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recovery. Under contributory negligence, if the plaintiff is responsible for the injuries sustained in any way, no matter how slight, he or she cannot be awarded any damages. Recognizing that this all-ornothing approach often results in severe consequences, most states have moved to the less severe system of comparative negligence. In comparative negligence, the damage award is apportioned depending on the degree of fault or contribution to the injuries. Comparative negligence is distinguished between pure and modified forms. Pure comparative negligence allows the plaintiff to recover any amount of damages for which the defendant was negligent. In states that have adopted a modified comparative negligence, damages are awarded only if the defendants negligence is greater than that of the plaintiff. In the early twenty-first century, a majority of states operate within some type of comparative negligence system. Malpractice As in medical malpractice, the term educational malpractice refers to negligence on the part of a professional. However, the courts have not recognized educational malpractice as a cause of action for damages. The seminal case is Peter W. v. San Francisco Unified School District (1976). Here the student was graduated from high school while still being illiterate. The court found no legal duty on which to base an action against the school district. Further, it concluded that there was no workable standard of care for teaching against which the defendants actions could be judged. Finally, the court noted that the degree of certainty that the plaintiff had suffered any injury, the extent of the injury, and the establishment of a causal link between defendants conduct and the plaintiffs injuries were uncertain. The primary motive for courts not recognizing educational malpractice as a cause of action is generally public policy. The concern typically expressed is that recognition of this cause of action would require the courts to make judgments on the validity of educational policies. Additionally, court have noted there are other, more appropriate avenues of relief if an individual is dissatisfied with the public schools, such as individual administrative review and school board elections. See also: Principal, School; School Boards; Sports, School.

BILIOGRAPHY

Alexander, Kern, and Alexander, M. David. 2001. American Public School Law, 5th edition. Belmont, CA: West/Thomson Learning. McCarthy, Martha M., and Cambron-McCabe, Nelda H. 1992. Public School Law: Teachers and Students Rights. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Underwood, Julie K. 2000. Negligence. In A School Law PrimerPart II, ed. National School Boards Association Council of School Attorneys. Alexandria, VA: NSBA Council of School Attorneys Julie K. Underwood

LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES

Rather than emphasizing a specific course of study or professional training, liberal arts colleges aim to expose students to a wide breadth of courses in the humanities and both physical and social sciences. Although the curriculum varies from college to college, a students coursework at a liberal arts school would include many or all of the following subjects: history, philosophy, religion, literature, physical sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, physics), social sciences (e.g., psychology, sociology, economics, politics), the arts (e.g., theater, music, art), languages, and mathematics. Liberal arts colleges tend to stress the importance of teaching by faculty and usually have smaller enrollments. The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education is a typology of colleges and universities in America that orders colleges and universities by category. Within the Carnegie Classification system there is a separate and distinct category for liberal arts colleges called Baccalaureate Colleges Liberal Arts. Baccalaureate CollegesLiberal Arts are identified as institutions that are primarily undergraduate colleges with major emphasis on baccalaureate programs. During the period studied, they awarded at least half of their baccalaureate degrees in liberal arts fields (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching website). There are 228 liberal arts institutions, which comprise 15.4 percent of all colleges and universities in the United States. Of these 228 colleges and universities twenty-six are public institutions, comprising 15 percent of this category, and 202 are private not-for-profit institu-

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tions, comprising 88.6 percent of this category. There are no private for-profit liberal arts institutions. Clearly, private liberal arts colleges outnumber public liberal arts colleges in the United States. History of Liberal Arts Colleges American universities began with the founding of Harvard in 1636, which was modeled after Emmanuel College at Cambridge University. After the founding of Harvard and into the early 1800s, several colleges were founded. These colleges, like Harvard, were small, religiously affiliated institutions. Appropriate curriculum for these colleges became widely debated in the early part of the nineteenth century. As science and technology became more prevalent and began to shape the world, American society called upon its colleges to provide coursework that suited the new era. In reply to these demands, Yale President Jeremiah Day organized a committee to address the aforementioned debates. The resultant document was The Yale Report of 1828. The Yale Report of 1828 called for breadth in curriculum as the writers of the document doubted whether the powers of the mind can be developed, in their fairest proportions, by studying languages alone, or mathematics alone, or natural or political science alone (p. 173). The document further states that the course of instruction which is given to undergraduates in the college is not designed to include professional studies. Our object is not to teach what is peculiar to any one of the professions; but to lay the foundation which is common to them all (p. 173). Since its publication, The Yale Report of 1828 has become the classic argument for a liberal education and liberal arts colleges in the United States. In the mid-nineteenth century, Americans began traveling to Germany to obtain their Ph.D.s. The influx of German-educated scholars into to the United States bought a new model for the American college, and created what is now the research university. During this same time, land-grant colleges and technical schools began to develop in the United States. All three of these new types of colleges were focused on specific training, and therefore were antithetical to the liberal arts college. Many of the colleges that were founded on ideals closer to those of liberal arts colleges (e.g. Harvard, Yale, Princeton) became research universities. Other colleges pur-

posefully chose to remain small and committed to a liberal education. Over time the American liberal arts college has become a small part of the American higher education system. Yet the liberal arts college is flourishing at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Perhaps this is because the liberal arts college is unique in character or perhaps because of the unique character of the students that the liberal arts college produces. Characteristics of Liberal Arts Colleges At the heart of the liberal arts colleges are their missions. Most mission statements of liberal arts colleges endeavor to educate the whole student and emphasize education for its own sake rather than for job preparation. Liberal arts colleges tend to be small and private. Many liberal arts colleges have total enrollments of less than 2,000 students with low student-to-teacher ratios. They are also usually residential and value the idea of community. The liberal arts college is invested in teaching, and students and professors often collaborate with one another in the learning process. Oscar Paige, the president of Austin College, characterized the liberal arts college by saying: The residential nature of our college and of many liberal arts colleges is unique and adds to the value of the educational experience. The liberal arts community is a community that encourages inquiry and investigation and as a result students are challenged to think outside the box more on this type of campus then in other settings. Critical thinking, innovation, interdisciplinary curriculum and personal interaction with faculty all characterize this type of institution. (personal communication with author) Most liberal arts colleges in the United States were founded by various religious dominations. For example, there are colleges founded by Lutherans (e.g., St. Olaf College, Luther College), Baptists (e.g., Arkansas Baptist College), and Presbyterians (e.g., Rhodes College, St. Andrews Presbyterian College). Many of these colleges have maintained strong religious affiliations into the twenty-first century. Many others maintain links with the church that founded the institution, but have a limited religious presence on campus. Some liberal arts colleges have abandoned all former religious ties.

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Liberal arts colleges are often innovative in their programs. In fact, there are many distinct types of liberal arts colleges because of their unique programs. At Colorado College and Cornell College students can take one course at a time. At St. Johns College, students study the Great Books. Another special program at several liberal arts colleges is the 414 semester. Students take four classes in the fall semester, one in-depth class in the month of January, and four classes in the spring semester. Austin College, Calvin College, and Eckerd College are examples of colleges that have 414 programs. At some colleges students get to design their own program (e.g., Marlboro College). One liberal arts college, Virginia Military Institute, is a military college. Another liberal arts college, Reed College, provides students with written assessments for their complete coursework rather than grades. Some liberal arts colleges focus on serving particular populations. There are all-womens colleges. Smith College and Mills College are two such liberal arts colleges. Among the nations historically black colleges and universities are liberal arts colleges (e.g., Morehouse College, Spelman College). One of the few all-mens colleges left in the United States, Walbash College, is a liberal arts institution. Role of Liberal Arts Colleges in the U.S. System Liberal arts colleges serve students who wish to become educated citizens and productive members of society. The liberal arts college strives to produce thoughtful, well-rounded citizens of the world. The promise of a liberal arts education is well summed up by Michele Myers, president of Sarah Lawrence College, when she notes that liberal arts colleges provide an education in which students learn how to learn, an education that emphasizes the forming rather than filling of minds, an education that renders our graduates adaptive to any marketplace, curious about whatever world is around them, and resourceful enough to change with the times. See also: Academic Disciplines; Carnegie Classification System, The; Higher Education in the United States.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Franek, Robert, et al. 2001. The Best 331 Colleges. New York: Princeton Review. Koblik, Steven. 1999. Foreword. Daedalus 128(1):13. Lucas, Christopher J. 1994. American Higher Education: A History. New York: St. Martins Griffin. Myers, Michele T. 2001. Preparing Students for an Uncertain Future. Liberal Education 87 (3):2226. The Yale Report of 1828. 1989. In ASHE Reader on the History of Higher Education, ed. Lester F. Goodchild and Harold S. Wechsler. Needham Heights, MA: Ginn.
INTERNET RESOURCE

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 2002. Category Definitions. <www.carnegiefoundation.org>. Stacy A. Jacob

LIBRARIES, SCHOOL
See: School Libraries.

LICENSING AND CERTIFICATION

See: Teacher Evaluation.

LIFE EXPERIENCE FOR COLLEGE CREDIT

As higher education continues to attract an increasing number of adult students, many colleges and universities are developing programs to meet their distinctive needs. These students, age twenty-five and over, comprise 38 percent of the undergraduate population, according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census in 1999, and bring with them rich clusters of college-level knowledge gleaned from a variety of sources. They provide challenges to higher education not seen with traditional-age college students, including financial concerns, time constraints, and a distinct desire not to repeat learning what they have already gained from their professional or life experience. As a result, the practice of awarding college credit for learning from life experience has become a popular effort to attract and retain adult students.

Brubacher, John S., and Rudy, Willis. 1999. Higher Education in Transition: A History of American Colleges and Universities, 4th edition. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.