turbulent Flow>Turbulent
Flow, k-c (spf).
4 Click Next.
5 In the Studies tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
6 Click Finish.
G L O B A L D E F I N I T I O N S
Parameters
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Global Definitions and choose Parameters.
2 Go to the Settings window for Parameters.
3 Locate the Parameters section. In the Parameters table, enter the following settings:
G E O ME T R Y 1
Import 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Geometry 1 and choose Import.
NAME EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
L 1.044[m] Body length
u_in 40[m/s] Inflow velocity
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2 Go to the Settings window for Import.
3 Locate the Import section. Click the Browse button.
4 Browse to the models Model Library folder and double-click the file
ahmed_body.mphbin.
5 Click the Import button.
Block 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Block.
2 Go to the Settings window for Block.
3 Locate the Size and Shape section. In the Width edit field, type 2*L.
4 In the Depth edit field, type 8*L.
5 In the Height edit field, type 2*L.
6 Locate the Position section. In the x edit field, type -L.
7 In the y edit field, type -2*L.
8 Click the Build Selected button.
9 Click the Go to Default 3D View button on the Graphics toolbar.
Block 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Block.
2 Go to the Settings window for Block.
3 Locate the Size and Shape section. In the Width edit field, type L.
4 In the Depth edit field, type 8*L.
5 In the Height edit field, type 2*L.
6 Locate the Position section. In the x edit field, type -L.
7 In the y edit field, type -2*L.
8 Click the Build Selected button.
Difference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Boolean
Operations>Difference.
2 Select the object blk1 only.
3 Go to the Settings window for Difference.
4 Locate the Difference section. Under Objects_to_subtract, click Activate Selection.
5 Select the objects imp1 and blk2 only.
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6 Click the Build Selected button.
7 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Work Plane.
Rectangle 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry and choose Rectangle.
2 Go to the Settings window for Rectangle.
3 Locate the Size section. In the Width edit field, type L.
4 In the Height edit field, type 1.4*L.
5 Locate the Position section. In the y edit field, type 1.1*L.
6 Click the Build Selected button.
Union 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Boolean
Operations>Union.
2 Select the objects dif1 and wp1 only.
3 Click the Build Selected button.
Block 3
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Block.
2 Go to the Settings window for Block.
3 Locate the Size and Shape section. In the Width edit field, type L.
4 In the Height edit field, type 3*L.
5 Locate the Position section. In the y edit field, type 2.5*L.
6 Click the Build Selected button.
Rotate 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Transforms>Rotate.
2 Select the object blk3 only.
3 Go to the Settings window for Rotate.
4 Locate the Rotation Angle section. In the Rotation edit field, type 45.
5 Locate the Point on Axis of Rotation section. In the y edit field, type 2.5*L.
6 Locate the Axis of Rotation section. In the z edit field, type 0.
7 In the x edit field, type 1.
8 Click the Build Selected button.
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Convert to Surface 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Conversions>Convert
to Surface.
2 Select the object rot1 only.
3 Click the Build Selected button.
Split 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Split.
2 Select the object csur1 only.
3 Click the Build Selected button.
Delete Entities 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Delete Entities.
2 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar.
3 On the object spl1, select all faces except spl1(3).
4 Click the Build Selected button.
Union 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Boolean
Operations>Union.
2 Select the objects uni1 (the block) and spl1(3) only.
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3 Click the Build Selected button.
Delete Entities 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 1 and choose Delete Entities.
2 Select the boundary protruding from the top surface.
3 Click the Build Selected button.
Form Union
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Form Union and choose Build Selected.
2 Click the Go to Default 3D View button on the Graphics toolbar.
3 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Geometry 1 node.
4 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar to return to the default state.
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The model geometry is now complete.
MA T E R I A L S
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Materials and choose Open Material
Browser.
2 Go to the Material Browser window.
3 Locate the Materials section. In the Materials tree, select Built-In>Air.
4 Right-click and choose Add Material to Model from the menu.
5 In the Model Builder windows toolbar, click the Show button and select Advanced
Physics Interface Options in the menu.
Turbulent Flow, k-c
1 In the Model Builder window, click Model 1>Turbulent Flow, k-c.
2 Go to the SettingsTurbulent Flow, k-c window for .
3 Click to expand the Advanced Settings section.
4 From the CFL number expression list, select Manual.
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5 In the CFL
loc
edit field, type
1.3^min(niterCMP-1,9)+if(niterCMP>30,1.5*1.3^min(niterCMP-30,9),0
)+if(niterCMP>60,2.5*1.3^min(niterCMP-60,9),0).
The automatic formula for the local CFL number is too optimistic in this case. The
delicate balance of complicated flow structures behind the body needs a more
conservative ramping of the local CFL number to prevent the calculation from
diverging.
Fluid Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Turbulent Flow, k-c node, then click Fluid
Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Fluid Properties.
3 Locate the Fluid Properties section. From the list, select User defined. In the
associated edit field, type 5e-4[Pa*s].
Wall 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Turbulent Flow, k-c and choose Wall.
2 Go to the Settings window for Wall.
3 Locate the Boundary Condition section. From the Boundary condition list, select Slip.
4 Select Boundaries 4, 12, 24, and 25 only.
Symmetry 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Turbulent Flow, k-c and choose Symmetry.
2 Select Boundaries 1 and 10 only.
Inlet 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Turbulent Flow, k-c and choose Inlet.
2 Select Boundary 2 only.
3 Go to the Settings window for Inlet.
4 Locate the Velocity section. In the U
0
edit field, type u_in.
5 Locate the Boundary Condition section. In the I
T
edit field, type 0.005.
Outlet 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Turbulent Flow, k-c and choose Outlet.
2 Select Boundary 17 only.
3 Go to the Settings window for Outlet.
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4 Locate the Boundary Condition section. From the Boundary condition list, select
Pressure.
ME S H 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click Model 1>Mesh 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Mesh.
3 Locate the Mesh Settings section. From the Sequence type list, select User-controlled
mesh.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element size edit field,
type 0.15.
5 In the Minimum element size edit field, type 0.005.
6 In the Resolution of curvature edit field, type 0.4.
7 In the Resolution of narrow regions edit field, type 0.5.
Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. Click Clear Selection.
4 Select Boundaries 13 and 14 only.
5 Go to the Settings window for Size.
6 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
7 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
8 In the associated edit field, type 0.01.
9 Click the Build Selected button.
Size 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Size.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
select Boundary.
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4 Select Boundaries 7 and 9 only.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
7 In the associated edit field, type 0.025.
Size 3
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Size.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
select Edge.
4 Select Edges 19, 21, 22, 48, and 49 only.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
7 In the associated edit field, type 0.005.
Size 4
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Size.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
select Boundary.
4 Select Boundaries 3 and 15 only.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
7 In the associated edit field, type 0.05.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Distribution.
2 Go to the Settings window for Distribution.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
select Edge.
4 Select Edge 23 only.
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5 Locate the Distribution section. From the Distribution properties list, select
Predefined distribution type.
6 In the Number of elements edit field, type 50.
7 In the Element ratio edit field, type 3.
Free Tetrahedral 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click Free Tetrahedral 1.
2 Select Domain 1 only.
3 Click the Build Selected button.
Swept 1
In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Swept.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Swept 1 and choose Distribution.
2 Select Domain 2 only.
3 Go to the Settings window for Distribution.
4 Locate the Distribution section. From the Distribution properties list, select
Predefined distribution type.
5 In the Number of elements edit field, type 17.
6 In the Element ratio edit field, type 10.
7 From the Distribution method list, select Geometric sequence.
Boundary Layers 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click Boundary Layers 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layers.
3 Click to expand the Advanced Settings section.
4 In the Maximum angle per split edit field, type 120.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Thickness adjustment factor edit
field, type 2.
4 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Build All.
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ME S H 2
In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1 and choose Mesh.
Reference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 2 and choose More
Operations>Reference.
2 Go to the Settings window for Reference.
3 Locate the Reference section. From the Mesh list, select Mesh 1.
Scale 1
1 Right-click Reference 1 and choose Scale.
2 Go to the Settings window for Scale.
3 Locate the Scale section. In the Element size scale edit field, type 2.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Reference 1 and choose Expand.
2 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
3 Go to the Settings window for Size.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element growth rate edit
field, type 1.2.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Number of boundary layers edit
field, type 4.
4 In the Boundary layer stretching factor edit field, type 1.25.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 2 and choose Build All.
ME S H 3
In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes and choose Mesh.
Reference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 3 and choose More
Operations>Reference.
2 Go to the Settings window for Reference.
3 Locate the Reference section. From the Mesh list, select Mesh 2.
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Scale 1
1 Right-click Reference 1 and choose Scale.
2 Go to the Settings window for Scale.
3 Locate the Scale section. In the Element size scale edit field, type 2.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Reference 1 and choose Expand.
2 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
3 Go to the Settings window for Size.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element growth rate edit
field, type 1.25.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Number of boundary layers edit
field, type 3.
4 In the Boundary layer stretching factor edit field, type 1.3.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 3 and choose Build All.
ME S H 1
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 1 node.
ME S H 2
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 2 node.
ME S H 3
1 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 3 node.
2 In the Model Builder windows toolbar, click the Show button and select Advanced
Study Options in the menu.
S T U D Y 1
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1 node.
2 Right-click Study 1>Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid Level.
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3 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid Level.
4 Locate the Mesh Selection section. In the associated table, enter the following
settings:
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid
Level.
6 Right-click Study 1 and choose Show Default Solver.
7 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1>Solver Configurations node.
Solver 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solver 1
node.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 1 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
3 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
4 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
5 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 2 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
6 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
7 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
8 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Study 1 node.
Rename the study as a reminder of the viscosity used.
9 In the Model Builder window, right-click Study 1 and choose Rename.
10 Go to the Rename Study dialog box and type mu=5e-4 in the New name edit field.
11 Click OK.
12 Right-click Study 1 and choose Compute.
It is advisable to disable the automatic plot update when working with large 3D
models.
1 In the Options menu, choose Preferences.
2 Go to the Preferences dialog box.
3 Click the Results tab.
GEOMETRY MESH
Geometry 1 {geom1} mesh2
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4 Clear the Update plot when selected check box.
5 Click the OK button.
R E S U L T S
Investigate the lift-off in viscous units to verify that the wall resolution is sufficient.
Wall Resolution (spf)
1 In the Model Builder window, click Results>Wall Resolution (spf).
2 Go to the Settings window for 3D Plot Group.
3 Click the Plot button.
There is no need to refine the surface mesh since the wall lift-off is 11.06 almost
everywhere (the exact result depends on the computational platform).
Figure 6: Wall lift-off in viscous units for =5e
4
Pas.
Velocity (spf)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Velocity (spf) node, then click Slice
1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Slice.
3 Locate the Plane Data section. From the Entry method list, select Coordinates.
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4 In the x-coordinate edit field, type 0.15.
5 Click the Plot button.
The slice plot of the velocity shows that the flow for this Reynolds number is well
resolved except perhaps in the wake. The main Reynolds number effect in the wake
is expected to be the thickness of the shear layers and those seem well resolved all
together. It is therefore probable that the resolution in the wake will suffice to
converge a simulation at a higher Reynolds number.
Figure 7: Slice plot at x=0.15 m of the velocity magnitude for =5e
4
Pas.
Turbulent Flow, k-c
Fluid Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click Model 1>Turbulent Flow, k-c>Fluid Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Fluid Properties.
3 Locate the Fluid Properties section. In the edit field, type 1e-4[Pa*s].
MO D E L WI Z A R D
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Untitled.mph and choose Add Study.
2 Go to the Model Wizard window.
3 In the Studies tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
4 Click Finish.
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S T U D Y 2
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, click Study 2>Step 1: Stationary.
2 Go to the Settings window for Stationary.
3 Locate the Mesh Selection section. In the associated table, enter the following
settings:
4 Right-click Study 2>Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid Level.
5 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid Level.
6 Locate the Mesh Selection section. In the associated table, enter the following
settings:
7 In the Model Builder window, right-click Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid
Level.
8 Right-click Study 2 and choose Show Default Solver.
9 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 2>Solver Configurations node.
Solver 2
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solver 2
node, then click Dependent Variables 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Dependent Variables.
3 Locate the Initial Values of Variables Solved For section. From the Method list, select
Solution.
4 From the Solution list, select Solver 1.
5 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Segregated 1 node.
6 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 1 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
7 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
8 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
MESH
mesh1
MESH
mesh2
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9 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 2 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
10 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
11 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
12 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Study 2 node.
13 In the Model Builder window, right-click Study 2 and choose Rename.
14 Go to the Rename Study dialog box and type mu=1e-4 in the New name edit field.
15 Click OK.
16 Right-click Study 2 and choose Compute.
R E S U L T S
Wall Resolution (spf) 1
1 Go to the Settings window for 3D Plot Group.
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2 Click the Plot button.
The wall lift-off is now larger than 11.06 at several locations. It is hence not likely
that the current mesh will suffice to converge a simulation with five times higher
Reynolds number.
Figure 8: Wall lift-off in viscous units for =1e
4
Pas.
ME S H 4
In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes and choose Mesh.
Reference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 4 and choose More
Operations>Reference.
2 Go to the Settings window for Reference.
3 Locate the Reference section. From the Mesh list, select Mesh 1.
Size
1 Right-click Reference 1 and choose Expand.
2 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
3 Go to the Settings window for Size.
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4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Minimum element size edit field,
type 0.0025.
5 In the Maximum element growth rate edit field, type 1.1.
Size 2
1 In the Model Builder window, click 2.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element size edit field,
type 0.02.
Size 3
1 In the Model Builder window, click Size 3.
2 Go to the Settings window for Size.
3 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element size edit field,
type 0.0025.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, click Distribution 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Distribution.
3 Locate the Distribution section. In the Number of elements edit field, type 60.
4 In the Element ratio edit field, type 3.5.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Swept 1 node, then click Distribution 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Distribution.
3 Locate the Distribution section. In the Number of elements edit field, type 23.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Thickness adjustment factor edit
field, type 1.
4 In the Number of boundary layers edit field, type 6.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 4 and choose Build All.
6 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Mesh 4 node.
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ME S H 5
In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes and choose Mesh.
Reference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 5 and choose More
Operations>Reference.
2 Go to the Settings window for Reference.
3 Locate the Reference section. From the Mesh list, select Mesh 4.
Scale 1
1 Right-click Reference 1 and choose Scale.
2 Go to the Settings window for Scale.
3 Locate the Scale section. In the Element size scale edit field, type 2.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Reference 1 and choose Expand.
2 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
3 Go to the Settings window for Size.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element growth rate edit
field, type 1.15.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Number of boundary layers edit
field, type 5.
4 In the Boundary layer stretching factor edit field, type 1.3.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 5 and choose Build All.
6 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Mesh 5 node.
ME S H 6
In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes and choose Mesh.
Reference 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Model 1>Meshes>Mesh 6 and choose More
Operations>Reference.
2 Go to the Settings window for Reference.
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3 Locate the Reference section. From the Mesh list, select Mesh 5.
Scale 1
1 Right-click Reference 1 and choose Scale.
2 Go to the Settings window for Scale.
3 Locate the Scale section. In the Element size scale edit field, type 2.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Reference 1 and choose Expand.
2 In the Model Builder window, click Size.
3 Go to the Settings window for Size.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element growth rate edit
field, type 1.2.
Boundary Layer Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Boundary Layers 1 node, then click
Boundary Layer Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties.
3 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Number of boundary layers edit
field, type 4.
4 In the Boundary layer stretching factor edit field, type 1.4.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 6 and choose Build All.
6 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Mesh 6 node.
Turbulent Flow, k-c
Fluid Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Model 1>Turbulent Flow, k-c node, then
click Fluid Properties 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Fluid Properties.
3 Locate the Fluid Properties section. From the list, select From material.
MO D E L WI Z A R D
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Untitled.mph and choose Add Study.
2 Go to the Model Wizard window.
3 In the Studies tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
4 Click Finish.
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S T U D Y 3
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, click Study 3>Step 1: Stationary.
2 Go to the Settings window for Stationary.
3 Locate the Mesh Selection section. In the associated table, enter the following
settings:
4 Right-click Study 3>Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid Level.
5 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid Level.
6 Locate the Mesh Selection section. In the associated table, enter the following
settings:
7 In the Model Builder window, right-click Step 1: Stationary and choose Multigrid
Level.
8 Right-click Study 3 and choose Show Default Solver.
9 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 3>Solver Configurations node.
Solver 3
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 3>Solver Configurations>Solver 3
node, then click Dependent Variables 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Dependent Variables.
3 Locate the Initial Values of Variables Solved For section. From the Method list, select
Solution.
4 From the Solution list, select Solver 2.
5 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 1 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
6 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
7 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
8 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stationary Solver 1>Iterative 2 node, then
click Multigrid 1.
MESH
mesh4
MESH
mesh5
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9 Go to the Settings window for Multigrid.
10 Find the subsection. From the Hierarchy generation method list, select Manual.
11 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Study 3 node.
12 In the Model Builder window, right-click Study 3 and choose Rename.
13 Go to the Rename Study dialog box and type mu from material in the New name
edit field.
14 Click OK.
15 Right-click Study 3 and choose Compute.
R E S U L T S
Wall Resolution (spf) 2
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results>Wall Resolution (spf) 2 and choose
Plot.
The wall lift-off is larger than 11.06 at some locations, but it is close to 11.06 on
most of the body and can hence be considered to be acceptable.
Figure 9: Wall lift-off in viscous units for from material.
To evaluate F and A
p
in Equation 1, perform the following steps:
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Explicit 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Definitions and choose Selections>Explicit.
2 Go to the Settings window for Explicit.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. From the Geometric entity level list, select
Boundary.
4 Click the Select Box button on the Graphics toolbar.
5 Select Boundaries 59, 13, 14, and 1823 only.
6 Right-click Explicit 1 and choose Rename.
7 Go to the Rename Explicit dialog box and type Body in the New name edit field.
8 Click OK.
R E S U L T S
Derived Values
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results>Derived Values and choose
Integration>Surface Integration.
2 Go to the Settings window for Surface Integration.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 3.
4 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, select Body.
5 In the upper-right corner of the Expression section, click Replace Expression.
6 From the menu, choose Turbulent Flow, k-c>Total stress>Total stress, y component
(spf.T_stressy).
7 Click the Evaluate button.
8 In the Model Builder window, right-click Derived Values and choose
Integration>Surface Integration.
9 Go to the Settings window for Surface Integration.
10 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 3.
11 Click the Wireframe Rendering button on the Graphics toolbar.
12 Select Boundaries 57, 18, and 19 only.
13 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression edit field, type ny.
14 Click the Evaluate button.
The following steps reproduce Figure 3:
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Data Sets
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results>Data Sets and choose Solution.
2 Go to the Settings window for Solution.
3 Locate the Solution section. From the Solution list, select Solver 3.
4 Right-click Solution 4 and choose Add Selection.
5 Go to the Settings window for Selection.
6 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
select Boundary.
7 From the Selection list, select Body.
8 Select Boundaries 3, 59, 1316, and 1823 only.
Velocity (spf) 2
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Velocity (spf) 2 node.
2 Right-click Slice 1 and choose Delete.
3 Click Yes to confirm.
4 Right-click Velocity (spf) 2 and choose Surface.
5 Go to the Settings window for Surface.
6 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 4.
7 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression edit field, type 1.
8 Locate the Coloring and Style section. Clear the Color legend check box.
9 From the Coloring list, select Uniform.
10 From the Color list, select Gray.
11 Click the Plot button.
12 In the Model Builder window, click Velocity (spf) 2.
13 Clear the Plot data set edges check box.
14 Right-click Velocity (spf) 2 and choose Streamline.
15 Go to the Settings window for Streamline.
16 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, select Start point
controlled.
17 From the Entry method list, select Coordinates.
18 In the x edit field, type range(0.01,0.03,0.16) range(0.01,0.03,0.16)
range(0.01,0.03,0.16) range(0.01,0.03,0.16) range(0.01,0.03,0.16).
19 In the y edit field, type -0.5*L.
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20 In the z edit field, type 0.02*1^range(1,6) 0.08*1^range(1,6)
0.14*1^range(1,6) 0.2*1^range(1,6) 0.26*1^range(1,6).
21 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Line type list, select Tube.
22 In the Tube radius expression edit field, type k*1[s^2/m].
23 Select the Radius scale factor check box.
24 In the associated edit field, type 3e-4.
25 Right-click Streamline 1 and choose Color Expression.
26 In the Settings window, click Plot.
The following steps will reproduce Figure 4 and Figure 5:
Data Sets
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results>Data Sets and choose Cut Plane.
2 Go to the Settings window for Cut Plane.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 3.
4 Locate the Plane Data section. From the Plane list, select zx-planes.
5 In the y-coordinate edit field, type L+0.08.
6 In the Model Builder window, right-click Data Sets and choose Cut Plane.
7 Go to the Settings window for Cut Plane.
8 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 3.
9 Locate the Plane Data section. From the Plane list, select zx-planes.
10 In the y-coordinate edit field, type L+0.2.
3D Plot Group 10
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results and choose 3D Plot Group.
2 Go to the Settings window for 3D Plot Group.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Solution 3.
4 Locate the Plot Settings section. Clear the Plot data set edges check box.
3D Plot Group 10
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Results>Velocity (spf) 2>Surface 1 and
choose Copy.
2 Right-click Results>3D Plot Group 10 and choose Paste Surface.
3 Right-click 3D Plot Group 10 and choose Arrow Surface.
4 Go to the Settings window for Arrow Surface.
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5 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Cut Plane 1.
6 Locate the Expression section. In the y component edit field, type 0.
7 Locate the Coloring and Style section. In the Scale factor edit field, type 2.4.
8 In the Number of arrows edit field, type 2500.
9 From the Color list, select Black.
10 In the Model Builder window, right-click Arrow Surface 1 and choose Filter.
11 Go to the Settings window for Filter.
12 Locate the Element Selection section. In the Logical expression for inclusion edit field,
type (x<0.35)*(z<0.45).
13 In the Model Builder window, click 3D Plot Group 10.
14 Go to the Settings window for 3D Plot Group.
15 Locate the Plot Settings section. Select the Title check box.
16 In the associated edit field, type Arrow: Velocity in xz-plane.
17 Click the Plot button.
18 Right-click 3D Plot Group 10 and choose Duplicate.
3D Plot Group 11
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the 3D Plot Group 11 node, then click Arrow
Surface 1.
2 Go to the Settings window for Arrow Surface.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, select Cut Plane 2.
4 Click the Plot button.