Dont Remove 301

STA301 IMP notes Headings and
Some Questions Answers

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Pie Chart : Pie Chart consists of a circle which is divided into two or more mars in
accordance with the number of distinct classes that we have in our data.
Statistical
Inference :
Statistical Inference is an estimate or prediction or some other
generalization about a Population based on information contained in a
sample.
Statistics : Statistics is that science which enables to draw conclustions about various
phenomena one the basis of real data collected on sample basis.
Sample : Sample is that part of the Population from which information is collected.
What is
meant by
order?. :
Order: Arrangement of objects in ascending or descending way is known
as order.
Population
:
The collection of all individuals,items or data under consideration in
statistical study is called Population.
Nominal
Scale :
The classification or grouping of observatoins into mutually exclusive
qualitative categories is said to constitute a nominal scale e.g students are
classified as male and female.
Ordinal
Scale :
It includes the characteristic of a nominal scale and in addition has the
property of ordering or ranking of measurments e.g the performance of
students can be rated as excellent,good or poor.
Interval
Scale :
A measurment scale possessing a constant interval size but not true zero
point is called an Interval Scale.
Ratio Scale
:
It is a special kind of an interval scale in which the scale of measurment
has a true zero point as its origin.
Median : Median of a set of values arranged in ascending or descending order of
magnitude is defined as middle value if the number of values is odd and
mean of two middle values if the number of values is even.Median is a
value at or below which 50% of data lie.
Average : A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data
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as a whole is called an average. It is more or less a central value around
which the observations tend to cluster so it is called measure of central
tendency. Since measure of central tendency indicate the location of the
distribution on X axis so it is also called measure of location.
Mean
Deviation :
The mean deviation is defined as the arithmetic mean of the deviations
measured either from the mean or from the median, all deviations being
counted as positive.
Chebshev's
Theorm :
Chebshev's Theorem states that "For any number K greater than one at
least 1-1/k2 of the data values fall with in K standard deviations of the
mean i.e. within the interval.
Moments : Moments are the arithmetic means of the powers to which the deviations
are raised.
Kurtosis : kurtosis is the degree of peakness of a distribution usually taken relative
to a normal distribution.
Correlation
:
Correlation is a measure of the strength or the degree of relationship
between two random variables. OR Interdependence of two variables is
called correlation.
Venn
Diagram :
A diagram that is understood to represent sets by circular regions, parts of
circular regions or their complements with respect to a rectangle
representing the space S is called a Venn diagram. The Venn diagrams
are used to represent sets and subsets in a pictorial way and to verify the
relationship among sets and subsets.
Mutually
Exclusive
Event :
Two events are said to be mutually exclusive events if and only if they
can not both occur together at the same time. OR Two events are said to
be mutually exclusive events if the occurrence of one event discard the
occurrence of other event.
Independent
events :
Two events A and B in the same sample space S, are defined to be
independent (or statistically independent) if the probability that one event
occurs, is not affected by whether the other event has or has not occured.
Random
variable :
A numerical quantity whose value is determined by the outcome of a
random experiment is called a random variable.
Distribution
Function :
2
The function which gives the probability of the event that X takes a value
less than or equal TO a specified value x is called a distribution function
and is also called the cumulative distribution function.
Cumulative The function which gives the probability of the event that X takes a value
Distribution
Function :
less than or equal TO a specified value x is called a cumulative
distribution function and is also called the distribution function.
Sampling
Frame :
A sampling frame is a complete list of all the elements in the population.
Sampling
Error :
The sampling error is the difference between the the sample statistic and
the population parameter.
Probability
Samples :
Probability samples are those in which following the sampling plan each
unit in the poplation has a known probability of being included in the
sample.
Non
probability
samples :
Non probability samples are those in which the sample elements are the
arbitrarily selected by the sampler because in this judgment the elements
thus chosen will most effectively represent the Population.
Frequency
Polygon :
A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies against
the mid-points of the classes, and connecting the points so obtained by
straight line segments.
Variable : A measurable quantity which can vary from one individual or object to
another is called a variable.
Constant : A quantity which can assume only one value is called a constant
Event. : the possible outcomes of an experiment is known as event.
Data. : A well defined collection of objects is known as data.
Mode : The mode is a value which occures most frequently in a set of data i.e. it
indicates the most common result
Box and
Whisker
plot :
A Box and Whisker plot provides a graphical representation of data
through its five number summary.
The five
number
summary :
3
A five number summary consists of X0, Q1, median, Q3, and Xm. It
enables us to find the shape of the distribution without drawing a graph.
EXHAUSTIVE
EVENTS :
Two or more than two mutually exclusive events are said to be
exhaustive events when their union constitute the entire sample space
Equally Two events A and B are said to be equally likely when one event is as
likely
events :
likely to occur as other
Probability
:
Probability is defined as the ratio of favorable cases over equally likely
cases.
Table : Table is a systematic arrangement of data into vertical columns and
horizontal rows.
Tabulation
:
The process of arranging data into rows and columns is called tabulation.
Classification
:
The process of arranging data in classes or categories according to
some common characteristics present in the data is called classification.
Class Mark
or Mid
Point :
The class mark or mid point is that value which divides a class into two
equall parts.
Mid Poin
or Class
Mark :
The mid point or class mark is that value which divides a class into two
equal parts.
Measure of
location :
A single value which intended to represent a distribution or a set of data
as a whole is called an average. It is more or less a central value around
which the observations tend to cluster so it is called measure of central
tendency. Since measure of central tendency indicate the location of the
distribution on X axis so it is also called measure of location.
The Semiinterquartile
Range :
The quartile deviation or the Semi-interquartile Range is defined as half
of the difference between the first and third quartiles.
The
coefficient
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of variation
:
The coefficient of variation expresses the standard deviation as the
percentage of the arithmetic mean.
Disjoint
Set :
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint Sets if they have no elements in
common.
DISTRIBUTION
FUNCTION: :
The distribution function of a random variable X, denoted by F(x),
is defined by F(x) = P(X < x). The function F(x) gives the
probability of the event that X takes a value LESS THAN OR
EQUAL TO a specified value x. The distribution function is
abbreviated to d.f. and is also called the cumulative distribution
function (cdf) as it is the cumulative probability function of the
random variable X from the smallest value up to a specific value x.
Experimental
design: :
An experimental design is a set of rules or a plan to collect the data
relevant to the problem under investigation in such a way as to provide
the basis for valid and objective inferences about the stated problem.
The plan usually consists of collection of the treatments, specification
of experimental layout, allocation of treatments.
Experimental
Unit: :
An experimental unit is the basic unit to which the experiment is
performed. It is the basic unit to which the treatment is applied and in
which the variable under investigation is measured and analyzed.
Randomized
Deigns; :
These designs are those in which treatments are applied to experimental
units randomly and conclusions are supported by the statistical results.
Basic
Randomized
Designs: :
Randomization Replication Local Control
Randomization:
:
It is a random process of assigning treatments to the experimental
unit. The random process implies that every possible allocation of
treatments has the same probability.
Replication:
:
The second principle of an experimental design is replication which is
the repetition of the basic experiment. It is a complete run of all the
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treatments to be tested in the experiment.
Local
Control: :
It is used to bring all extraneous sources of variations under control. For
this purpose we use Local Control, a term referring to the amount of
balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental units.
Complete
Randomized
Designs :
In this design treatments are applied to the experimental units
completely at random, that is randomization is done without any
restrictions. Design is completely flexible, any number of treatments and
any number of units per treatments can be applied.
ANOVA : Analysis of variance is defined as the procedure by means of which the
total variability of the set of data measured by total sum of square is
partitioned into components that measure different sources of variations.
The procedure thus permits the decomposition of the total SS into to the
component SS which are corresponding to the real and suspected sources
of variations.
Randomized
complete
Randomized complete block Design (RCB) is a design in which
Experimental material is divided into groups or blocks in such a manner
block
Design
(RCB): :
that experimental units within a particular block are relatively
homogeneous. Each block contains complete set of treatments i.e. it
constitutes a replication of treatments. Treatments are assigned at
random to the experimental units with in each block which means the
randomization is restricted with blocks.
Latin
Square
Design: :
LS design is an arrangement of k treatments in a k*k square, where the
treatments are grouped in blocks in two directions, the direction being
orthogonal to each other and to the treatments, and where the treatments
appear once and only once in each in each direction. It should be noted
that in Latin square design, the number of rows, the number of columns
and number of treatments must be equal
Critical
Value :
The value that separates the critical region from the acceptance region, is
called the critical value(s).
Level of
significance
6
:
Level of significance of a test is the probability used as a standard for
rejecting null hypothesis Ho when Ho is assumed to be true. The level of
significance acts as a basis for determining the critical region of the test.
statistics 2
:
Statistics is a science of facts and figures.
Deciles : Deciles are those nine quantities that divide the distribution into ten
equall parts.
Percentiles
:
Percentiles are those ninety nine quantities that divide the distribution
into hundred equall parts
Arithmetic
Mean :
Arithmetic Mean is a value obtained by dividing the sum of the
observations by their numbers.
Geometric
Mean :
The Geometric Mean G, of a set of n positive values is defined as the
positive nth root of their product.
Absolute
Measure of
Dispersion
:
An absolute measure of dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in
terms of the same units, or in the square of units as the units of the data.
Dispersion
:
The variability that exists between data set.
Relative
Measure of
Dispersion
A Relative Measure of Dispersion is one that measures the dispersion in
terms of a ratio, coefficient or percentage and is independent of the units
of measurement.
:
Range : The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and
minimum values of a data set.
Quartile
Deviation :
The quartile deviation is defined as half of the difference between the
first and third quartiles.
Set : A set is any well defined collection or list of distinct objects.
standard
error of
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estimate :
The degree of scatter of the observed values about the regression line
measured by what is called standard deviation of regression or standard
error of estimate.
Class of
Sets :
A set of sets is called a class.
Primary
Data :
The data published or used by an organization which originally collected
them are called primary data thus the primary data are thr first hand
information collected, complied, and published by an organization for a
certain purpose.
Secondary
Data :
The data published or used by an organization other than the one which
origninally collected them are known as secondary data.
Harmonic
Mean :
Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the
reciprocals of the values.
Quartiles : Quartiles are those three quantities that divide the distribution into four
equal parts.
Quantiles : Collectively the quartiles, the deciles,percentiles and other values
obtained by equall sub-division of the data are called quantiles.
Index
Number :
An Index Number is a statistical measure which shows changes in a
variable or group of related variables with respect to time, geographic
location or other characteristics such as income, profession etc.
Standard
Deviation :
Standard Deviation is defined as the positive square root of the mean of
the squared deviations of the values from their mean.
Variance : Variance is defined as the square of the standard deviation.
Regression
:
Dependence of one variable on the other variable is called regression. OR
Estimation or prediction of one variable on the basis of other variable is
called regression.
Random
Experiment
:
An experiment which produces different results even though it is repeated
a large number of times under essentially similar conditions is called a
random experiment.
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Sub Set : A set that consists of some elements of an other set is called a subset of
that set.
Non-
Sampling
Error :
Such errors which are not attributable to sampling but arise in the process
of data collection even if a complete count is carried out.
Skewness : Skewness is the lack of symmetry in a distribution around some central
value (mean,median or mode).It is thus the degree of a symmetry.
Permutation
:
an arrangement of all or some of a set of objects in a definite order is
called permutation.
Universal
Set :
All sets are subsets of one particular set called universal set.
Sample
Space :
The set or collection of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called
the sample space.
Conditional
Probability
:
The probability of the occurence of an event A when it is known that
some other event B has already occured is called the conditional
probability.
Degrees of
freedom :
Degrees of freedom can be defined as the number of observations in the
sample minus the number of population parameters that are estimated
from the sample data (from those observations
P value : The p-value is a property of the data, and it indicates how improbable
the obtained result really is.
Test
Statistic :
A statistic (i.e. a function of sample data not containing any parameter),
which provides a basis for testing a null hypothesis, is called a test
statistics.
Addition
law :
A probability law used to compute the probability of a union of two
events, denoted A and B. It is P(AB)=P(A)+P(B)-P(AB). For mutually
exclusive events, because P(AB)=0, it reduces to P(AB)=P(A)+P(B).
Alternative
hypothesis
The hypothesis concluded to be true if the null hypothesis is rejected.
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:
ANOVA
table :
A table used to summarize the analysis of variance computations and
results. It contains columns showing the source of variation, the sum of
squares, the degrees of freedom, the mean square, and the F values.
Bayes'
theorem :
A method used to compute posterior probabilities.
Binomial
probability
distribution
:
A probability distribution showing the probability of x successes in n
trials of a binomial experiment.
Binomial
probability
function :
The function used to compute probabilities in a binomial experiment.
Blocking : The process of using the same or similar experimental units for all
treatments. The purpose of blocking is to remove a source of variation
from the error term and hence provide a more powerful test for a
difference in population or treatment means.
Box plot : A graphical summary of data. A box, drawn from the first to the third
quartiles, shows the location of the middle 50% of the data. Dashed lines,
called whiskers, extending from the ends of the box show the location of
data values greater than the third quartile and data values less than the
first quartile. The locations of any outliers are also noted.
Central
limit
theorem :
A theorem that enables one to use the normal probability distribution to
approximate the sampling distribution of the sample mean and sample
proportion whenever the sample size is large.
Consistency
:
A property of a point estimator that is present whenever larger sample
sizes tend to provide point estimates closer to the population parameter
Histogram
:
A graphical presentation of a frequency distribution, relative frequency
distribution, or percent frequency distribution of quantitative data
constructed by placing the class intervals on the horizontal axis and the
frequencies on the vertical axis.
Null
hypothesis
:
The hypothesis tentatively assumed true in the hypothesis testing
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procedure. or A null hypothesis, generally denoted by the symbol H0, is
any hypothesis which is to be tested for possible rejection or nullification
under the assumption that it is true.
Normal
probability
distribution
:
A continuous probability distribution. Its probability density function is
bell shaped and determined by its mean m and standard deviation s.
Observation
:
The set of measurements obtained for a single element.
Ogive : A graph of a cumulative distribution.
One-tailed
test :
A hypothesis test in which rejection of the null hypothesis occurs for
values of the test statistic in one tail of the sampling distribution. or The
entire rejection region lies in only one of the two tails, either in the right
tail or in the left tai, of the sampling distribution of the test-statistic, is
called a one-tailed test or one-sided test.
Parameter : numerical characteristic of a population, such as a population mean, a
population standard deviation, a population proportion, and so on.
Point
estimate :
A single numerical value used as an estimate of a population parameter.
Point
estimator :
The sample statistic that provides the point estimate of the population
parameter.
Poisson
probability
distribution
:
A probability distribution showing the probability of x occurrences of an
event over a specified interval of time or space.
Poisson
probability
function :
The function used to compute Poisson probabilities.
Population
parameter :
A numerical value used as a summary measure for a population of data
(e.g., the population mean, the population variance, and the population
standard deviation).
Posterior
probabilities
11
:
Revised probabilities of events based on additional information.
Power
curve :
A graph of the probability of rejecting H0 for all possible values of the
population parameter not satisfying the null hypothesis. The power curve
provides the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis.
Power : The probability of correctly rejecting H0 when it is false.
Probability
density
function :
A function used to compute probabilities for a continuous random
variable. The area under the graph of a probability density function over
an interval represents probability.
Probability
function :
A function, denoted by f(x), that provides the probability that x assumes a
particular value for a discrete random variable.
Qualitative
data :
Data that are labels or names used to identify an attribute of each
element. Qualitative data may be nonnumeric or numeric.
Qualitative
variable :
A variable with qualitative data.
Quantitative
data :
Data that indicate how much or how many of something. Quantitative
data are always numeric.
t
Distribution
:
A family of probability distributions that can be used to develop interval
estimates of a population mean whenever the population standard
deviation is unknown and the population has a normal or near-normal
probability distribution.
Target
population
:
The population about which inferences are made.
Treatment : Different levels of a factor.
Tree
diagram :
A graphical representation helpful in identifying the sample points of an
experiment involving multiple steps.
Two-tailed
12
test :
A hypothesis test in which rejection of the null hypothesis occurs for
values of the test statistic in either tail of the sampling distribution.
Type I
error :
The error of rejecting H0 when it is true.
Type II
error - :
The error of accepting H0 when it is false.
Unbiasedness
:
A property of a point estimator when the expected value of the point
estimator is equal to the population parameter it estimates.
Union of The event containing all sample points that are in A, in B, or in both. The
events A
and B :
union is denoted AB.
Types of
Experimental
Designs: :
Systematic Designs Randomized design
Systematic
Designs: :
These designs are those in which treatments are applied to the
experimental units by some systematic manner that is choice of the
experimenter
Acceptance
and
rejection
region: :
All possible values which a test-statistic may assume can be divided into
two mutually exclusive groups: One group consisting of values which
appear to be consistent with the null hypothesis (i.e. values which appear
to support the null hypothesis), and the other having values which lead to
the rejection of the null hypothesis. The first group is called the
acceptance region and the second set of values is known as the rejection
region for a test
Type I
error: :
When we perform a hypothesis test, we derive evidence from the sample
in the form of a test statistics. There is a possibility that sample may lead
us to make a wrong decision. We may reject the hypothesis when it is in
fact true. This type of error is called an error of first kind or type I-error.
The probability of committing a type I error is denoted by . Thus is the
probability of rejecting null hypothesis Ho when Ho true.
Type II
13
error: :
When we perform a hypothesis test, we derive evidence from the sample
in the form of a test statistics. There is a possibility that sample may lead
us to make a wrong decision. We may accept the hypothesis when it is in
fact false. This type of error is called an error of second kind or a Type II
error. The probability of committing a type II error is denoted by . Thus
is the probability of accepting null hypothesis Ho when Ho false.
Class
midpoint :
The point in each class that is halfway between the lower and upper class
limits.
Complement
of event A :
The event consisting of all sample points that are not in A.
Dependent
variable :
The variable that is being predicted or explained. It is denoted by y.
Descriptive
statistics :
Tabular, graphical, and numerical methods used to summarize data.
Dot plot : A simple graphical summary of data with each observation represented
by a dot placed above a horizontal axis that shows the range of values for
the observations.
Discrete
random
variable :
A random variable that may assume either a finite number of values or an
infinite sequence of values.
Empirical
rule :
A rule that states the percentages of items that are within one, two, and
three standard deviations from the mean for mound-shaped, or bellshaped,
distributions.
Experiment
:
A process that generates well-defined outcomes.
Binomial
experiment
:
A probability experiment having the following four properties: consists of
n identical trials, two outcomes (success and failure) are possible on each
trial, probability of success does not change from trial to trail, and the
trials are independent.
Factorial
experiment
:
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An experimental design that allows statistical conclusions about two or
more factors.
Fivenumber
summary :
An exploratory data analysis technique that uses the following five
numbers to summarize the data set: smallest value, first quartile, median,
third quartile, and largest value.
Frame : A list of the sampling units for a study. The sample is drawn by selecting
units from the frame.
Frequency
distribution
:
A tabular summary of data showing the number (or frequency) of items
in each of several non-overlapping classes.
Grouped
data :
Data available in class intervals as summarized by a frequency
distribution. Individual values of the original data are not available.
Independent
variable :
The variable that is doing the predicting or explaining. It is denoted by x.
Intersection
of A and B
:
The event containing all sample points that are in both A and B. The
intersection is denoted AB.
Joint
probability
The probability of two events both occurring; that is, the probability of
the intersection of two events.
:
Judgment
sampling :
A nonprobabilistic method of sampling whereby element selection is
based on the judgment of the person doing the study.
Interquartile
range (IQR)
:
A measure of variability, defined to be the difference between the third
and first quartiles.
Least
squares
method :
The method used to develop the estimated regression equation. It
minimizes the sum of squared residuals (the deviations between the
observed values of the dependent variable, yi, and the estimated values of
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the dependent variable, yi)
Regression
equation :
The equation that describes how the mean or expected value of the
dependent variable is related to the independent variable.
Rejection
region :
The range of values that will lead to the rejection of a null hypothesis.
Replication
:
The number of times each experimental condition is repeated in an
experiment.
Residual : The difference between the observed value of the dependent variable and
the value predicted using the estimated regression equation.
Sample
point :
An element of the sample space. A sample point represents an
experimental outcome.
Sample
statistic :
A numerical value used as a summary measure for a sample (e.g., the
sample mean, the sample variance, and the sample standard deviation).
The value of the sample statistic is used to estimate the value of the
population parameter.
Sampled
population
:
The population from which the sample is taken.
Sampling
unit :
The units selected for sampling. A sampling unit may include several
elements.
Sampling
with
replacement
:
Once an element has been included in the sample, it is returned to the
population. A previously selected element can be selected again and
therefore may appear in the sample more than once.
Sampling
without
replacement
:
Once an element has been included in the sample, it is removed from the
population and cannot be selected a second time.
Scatter
16
diagram :
A graph of bivariate data in which the independent variable is on the
horizontal axis and the dependent variable is on the vertical axis.
Simple
linear
regression :
Regression analysis involving one independent variable and one
dependent variable in which the relationship between the variables is
approximated by a straight line.
Simple
random
sampling :
Finite population: a sample selected such that each possible sample of
size n has the same probability of being selected. Infinite population: a
sample selected such that each element comes from the same population
and the elements are selected independently.
Standard
error :
The standard deviation of a point estimator.
Stem-andleaf
display
:
An exploratory data analysis technique that simultaneously rank orders
quantitative data and provides insight about the shape of the distribution.
Stratified
random
sampling :
A probability sampling method in which the population is first divided
into strata and a simple random sample is then taken from each stratum.
Hypergeometric
probability
function :
The function used to compute the probability of x successes in n
trials when the trials are dependent.
Multiplication
law :
A probability law used to compute the probability of an intersection of
two events, denoted A and B. It is P(AB)=P(A)P(B|A) or P(AB)=
P(B)P(A|B). For independent events it reduces to P(AB)=P(A)P(B).
Goodness
of fit test :
A statistical test conducted to determine whether to reject a hypothesized
probability distribution for a population.
Sampling
distribution
:
A probability distribution consisting of all possible values of a sample
statistic.
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Question: What is the difference between cumulative frequency distribution and
Cumulative Frequency Polygon?.
Answer: There is no difference between cumulative frequency distribution &
Cumulative Frequency Polygon,because the graph of cummulative
frequency distrbution is known as Cumulative Frequency Polygon/ogive.
Question: What is Frequency? What are the steps for making frequency
distribution?
Answer: Frequency:
It is a record of how often each value (or set of values) of the variable in
question occurs. It may be enhanced by the addition of percentages that fall into
each category
Steps in Frequency Distribution:
Following are the basic rules to construct frequency distribution:
1. Decide the number of classes into which the data are to be grouped
& it depends upon the size of data.
2. Determine the RANGE (difference between the smallest &largest
values in data) data.
3. Decide where to locate the class limit (numbers typically use to
identify the classes).
4. Determine the reaming class limits by adding the class interval
repeatedly.
5. Distribute the data into classes by using tally marks and sum it in
frequency column. Finally, total the frequency column to see that all data have
been accounted for.
Question: What is Box & Whisker Plot?
Answer: Box and Whisker Plot (or Box plot):
A box and whisker plot is a way of summarizing a set of data measured
on an interval scale. It is often used in exploratory data analysis. It is a type of
graph which is used to show the shape of the distribution, its central value, and
variability. The picture produced consists of the most extreme values in the data
set (maximum and minimum values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the
median.
A box plot (as it is often called) is especially helpful for indicating whether a
distribution is skewed and whether there are any unusual observations (outliers)
in the data set.
Box and whisker plots are also very useful when large numbers of observations
are involved and when two or more data sets are being compared.
Question: What is Mean, Median & Mode?
Answer: Mean:
The arithmetic mean is the statisticians term for what the layman knows as the
average. The arithmetic mean or simply the mean is a value obtained by
dividing the sum of all the observations by their number.
THE MEDIAN:
The median is the middle value of the series when the variable values are
placed in order of magnitude.
THE MODE:
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The mode is defined as that value which occurs most frequently in a set
of data i.e. it indicates the most common result.
The median indicates the middle position while the mode provides
information about the most frequent value in the distribution or the set of data.
Both median & mode are different methods of calculating the average value of
data and they have their advantages & disadvantages .They are used by the
statisticians according to their requirement.
Question: What is meant by Dispersion?
Answer: Dispersion means the extent to which the data/values are spread out from
the average.
Example:
There are many situations in which two different data having the
same average e.g.
Data 1:5, 5,5,5,5 having mean=5
Data 2:1, 5,6,6,7 having mean=5
Hence in such a situation we, need a measure which tell us how
dispersed the data are. The measure used for this purpose is called
measure of dispersion.
Question: What is the relation between these two Moments & Moment Ratios . ?
Answer: Moments: A moment designates the power to which deviations are raised
before averaging them. Moment ratio: These are certain ratios in which
both numerators and the denominators are moments.
Question: What is the difference between frequency and frequency distribution.?
Answer: Frequency:
The number of observations falling in a particular class is
known as class frequency or simply frequency.
Frequency distribution.
When we arrange the frequencies in a form of table then it is
known as Frequency distribution.
Question: What is meant by standard deviation?.
Answer: Standard deviation tells how tightly a set of values is clustered around the
average of those same values.
Question: What is the difference between these two limits when we are dealing with
continuous random variable: 0<5 and 0 x 5 .
Answer: In case ofcontinuous random variable there is no differecce both are
discribing the same thing either we mention the equal sign or not that is
,the random variable ranging from 0 to 5.
Question: What is the difference between the Poisson distribution and the normal
distribution?
Answer: Poisson distribution. The Poisson distribution is referred to as the
distribution of rare events. Examples of Poisson distributed variables are
number of accidents per person, number of sweepstakes won per person,
or the number of catastrophic defects found in a production process.
While: Normal Distribution. The normal distribution (the "bell-shaped
curve" which is symmetrical about the mean) is a theoretical function
commonly used in inferential statistics as an approximation to sampling
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distributions. In general, the normal distribution provides a good model
for a random variable, when: There is a strong tendency for the variable
to take a central value; Positive and negative deviations from this central
value are equally likely; The frequency of deviations falls off rapidly as
the deviations become larger.
Question: What is the difference between type-I error and type -II error ?.
Answer: Type-I error:
In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null
hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true; that is, H0 is
wrongly rejected. For example, suppose that an accused is,
in fact, innocent (i-e Ho is true) but the finding of the judge
is guilty. The judge has rejected the true null hypothesis
and is so doing ,has made a type-I error.
Type-II error:
In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null
hypothesis H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false. For
example if the accused is, in fact, guilty (i-e Ho is false) and
the finding of the judge is innocent, the judge has accepted
the false null hypothesis and by accepting the false null
hypothesis he has committed a type II error.
Question: What is the difference between permutation and combination.
Answer: Permutations:
When our purpose is to arrange the objects with respect to order
out of" n" then we use permutations.
Combinations:
When we select our objects out of "n" with out considering order
then we apply combination.
Question: what is meant by marginal probability function?.
Answer: The individual probability function of the random variables,from the joint
probability function,is known as marginal probability function.
Question: What is ORDINAL or RANKING SCALE.
Answer: Where nominal scales don't allow comparisons in degree, this is possible
with ordinal scales. Say you think it is better to live in Karachi than in
Lahore but you don't know by how much. Example: 1-People or objects
with a higher scale value have more of some attribute. 2-The intervals
between adjacent scale values are indeterminate. 3-Scale assignment is by
the property of "greater than," "equal to," or "less than."
Question: What is the descriptive and inferential Statistics.
Answer: Descriptive Statistics uses graphical and numerical techniques to
summarize and display the information contained in a data set. Inferential
Statistics uses sample data to make decisions or predictions about a larger
population of data.
Question: What is Skewness?
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Answer: Skewness is defined as asymmetry in the distribution of the sample data
values.
Values on one side of the distribution tend to be further from the 'middle' than
values on the other side.
For skewed data, the usual measures of location will give different values, for
example, mode<median<mean would indicate positive (or right) skewness.
Positive (or right) skewness is more common than negative (or left) skewness.
If there is evidence of skewness in the data, we can apply transformations, for
example, taking logarithms of positive skew data.
Question: Define Variable,Discrete Variable and continuous Variable.
Answer: Variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for
different elements. For example, Height of students in a class, No. of
rooms in a house Discrete Variable: A DISCRETE variable is one which
may take on only a countable number of distinct values such as 0, 1, 2, 3,
4,......... Discrete variables are usually (but not necessarily) counts. If a
variable can take only a finite number of distinct values, then it must be
discrete. Examples of discrete variables include the number of children in
a family, the Friday night attendance at a cinema, the number of patients
in a doctor's surgery, the number of defective light bulbs in a box of ten.
Continuous Variable: A CONTINUOUS variable is one which takes an
infinite number of possible values. Continuous variables are usually
measurements. Examples include height, weight, the amount of sugar in
an orange, the time required to run a mile.
Question: What is correletion coefficient?
Answer: Correlation Coefficient: A correlation coefficient is a number between -1
and 1 which measures the degree to which two variables are linearly
related. If there is perfect linear relationship with positive slope between
the two variables, we have a correlation coefficient of 1; if there is
positive correlation, whenever one variable has a high (low) value, so
does the other. If there is a perfect linear relationship with negative slope
between the two variables, we have a correlation coefficient of -1; if there
is negative correlation, whenever one variable has a high (low) value; the
other has a low (high) value. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that
there is no linear relationship between the variables.
Question: what is ment by percentile coefficient of kurtosis?
Answer: Kurtosis: Karl Pearson introduced the term Kurtosis for the degree of
peakedness or flatness of a unimodal frequency curve. Percentile Coefficient
of Kurtosis is another measure of kurtosis which is not widely
used. it is given by K=Q.D/ P90 P10 Where Q.D is the semi inter
quartile range & Ps are the percentiles. It has been shown that K for a
normal distribution is .263 and it lies between 0 and 0.50.
Question: Explain Conditional Probability, Marginal Probability and Joint
Probability.
Answer: Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, assuming
event B. Conditional probability is written P(A|B), and is read "the
probability of A, given B". Joint probability is the probability of two
21
events in conjunction. That is, it is the probability of both events together.
The joint probability of A and B is written as P(AB) or P(A,B) or
P(AB). Marginal probability is the probability of one event, ignoring any
information about the other event. Marginal probability is obtained by
summing (or integrating, more generally) the joint probability over the
ignored event. The marginal probability of A is written P(A), and the
marginal probability of B is written P(B).
Question: what is Random Variable?
Answer: Random Variable: A random variable is a rule that assigns a value to each
possible outcome of an experiment. For example, if an experiment
involves measuring the height of people, then each person who could be a
subject of the experiment has associated value, his or her height. A
random variable may be discrete (the possible outcomes are finite, as in
tossing a coin) or continuous (the values can take any possible value
along a range, as in height measurements).
Question: Explain the Concept of "Continous Random Variable"
Answer: Continuous random variable: A continuous random variable is one which
takes an infinite number of possible values. Continuous random variables
are usually measurements. Examples include height, weight, the amount
of sugar in an orange, the time required to run a mile.
Question: Explain the concept of inferential statisticts.
Answer: Inferential statistics: In Inferential Statistics we try to get an idea about
population parameters using sample data because it is not possible, in
many situations, for us to study the whole of population. We therefore
resort ourselves to the sample estimates. In drawing conclusion, the
decision maker makes use of probability theory
Question: What is continuity correction?
Answer: Continuity Correction Factor A value of .5 that is added to and/or
subtracted from a value of a Binomial random variable X when the
continuous normal probability distribution is used to approximate the
discrete binomial probability distribution
Question: what is hypereomatric distribution.
Answer: Hypergeometric Distribution: In probability theory and statistics, the
hypergeometric distribution is a discrete probability distribution that
describes the number of successes in a sequence of n draws from a finite
population without replacement.
Question: What is probablity density function and what is it's significance.
Answer: Dear Student, Probability density function (pdf) is a mathematical
expression or formula which gives probabilities for a range of values of a
continuous random variable. It is denoted by f(x). It has certain very
important properties which we have sent you by email. Probability
density functions are of great significance in Statistics. In fact all the
conclusions that are made in Inferencial Statistics are due to using
appropriate probability density function. Most important probability
distributions which are used in Inferencial Statistics are normal
distribution, t-distribution, F distribution and chi-square distribution.
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Question: What is random variable and how the fdp is related to it?
Answer: RANDOM VARIABLE: Such a numerical quantity whose value is
determined by the outcome of a random experiment is called a random
variable. For example, no. of children in a family, daily income of a
medical store etc. It is of two types (i) Discrete random variable (ii)
Continuous random variable Probability density function (pdf) is the
expression or formula which gives us the probability for given range of
values of the continuous random variable.
Question: What is the concept of normal distribution.
Answer: Gaussian (Normal) Distribution The Normal or Gaussian distribution
plays a central role in statistics and has been found to be a very good
model for many continuous distributions that occur in real situations. The
function is symmetric about the mean, it gains its maximum value at the
mean, the minimum value is at plus and minus infinity. The distribution
is often referred to as "bell shaped".
Question: Define Hypothetical population and non random sampling.
Answer: Hypothetical population: A population is not necessarily real; it may be
hypothetical or imaginary. For example, outcomes of an experiment, that
is carried out infinitely, make a hypothetical population. It consists of all
conceivable ways in which an event can occur, e.g. all possible throws of
a die. Such a population does not exist in an actual manner but is only to
be thought of. Non-random Sampling: Nonrandom sampling implies
that kind of sampling in which the population units are drawn into the
sample by using ones personal judgment. In this sampling personal
judgment (of an every person) decide that which sampling unit (of
population) should be selected for the sample.
Question: what are the main and detailable concept of dispersion
Answer: Dispersion means the extent to which the data/values are spread out from
the average. Example: There are many situations in which two different
data having the same average e.g. Data 1:5, 5,5,5,5 having mean=5 Data
2:1, 5,6,6,7 having mean=5 Hence in such a situation we, need a measure
which tell us how dispersed the data are. The measure used for this
purpose is called measure of dispersion.
Question: if X1=20.7% and X2=14.56% then which is more variant? Explain
relative measure of dispersion?
Answer: Suppose we have two distributions having coefficient of variations:
CV(X1) =20.7% CV(X2) =14.56% Than the first distribution has more
variation as compare to second as: CV(X1)> CV(X2) Relative measure of
dispersion is one that is expressed in the form of a ratio, co-efficient of
percentage and is independent of the units of measurement. A relative
measure of dispersion is useful for comparison of data of different nature.
A measure of central tendency together with a measure of dispersion
gives an adequate description of data. We will be discussing FOUR
measures of dispersion i.e. the range, the quartile deviation, the mean
deviation, and the standard deviation.
Question: what is difference beween correlation and regression.
23
Answer: Correlation: Correlation is a measure of the strength or the degree of
relationship between two random variables. Or Interdependence of two
variables is called correlation. Regression: Dependence of one variable
on the other variable is called regression. Or Estimation or prediction of
one variable on the basis of other variable is called regression.
Question: What is population?
Answer: A population is consist of the totality of the observation with which we re
concerned.
Question: What is a Sample?
Answer: A sample is a group of units selected from a larger group (the population). By
studying the sample it is hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger group.
A sample is generally selected for study because the population is too large to
study in its entirety. The sample should be representative of the general
population. This is often best achieved by random sampling. Also, before
collecting the sample, it is important that the researcher carefully and completely
defines the population, including a description of the members to be included.
Example:
The population for a study of infant health might be all children born in the
Pakistan in the 1980's. The sample might be all babies born on 7th May in any
of the years.
Question: What is Statistic?
Answer: A statistic is a quantity that is calculated from a sample of data.
Question: In which distributions we used empirical rule & chebychev rule?.
Answer: Empirical rule is applicable to the mound- shape, symmetrical and
unimodle (bell shaped)distributions while chebychev apply to any
distribution regardless of the shape of the frequency distribution of the
data.
Question: What are the different ways of representing the frequency distribution
graphically?
Answer: There are three ways of graphical representation of frequency distribution.
HISTOGRAM:
A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases
are marked off by class boundaries along the X-axis, and whose heights are
proportional to the frequencies associated with the respective classes.
FREQUENCY POLYGON:
A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies
against the mid-points of the classes, and connecting the points so obtained by
straight line segments.
FREQUENCY CURVE:
When the frequency polygon constructed over class intervals
made sufficiently small for a large number observation, is smoothed, it
approaches a continuous curve, such a curve is called Frequency Curve.
Types of Frequency Curves:
The frequency distribution occurring in practice, usually belong to one of the
following four types. You will study about them in your next lecture.
1. The Symmetrical Distribution.
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2. Moderately Skewed Distribution.
3. Extremely Skewed or J-shaped Distribution
4. U-Shaped Distribution
Question: What is meant by 5-Number Summary?
Answer: 5-Number Summary:
A 5-number summary is especially useful when we have so many data
that it is sufficient to present a summary of the data rather than the whole data
set. It consists of 5 values: the most extreme values in the data set (maximum
and minimum values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the median.
A 5-number summary can be represented in a diagram known as a box and
whisker plot. In cases where we have more than one data set to analyze, a 5-
number summary is constructed for each, with corresponding multiple box and
whisker plots.
Question: What is meant by mid-rang and mid-quartile range and what is the
difference between these two ranges.?
Answer: MID-RANGE: If there are n observations with x0 and xm as their
smallest and largest observations respectively, then their mid-range is
defined as Mid range=X0+Xm/2. It is obvious that if we add the smallest
value with the largest, and divide by 2, we will get a value which is more
or less in the middle of the data-set. MID-QUARTILE RANGE: If x1,
x2 xn are n observations with Q1andQ3 as their first and third quartiles
respectively, then their mid-quartile range is defined as Mid Quartile
range= Q1+Q3 /2. Difference: They both used as measures of central
tendency because they both provide us with more or less the middle value
of data. The difference is that the mid-quartile range is an attempt to
address the problem of the range being heavily dependent on extreme
scores. An mid-quartile range represents the middle 50% of the scores in
the distribution.
Question: What is meant by Loaded die?.
Answer: A biased die is known as Loaded die.
Question: What is the difference between Probability distribution and sampling
distribution?.
Answer: The probability distribution of any statistic (such as the mean, the
standard deviation, the proportion of successes in a sample, etc.) is
known as its sampling distribution.
Question: DISCUSS STATUS,STATISTICS AND STATISTIC.
Answer: Latin words status, meaning a political state is believed to be the origin of
the word statistics Statistics: Today the word statistics is used in three
different meanings. Firstly, it is used in the sense of data for example
price statistics, death statistics etc Secondly, it is used as the plural of the
word statistic meaning the information obtained from the sample data.
Thirdly, it means the science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting the numerical facts obtained as a result of a survey.
Question: Define the error of instrument in respect of the ratio measurment?
Answer: Error of Instrument arises when we are measuring any quantity because
of the fault in the measuring instrument. For ratio scale we can use the
25
following example. If a students weight is recorded as 60 kg (correct to
the nearest kilogram), his true weight in fact lies between 59.5 kg and
60.5 kg, whereas a weight recorded as 60.00 kg means the true weight is
known to lie between 59.995 and 60.005 kg. Thus there is a difference,
however small it may be between the measured value and the true value.
This sort of departure from the true value is technically known as the
error of measurement.
Question: what is difference between raw data and grouped data,please explain it
with some example.
Answer: Raw data Data that have not been processed in any manner is called raw
data. It often refers to uncompressed text that is not stored in any priority
format. It may also refer to recently captured data that may have been
placed into a database structure, but not yet processed. Grouped data The
data presented in the form of frequency distribution is also known as
grouped data.
Question: Explain the Term hypothesis.
Answer: Dear Student, The term Hypothesis is also called Statistical Hypothesis
and it is defined as: An assumption or statement about the value of
unknown population parameter which may or may not be true is called
Statistical hypothesis. It is of two types: 1. Null Hypothesis 2.
Alternative Hypothesis Null Hypothesis: Any hypothesis which is to be
tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true is called
Null Hypothesis. It is generally denoted by Ho. The hypothesis is usually
assigned a numerical value. For example, suppose we think that the
average height of students in all colleges is 62 inches. This statement is
taken as null hypothesis and is written symbolically as Ho: = 62.
Alternative Hypothesis: Any other hypothesis which we accept when the
null hypothesis is rejected is called Alternative hypothesis It is generally
denoted by H1 or HA. A null hypothesis is thus tested against an
alternative hypothesis H1. For example, if our null hypothesis is Ho: =
62, then our alternative hypothesis my be H1: 62 or H1: > 62 or
H1: < 62.
Question: Explain relative measure of dispersion
Answer: Relative measure of dispersion is one that is expressed in the form of a
ratio, co-efficient of percentage and is independent of the units of
measurement. A relative measure of dispersion is useful for comparison
of data of different nature. A measure of central tendency together with a
measure of dispersion gives an adequate description of data. We will be
discussing four measures of dispersion i.e. the range, the quartile
deviation, the mean deviation, and the standard deviation.
Question: WHAT IS MOMENTS
Answer: Moments are the arithmetic means of the powers to which the deviations
are raised. Thus the mean of the first power of the deviations from mean
is the first moment about the mean; the mean of the second power of the
deviations from mean is the second moment about the mean and so on.
First four moments about mean are defined as: m1 = (X Xbar)/n m2 =
26
(X Xbar)2/n m3 = (X Xbar)3/n m4 = (X Xbar)4/n
Question: What is difference between independent and independence variable.
Answer: Two events A and B in the same sample space S, are defined to be
independent if the probability that one event occurs, is not affected by
whether the other event has or has not occurred. Two events A and B in
the same sample space S, are defined to be Dependent if the probability
that one event occurs, is affected by whether the other event has or has
not occurred.
Question: Explain the Condititional Probability with the help of example.
Answer: In conditional probability we are dealing with two events .One event is
that for which we have to find the probability and about 2nd event we
have some priori information.To illustrate the concept of conditional
probability let us consider an example. Let a die is rolled. S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
A is the event of getting a" 5" & a prior information is given that on a
particular throw of a die ,the outcome is an odd number (event B) .Hence
B={1,3,5}now the probability of getting a "5" in this reduce sample space
is 1/3 which is known as conditional probability of event "A". Note.
Priori means already known information before starting the experiment
Question: what is loaded die?
Answer: We can say that, a biased unfair die is a loaded die
Question: Explain Nominal and ordinal levels of measurement and also tell me what
is EPAmileage rating.
Answer: Nominal Scales When measuring using a nominal scale, one simply
names or categorizes responses. The essential point about nominal scales
is that they do not imply any ordering. Nominal scales embody the lowest
level of measurement. It is used for identifying individuals, groups or
regions. Ordinal Scales Where nominal scales don't allow comparisons in
degree, this is possible with ordinal scales. Say you think it is better to
live in Karachi than in Lahore but you don't know by how much. EPA
means Environmental Protection Agency US government agency for the
protection of the environment which ranks the most fuel-efficient vehicle.
Question: Explain bivarite.
Answer: Bivariate Data Before we looked at one measurement on an observation
(or individual), say X is height. Now we're interested in more than one
measurement per observation (individual), say X is height and Y is
weight. Let's say we have n individuals we're taking the measurements
on. Then our data would be as follows (X1,Y1), (X2, Y2).....(Xn, Yn)
Question: What is meadian
Answer: abc
Question: Quartiles & their Uses.
Answer: Quartile: The values which divide the distribution into four equal parts
are called quartiles. Quartiles divide the data into four equal-sized and
non-overlapping parts. One fourth of the data lies below the Q1 (first
quartile). Half of the data lies below Q2 (second quartile) similarly, three
quarters of the data lies below Q3 (third quartile) Q2 (second quartile) is
also known as median. Use of quartiles: In order to describe a data set
27
without listing all the data, we have measures of location such as the
mean and median, measures of spread such as the range and standard
deviation. Quartiles are also used to describe the data in combination with
other measures. For example they are used in five number summary of
the data. The five number summary, i.e., the minimum, Q1, Q2 (median),
Q3, and maximum, give a good indication of where data lie. The five
number summary is sometimes represented graphically as a (box-and-
)whisker plot.
Question: ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION REGIONS.
Answer: ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION REGIONS: All possible values
which a test-statistic may assume can be divided into two mutually
exclusive groups: One group consisting of values which appear to be
consistent with the null hypothesis (i.e. values which appear to support
the null hypothesis), and the other having values which lead to the
rejection of the null hypothesis The first group is called the acceptance
region and the second set of values is known as the rejection region for a
test. The rejection region is also called the critical region.
Question: Explain the concept of Cumulative Frequency.
Answer: Cumulative frequency is used to determine the number of observations
that lie above (or below) a particular value in a data set. The cumulative
frequency is calculated using a frequency distribution table. The
cumulative frequency is determined by adding each frequency from a
frequency distribution table to the sum of its predecessors. The last value
will always be equal to the total for all observations.
Question: Difference between Skewed and symmetrical distribution.
Answer: A frequency distribution or curve is said to be skewed when it departs
from symmetry. If the right tail is longer the distribution is positively
skewed and if the left tail of the distribution is longer, the distribution is
said to be negatively skewed. A frequency distribution or curve is said to
be symmetrical if values equidistant from a central maximum have the
same frequencies.
Question: Explain the use of word STATISTICS in singula & plural sense.
Answer: Latin words status, meaning a political state is believed to be the origin of
the word statistics Statistics: Today the word statistics is used in three
different meaning. Firstly, it is used in the sense of data for example price
statistics, death statistics etc Secondly, it is used as the plural of the word
statistic meaning the information obtained from the sample data.
Thirdly, it means the science of collecting, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting the numerical facts obtained as a result of a survey.
Question: State about the types of statistics ?
Answer: Statistics as a subject is divided into descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics uses graphical and numerical techniques to
summarize and display the information contained in a data set. Inferential
Statistics uses sample data to make decisions or predictions about a larger
population of data.
Question: What is bais and how it is differnt from random error?
28
Answer: A systematic error which deprive our resluts from there
representativeness. Biase id different from random error in the sence that
random error balance out in the long run while biase is cumulative
(addition of error) and does not become balance out in long the run.
Question: what is Point Estimation.
Answer: Point estimation of a population parameter provides, as an estimate, a
single value calculated from the sample that is likely to be close in value
to the unknown parameter. For example the value of the statistic (Xbar)
computed from a sample of size n, is a point estimate of the population
parameter (u)
Question: state what is Grouped and Row data?
Answer: Grouped data The data presented in the form of frequency distribution is
also known as grouped data. Raw data Data that have not been processed
in any manner. It often refers to uncompressed text that is not stored in
any priority format. It may also refer to recently captured data that may
have been placed into a database structure, but not yet processed.
Question: define theMean Deviation.
Answer: The mean deviation is used to characterize the dispersion among the
measures in a given population. To calculate the mean deviation of a set
of scores it is first necessary to compute their average (mean or median)
and then specify the distance between each score and that mean without
regard to whether the score is above or below( negative and positive) the
mean. The mean deviation is defined as the mean of these absolute
values.
Question: What is meant by variability?
Answer: Variability is the spread or dispersion in a set of data. Consider the
following sets of data. 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9 10, 6, 2, 8, 4, 14, 16, 12
13, 10, 7, 6, 21, 3, 7, 5 All these three sets of data have same mean ( 9 )
but they are different in variability. First set of values has no dispersion
and there is greater variability is third data set as compared to second set
of data as its values are more spread away as compared to the values of
second set of data.
Question: What is EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS?
Answer: The two events are said to be equally likely if they have the same chance
of occurring. For example, in our coin-tossing experiment, the two
events, heads and tails, are equally likely. Both have the same chances of
occurring. There is 50% chance for occurring both events.
Question: What is meant by Transformation?
Answer: If we change one variable into another variable, this is called
transformation. For example, If we have values of variable X, then we
can find the values of other variables using transformations like Y = X +
3 or Z = 2X - 5
Question: Explain Primary and Secondary data.
Answer: Primary and Secondary data: When people think of market research, they
tend to think of collecting data directly from customers, prospects, or
other stake holders (this is called primary data collection). However,
29
secondary data can also provide a rich source of information. Secondary
data are data that already exist in industry-specific reports, previous
research on the topic of interest, or data from an organizations own data
base. Qualitative sources of secondary data include magazine and
newspaper articles and annual reports of industry participants.
Question: What is Average?
Answer: A single value used to represent the distribution is called average. Most
commonly used averages are Mean, Median and Mode.
Question: What is Ogive and polygon.
Answer: In statistics, an ogive is the curve of a cumulative distribution function.
polygon and ogive are same.
Question: What is simple random and stratified sampling.
Answer: Simple random sampling: With simple random sampling, each item in a
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Stratified
sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups
called strata. A sample is then drawn from within these strata. Some
examples of strata commonly used by the ABS are States, Age and Sex.
Other strata may be religion, academic ability or marital status.
Question: Define cluster sampling.
Answer: Cluster sampling divides the population into groups, or clusters. A
number of clusters are selected randomly to represent the population, and
then all units within selected clusters are included in the sample.
Question: why we construct chart in Statistics?
Answer: Charts are used to illustrate quantitative relationships between the
variables.
Question: define the Distribution function.
Answer: Distribution Function: The distribution function D(x) (also called the
cumulative density function (CDF) or probability distribution function),
describes the probability that a variate /variable X takes on a value less
than or equal to a number x. The distribution function is sometimes also
denoted by F(x) .The function F(x) gives the probability of the event that
X takes a value less than or equal to a specified value x.
Question: How we calculate the boundries?
Answer: CLASS BOUNDARIES The true class limits of a class are known as its
class boundaries.It should be noted that the difference between the upper
class boundary and the lower class boundary of any class is equal to the
class interval.
Question: what is value of central tendecy? and why weapply it ?and how many
types of centeral tendency
Answer: Central Tendency means the tendency of the data to gather around some
central value and the value around which all the observations tend to
gather is called measure of central tendency. Measures of central
tendency of central tendency are generally known as Averages. The most
common types of averages are: i) The arithmetic mean ii) Geometric
30
Mean iii) Harmonic Mean iv) Median v) Mode
Question: How we find mediam from the data?
Answer: In order to find Median, we following the steps: i) Arrange the values in
increasing order. ii) Count the number of values. iii) a. If the no. of values
is odd then Median is (n+1)/2 th value. b. If the no. of values is even then
Median is the average of n/2 th and [(n/2) +1] th observations.
Question: What is the relation between these two Moments & Moment Ratios?
Answer: Moments: A moment designates the power to which deviations are raised
before averaging them. Moment ratio: These are certain ratios in which
both numerators and the denominators are moments.
Question: what is difference between arbitrary form and dispersion?
Answer: Arbitrary form: We find the moment form any value other than the mean
that is called the moments about the arbitrary form. Dispersion: By which
we mean the extent the observation in a sample or population are spread
out. And the second moment about the mean is exactly the same thing as
the variance, the positive square root of which is the standard deviation,
the most important measure of dispersion?
Question: what is the conditinal and un conditinal probability?
Answer: In many situations, once more information becomes available, we are
able to revise our estimates for the probability of further outcomes or
events happening. For example, suppose you go out for lunch at the same
place and time every Friday and you are served lunch within 15 minutes
with probability 0.9. However, given that you notice that the restaurant is
exceptionally busy, the probability of being served lunch within 15
minutes may reduce to 0.7. This is the conditional probability of being
served lunch within 15 minutes given that the restaurant is exceptionally
busy
Question: explain What is Moment ratios?
Answer: Moment ratios are certain ratios in which both the numerator and the
denominator are moments. The most common of these moment-ratios are
denoted by b1 and b2 and defined by the relations: i) b1 = (m3)2 / (m2)3
ii) b2 = m4 / (m2)2 These are independent of origin and units of
measurement, i.e. they are pure numbers. b1 is used to measure the
Skewness of distribution, and b2 is used to measure the kurtosis of the
distribution.
Question: Why the significance level is consider 0.05?
Answer: By a = 5%, we mean that there are about 5 chances in 100 of incorrectly
rejecting a true null hypothesis. That is, we want to make the significance
level as small as possible in order to protect the null hypothesis and to
prevent, as far as possible, the investigator from inadvertently making
false claims.
Question: What is the difference between p(type 1 error) and p(type2 error)?
Answer: Type I error: On the basis of sample information, we may reject the null
hypothesis H0, when it is, in fact true. This type of error is called the type
I error. Type II error: On the basis of sample information we may accept
the null hypothesis H0, when it is actually false. This type of error is
31
called the type II error.
Question: write down the LAW OF COMPLEMENTATION and ADDITION
LAW.
Answer: LAW OF COMPLEMENTATION: If A is the complement of an event A
relative to the sample space S, then P (A) = 1 P (A) Complementary
probabilities are very useful when we want to solve questions of the type
What is the probability that, in tossing two fair dice, at least one even
number will appear? ADDITION LAW If A and B are any two events
defined in a sample space S, then P (AB) = P (A) + P (B) P (AB)
Question: Define Multiplication theorem of probability for independent events.
what is marginal probability.
Answer: Multiplication theorem of probability for independent events is as
follows: P(A B) = P(A) P(B) Here A and B are independents events.
P(A) and P(B) are called marginal probabilities whereas, P(A B) is
called joint probability of A and B.
Question: define sampling with replacement and sampling without replacement.
Answer: In sampling with replacement, the units are replaced back before the next
unit is selected. In this sampling procedure, number of units in population
remains same for all selections. Let N be the population size and n be
the sample size then number of possible samples that can be drawn with
replacement are Nn. In sampling without replacement, the units are not
replaced back before the next unit is selected. In this sampling procedure,
number of units in population is reduced after each unit. Let N be the
population size and n be the sample size then number of possible
samples that can be drawn with replacement are NCn .
Question: explain Point Estimator and what does it mean by a good point estimator.
Answer: Point Estimator: A single value calculated from the sample that is likely
to be close in value to the unknown parameter. It is to be noted that a
point estimate will not, in general, be equal to the population parameter
as the random sample used is one of the many possible samples which
could be chosen from the population. Good Point Estimator: A point
estimator is considered a good estimator if it satisfies various criteria.
Four of these criteria are: (i) Unbiasedness (ii) Consistency (iii)
Efficiency (iv) Sufficiency
Question: what is one Tailed and two Tailed
Answer: ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS: A test, for which the entire
rejection region lies in only one of the two tails either in the right tail or
in the left tail of the sampling distribution of the test-statistic, is called a
one-tailed test or one-sided test. If, on the other hand, the rejection region
is divided equally between the two tails of the sampling distribution of
the test-statistic, the test is referred to as a two-tailed test or two-sided
test.
Question: What are the application of the and in which conditions for the use of
following tests? F-test chi square test z-test and t-test are not fulfilling
need
Answer: (i) F-test is used to compare the variances of two populations. (ii) Chisquare
32
test is used to test a specific value of population variance. (iii) Ztest
is used to test the mean of a population or equality of two population
means when population variance is known or sample size is greater than
30. (iv) t-test is used to test the mean of a population or equality of two
population means when population variance is unknown or sample size is
less than 30.
Question: what is the difference between f-distribution , chi-square distribution
tdistribution?
Answer: These distributions have their own applications and these are used in
separate situations.
(i) f-distribution is used to test the equality of two populations
variances. It is also used to test the equality of population
means when we have more than two populations.
(ii) t-distribution is used to test the mean of a population and
equality of two population means in case of small sample size.
(iii) Chi-square distribution is used to test the variance of a
population. It is also used to test the association of attributes.
18 - 32
Question # 1 of 10 ( Start time: 12:11:21 AM ) Total Marks: 1
Let X be a random variable with binomial distribution, that is (X=0,1,, n). The
expected value E[X] is
Select correct option:
p
np
np(1-p)
Xnp
Question # 2 of 10 Total Marks: 1
The sample mean is an unbiased estimator for the population mean. This means:
The sample mean has a normal distribution
The average sample mean, over all possible samples, equals the population mean
33
The sample mean is always very close to the population mean
The sample mean will only vary a little from the population mean
Probability of an impossible event is always:
Less than one
Greater than one
Between one and zero
Zero
The function abbreviated to d.f. is also called the......
Probability density function
Probability distribution function
Commutative distribution function
Discrete function

The total area under the normal curve is:
0
1
0.5
34
0.75
Two events A & B are said to be independent if....
P (A) + P (B)
P (B\A) = P (B)
P (A) * P (B)
P (A\B) = P (A)
When two coins are tossed the probability of at most one head is:
1/4
2/4
3/4
1

For exhaustive events, the P(AUBUC) is equal to:
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
35
One card is drawn from a standard 52 card deck. In describing the occurrence of two
possible events, an Ace and a King, these two events are said to be:
independent
randomly independent
random variables
mutually exclusive
The number of parameters in hypergeometric distribution is (are):
1
2
3
4
State 301
10 marks ka stem and leaf display tha
probability main s bohy kam aya
event ki def
or population ki def ai thi
IN another paper session
Long Q is
moments ka 10 marks ka
and varience and SD ka 5 marks ka
36
1. 17 mcqs
2.one long question of mode
3.one question of chebychev's theorem
jb kahein sy or information mely gi tu Inshallah zaroor
share karon gi.
My stats paper . . .
Moment ratios - 10 marks
probability - 5 marks
calculate the harmonic mean - 3 marks
definition of sample - 1 mark
definition of population - 1 mark
and 16 mcq's
If X and Y are independent, then Var(X-Y) is equal to:
Zero
Question No: 9 ( Marks: 1 )
Please choose one Which of the following is the class frequency
The number of observations in each class
The difference between consecutive lower class limits
Always contains at least 5 observations
Usually a multiple of the lower limit of the first class
Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one How to construct the class interval:
Divide the class frequencies in half
Divide the class frequency by the number of observations
Find the difference between consecutive lower class limits
Count the number of observations in the class
Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one Data in the Population Census
Report is:
Ungrouped data
Secondary data
Primary data
Arrayed data
chck these 4 current papers of sta301
37
1st paper
10 marks ka stem and leaf display tha
probability main s bohy kam aya
event ki def
or population ki def ai thi
moments ka 10 marks ka
and varience and SD ka 5 marks ka
another
sta301 paper 2
sta301 me22 question hy,17 mcq the.
1marks ki defnation aye the
2marsks ka reason pocha tha
3marks ka mean wala sawal tha.
5marks ka moment ratio k formula or explaination aye thi..
10marks ki problem aye the solve ki the mene jo measure of dispersion se aye thi.
sta301 paper 3

Q1) find the low quartile and median. marks = 10

Q2) find the Range marks = 3

Q3) what is meant by Sample? marks= 2

38
Q4) it what situation we use the Emperical rule and bays therom? marks = 5

Q5) find the standared deviation? marks= 1

Q6) i think, objective type marks = 15
objective type ziada tar theory main say hi aya tha, koi question solve karnay k liay nhi
dia gya tha,
e.g. mean > median > mode.
i) positively skewed
ii) negtively skewed
iii) equal
sta301 paper 4
friends main b isi bhol bolaye main tha ,par mera 80% paper probability main se
aya,10 marks ka b 5 marks ka b,definatio 2 marks ki wo b prob se aur 11 mcqz from
probability se
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
STA301- Statistics and Probability (Session - 6)
Time: 60 min
Marks: 38
Question No: 1 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

For a positively skewed distribution m
3
will be:

Positive
39
Negative
Zero
1


When data is labeled to identify an attribute of element, the measurement scale is:

Ordinal
Interval
Nominal
Ratio


Suppose the estimated equation is has been calculated for a set of data.
What is slop of the line:

0
2
-2
5

40

If P(B|A) = 0.25 and , then P(A) is:

0.05

0.80

0.95

0.75


Which branch of statistics deals with the techniques that are used to organize,
summarize, and present the data:
Advance statistics
Probability statistics
Descriptive statistics
Inferential statistics


In a sample of 800 students in a university, 160, or 20%, are Business majors. Based on
41
the above information, the school's paper reported that "20% of all the students at the
university are Business majors." This report is an example of :
A sample
A population
Sstatistical inference


A set that contains all possible outcomes of a system is known as

Finite Set

Infinite Set
Universal Set

No of these


42

Zero


Which of the following is the class frequency


How to construct the class interval:



Data in the Population Census Report is:
43

Ungrouped data

Secondary data

Primary data

Arrayed data


What is the range of -2,-3,-5,-10 :

-12

8
-8
2


The algebraic sum of deviations from mean is:
44
Maximum
Minimum
Zero
Undefined

The sum of squares of deviations from mean is:

Undefined
Zero
Maximum
Minimum


Statistic is a numerical quantity, which is calculated from:

Population
Sample
Data
Observations

45

Which of the following is not based on all the observations?

Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic mean
Mode

Elaborate the word dispersion.
We can say that the degree of scatter of data, usually about an average value, can be
the median.


Define population.

We can define population is the collection of individuals or objects having some
common measurable characteristics.

46

What does mean by the independence of two events:

We can define independence of two events are statistically independent if the
probability of their occurring jointly equals the product of their respective
probabilities. Independence of two events also know as stochastic independence.


The reciprocal of the values are

0.012, 0.0235, 0.0135
Calculate Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean is 250.037


The probability that a student passes mathematics is 2/3 and the probability that he
passes English is 4/9. If the probability of passing at least one course is 4/5, what is the
probability that he will pass both courses?

Math=2/3
English=4/9
Least one passing probability= 4/5

Math + English =2/3+4/9
47
=1.11
4/5+1.11
=1.911


A pair of dice is thrown, then
1) Find the sample space for this experiment

Suppose if A and B is the pair of dice then lets try to find out how many result we can
find

A hit first
B Hit first
B hit Second
A Hit Second
Both Hit Equally
Both didn't Hit

2) Determine the probability of getting the sum 8 on the dice

3) Find the probability of getting sum 7 or 11
STA301 Online 5 Quizzes
from Lectures 1-27
1. Question # 1 of 10 ( Start time: 08:23:14 PM ) Total Marks: 1
48
If Y=bX, then variance of Y is
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
b square root var(x)
If f(x) is a continuous probability function, then P(X = 2) is:
1
0
1/2
2
In regression line Y=a+bX, Y is called:
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Explanatory variable
Regressor
If A and B are mutually exclusive events with P (A) =0.25 and P (B) = 0.50,
Then P (A or B) =
0.25
0.75
0.50
1
Symbolically, a conditional probability is:
P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)
In a 52 well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, the probability of drawing any one
diamond card is
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
Probability of a sure event is
8
1
49
0
0.5
If Y=3X+5,then S.D of Y is equal to
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
Question # 9 of 10 ( Start time: 08:33:16 PM ) Total Marks: 1
The probability of drawing a red queen card from well-shuffled pack of 52 playing
cards is
4/52
2/52
13/52
26/52
If P (B|A) = 0.25 and P (A and B) =0.20, then P (A) is
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
When a coin is tossed 3 times, the probability of getting 3 tails is
1/8
3/8
3/6
2/8
In how many ways can a team of 11 players be chosen from a total of 16
players?
4368(not confirmed)
2426
5400
2680
The standard deviation of c (constant) is
c
c square
0
does not exist
If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of the following must be
50
false:
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment. Suppose the E and
F are independent and that P(E) = 1/4 and P(F) = 1/2 Then P(E U F) is:
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
A student solved 25 questions from first 50 questions of a book to be solved. The
probability that he will solve the remaining all questions is:
0.25
0.5
1
0
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
The classical definition of probability assumes:
Exhaustive events
Mutually exclusive events
Equally likely evens
Independent evens
In scatter diagram, the variable plotted along Y-axis is:
Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
20. Which of the following measures of dispersion are based on deviations
from the mean?
Variance
Standard deviation
51
Mean deviation
All of the these
21. What does it mean when a data set has a standard deviation equal to
zero?
All values of the data appear with the same frequency.
The mean of the data is also zero.
All of the data have the same value.
There are no data to begin with.
22. A set of possible values that a random variable can assume and their
associated probabilities of occurrence are referred to as ________.
Probability distribution
The expected return
The standard deviation
Coefficient of variation
23. Which of the following can never be probability of an event?
0
1
0.5
-0.5
24. The standard deviation of -1, -1, -1, -1 will be
1
-1
0
Does not exist
25. Which formula represents the probability of the complement of event
A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
26. The Special Rule of Addition is used to combine:
Independent Events
Mutually Exclusive Events
Events that total more than 1.00
Events based on subjective probabilities
27. set which is the sub-set of every set is
Empty Set
Power Set
Universal Set
Super Set
28. E(4X + 5) =________
52
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
29. When two dice are rolled the number of possible sample points is :
6
12
24
36
If two events A and B are not mutually exclusive then
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A and B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
31.
Evaluate (10-4)!
1000
720
480
32
When E is an impossible event, then P(E) is:
0
1
2
0.5
When we toss a coin , we get only:
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome
34.
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
53
0.25
0.5
1
0
The expected return
37.
If we roll a die then probability of getting a 6 will be
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
If P(A) = 0.45, P(B) = 0.35, and P(A and B) = 0.25, then P(A | B) is:
1.4
1.8
0.714
0.556
Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency?
Percentile
Quartile
Standard deviation
Mode
Random experiment can be repeated any no. of times under the conditions.
Different
Similar
The simultaneous occurrence of two events is called:
Joint probability
Subjective probability
Prior probability
54
Conditional probability
In regression analysis, the variable that is being predicted is the
Dependent variable
Intervening variable
None of these


When each outcome of a sample space has equal chance to occur as any other, the
outcomes are called:
Mutually exclusive
Equally likely
Not mutually exclusive
Exhaustive


The mean of the F-distribution is:

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
2
2
2
forv
v
v
55

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
1
2
2
forv
v
v


The LSD test is applied only if the null hypothesis is:
Rejected
Accepted
No conclusion
Acknowledged


Analysis of variance is a procedure that enables us to test the equality of several:
Variances
Means
Proportions
Groups

56

ANOVA was introduced by :
Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis


For testing of hypothesis about population proportion , we use:
Z-test PROPORTIONS ARE TESTED AND MEAN
t-Test MEAN IS TESTED
Both Z & T-test
F test VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION


If a random variable X denotes the number of heads when three distinct coins are
tossed, the X assumed the values:
0,1,2,3
1,3,3,1
1, 2, 3
3, 2


If X and Y are independent variables, then E (XY) is:
57
E(XX)
E(X).E(Y)
X.E(Y)
Y.E(X)


The parameters of the binomial distribution b(x; n, p) are:
x & n
x & p
n & p
x, n & p


If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of the following must be false:
P(E)= - 1 ROBIBILITY SHOULD NEVER BE NEGATIVE AND NOT BE GREATER THAN
ONE
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3


An estimator T is said to be unbiased estimator of if
58
E (T) =
EXPECTION OF STATISTIC IS EQUAL TO PARAMETER THAT IS

ESTIMATED THEN STATISTIC IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE
BIASED.
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1


The best unbiased estimator for population variance
2
is:
Sample mean
Sample median
Sample proportion
Sample variance

59

The sample variance
2
2
( ) x x
S
n

is:
Unbiased estimator of
2
Biased estimator of
2
IF IT IS DI VIDED BY N-1 THEN IT IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE

BIASED
None of these


When c is a constant, then E(c) is:
1
0
c
-c
0
1
c THE EXPECTION OF A CONSTATNT IS ALWAYS CONSTANT
60
-c


If f (x, y) is bivariate probability density function of continuous r.v.'s X and Y then

( ) g x
is:

( ) , f x y dx

( )
, f x y dy

( ) , f x y dx dy

( ) ,
b d
a c
f x y dy dx


The analysis of variance technique is a method for :
Comparing F distributions
61
Comparing three or more means
Measuring sampling error
Comparing variances


The continuity correction factor is used when:
The sample size is at least 5
Both nP and n (1-P) are at least 30
A continuous distribution is used to approximate a discrete distribution
The standard normal distribution is applied


Stem and leaf is more informative when data is :
Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations

62

The branch of Statistics that is concerned with the procedures and methodology for
obtaining valid conclusions is called:
Descriptive Statistics
Advance Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Sampled Statistics


Which of the following is a systematic arrangement of data into rows and columns?
Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart


In normal distribution Q.D =

0.5

0.75
63

0.7979

0.6745


In normal distribution
2

1
2
3
0


If you connect the mid-points of rectangles in a histogram by a series of lines that also
touches the x-axis from both ends, what will you get?
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram


Which one of the following statements is true regarding a population?
It must be a large number of values
It must refer to people
It is a collection of individuals, objects, or measurements
It is small part of whole
64


When
1 3
2 4 Q and Q
,what is the value of Median, if the distribution is symmetrical:
1
2
3
4


In a simple linear regression model, if it is assumed that the intercept parameter is
equal to zero, then:
The regression line will pass through the origin
The regression line will pass through the point (0,10).
The regression line will pass through the point (0,-10).
The slope of the line will also be equal to 0.


The degrees of freedom for a t-test with sample size 10 is:
5
8
9 n-1
10

65

In testing of hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
Null hypothesis is true
It is shown by h0 and first we assumption is h0
Alternative hypothesis is true
Sample size is large
Population is normal


A failing student is passed by an examiner is an example of:
Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision
No information regarding student exams


How to find
( 1) P X Y +
?
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
66


How many parameters are involved in hypergeometric distribution?
Three N n k
Poission mean is np and variance and mean are equal

For a particular data the value of Pearsons coefficient of skewness is greater then zero.
What will be the shape of distribution?
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively skewed


In measures of relative dispersion unit of measurement is:
Changed
Vanish
67
Does not changed
Dependent


The F-distribution always ranges from:
0 to 1
0 to -
- to +
0 to +


In chi-square test of independence the degrees of freedom are:
n - p
n - p-1
n - p- 2
n 2


The Chi- Square distribution is continuous distribution ranging from:
-
2

-
2
1
68
-
2
0
0
2
348


If X and Y are random variables, then ( ) E X Y
is equal to:

( ) ) ( E X E Y +

( ) ) ( E X E Y

( ) X E Y

( ) E X Y
answr


If is the predicted value for a given x-value and b is the y-intercept then the equation
of a regression line for an independent variable x and a dependent variable y is:
= mx + b, where m = slope
x = + mb, where m = slope
= x/m + b, where m = slope
= x + mb, where m = slope


The location of the critical region depends upon:
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
69
Value of alpha
Value of test-statistic


The variance of the t-distribution is give by the formula:

2
2

2
2
2

1
2

2
2


Which one is the correct formula for finding desired sample size?

2
2
. Z
n
e
_

,

2
2
. Z
n
e

,

2
2
. Z X
n
e

,
70

2
. Z
n
e


A discrete probability function f(x) is always:
Non-negative
Negative
One
Zero


E(4X + 5) =__________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
71


How P(X + Y < 1) can be find:
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)


The
( ) | 1 f x
__________:

( ) 1,1 f

( ) ,1 f x

( )
( )
,1
1
f x
h

( )
( )
,1 f x
h x

72

The area under a normal curve between 0 and -1.75 is
.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599


In normal distribution M.D. =

0.5

0.75

0.7979

0.6445


In an ANOVA test there are 5 observations in each of three treatments. The degrees of
freedom in the numerator and denominator respectively are.......
2, 4
3, 15
3, 12
2, 12

73

Finite Set
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these


Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations


A population that can be defined as the aggregate of all the conceivable ways in which a
specified event can happen is known as:
Infinite population
74
Finite population
Concrete population
Hypothetical population

Question No. 01:
The number of telephone calls that pass through a switchboard has a Poison
distribution with mean equal to 2 per minute. The probability that no telephone calls
pass through the switchboard in two consecutive minutes is:
1. 0.2707
2. 0.0517
3. 0.0183
4. 0.0366
Question No. 02:
The range of the binomial distribution is:
1. 0, 1, 2, ... , 100
2. 0, 1, 2, , n
3. 0, 1, 2, , x
4. 1, 2, , n
Question No. 03:
Which of the following is NOT CORRECT about a standard normal distribution?
75
1. P(0 Z 1.50) = .4332
2. P(Z 2.0) = .0228
3. P (Z -2.5) = .4938
4. P (Z -1.0) = .1587
Question No. 04:
The distribution function (df) is also known as cumulative distribution function (cdf).
1. Yes
2. No
Question No. 05:
Which of the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive?
1. A:the numbers above100;B: the numbers less than-200
2. A:the odd numbers; B:the number 5
3. A:the even numbers; B:the numbers greater than 10
4. A:the numbers less than 5; B:all the negative numbers
Question No. 06:
Two events A & B are said to be independent if...
1. P(A) + P(B)
2. P(B/A) = P(B)
3. P(A) * P(B)
4. P(A/B) = P(A)
76
Questions No. 07:
The collection of all outcomes for an experiment is called:
1. A sample space
2. Joint probability simple event
3. The intersection of events
4. Random experiment
Question No. 08:
1. P(AB)
2. P(A/B)
3. P(A)
4. P(AUB)
Questions No. 09:
Which of the following statements is INCORRECT about the sampling distribution of
the sample mean?
1. The standard error of the sample mean will decrease as the sample size
increases
2. The standard error of the sample mean is measure of the variability of the
sample mean among repeated samples
3. The sample mean is unbiased for the true (unknown) population mean
4. The sampling distribution shows how the sample was distributed around the
sample mean
77
Question No. 10:
If one event is unaffected by the outcome of another event the two events are said to be:
1. Dependent
2. Not Mutually Exclusive
3. Mutually Exclusive
4. Independent
Let X be a random variable with binomial distribution, that is (X=0,1,, n). The
expected value E[X] is
p
np
np(1-p)
Xnp
The sample mean is an unbiased estimator for the population mean. This means:
The sample mean has a normal distribution
The average sample mean, over all possible samples, equals the population mean
The sample mean is always very close to the population mean
78
The sample mean will only vary a little from the population mean
Less than one
Greater than one
Zero
The function abbreviated to d.f. is also called the......
Probability distribution function
Discrete function

The total area under the normal curve is:
0
1
0.5
0.75
79
Two events A & B are said to be independent if....
P (A) + P (B)
P (B\A) = P (B)
P (A) * P (B)
P (A\B) = P (A)
1/4
2/4
3/4
1

P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
80
One card is drawn from a standard 52 card deck. In describing the occurrence of two
possible events, an Ace and a King, these two events are said to be:
independent
randomly independent
random variables
mutually exclusive
The number of parameters in hypergeometric distribution is (are):
1
2
3
4
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2010
Student Info
StudentID:
Center:
ExamDate: 08 Aug 2010
For Teacher's Use Only
Q
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Marks
Q No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Marks
Q No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Marks
Q No. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
81
Marks
Q No. 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Marks
Solved By Wajid
Mutually exclusive
Equally likely
Exhaustive
The
mean of the F-distribution is:
2
2 1
1
1
forv
v
v
2
2 2
2
2
forv
v
v
2
2 1
1
1
forv
v
v
2
2 1
2
2
82
forv
v
v
The
LSD test is applied only if the null hypothesis is:
Rejected
Accepted
No conclusion
Acknowledged
Solved By Wajid
Variances
Means
Proportions
Groups
Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis
Z -test PROPORTIONS ARE TESTED AND MEAN
t -Test MEAN IS TESTED
Both Z & T-test
If a
random variable X denotes the number of heads when three distinct coins are tossed,
the X assumed the values:
0,1,2,3
1,3,3,1
1, 2, 3
3, 2
If X
and Y are independent variables, then E (XY) is:
E(XX)
E(X).E(Y)
X.E(Y)
Y.E(X)
Solved By Wajid
The
parameters of the binomial distribution b(x; n, p) are:
83
x & n
x & p
n & p
x, n & p
If P
(E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of the following must be false:
P(E)= - 1 ROBIBILITY SHOULD NEVER BE NEGATIVE AND NOT BE
GREATER THAN
ONE
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
E (T) =
EXPECTION OF STATISTIC IS EQUAL TO PARAMETER THAT IS ESTIMATED
THEN STATISTIC
IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE BIASED.
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1
2
is:
Sample mean
Sample median
Sample proportion
Sample variance
Solved By Wajid
The sample variance
2
S2 (x x)
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2
BIASED
None of these
84
1
0
c
-c
0
1
-c
If f
(x, y) is bivariate probability density function of continuous r.v.'s X and Y then
g(x)
is:
Solved By Wajid
f x, y dx
f x, y dy
f x, ydx dy

,
b d
a c
f x y dy dx
The
analysis of variance technique is a method for :
Co mparing three or more means
Comparing variances
85
Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
Solved By Wajid
In all situations
The
branch of Statistics that is concerned with the procedures and methodology for
obtaining valid
conclusions is called:
Advance Statistics
Sampled Statistics
Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart
In
normal distribution Q.D =
0.5
0.75
0.7979
0.6745
In
normal distribution 2
1
2
3
0
Solved By Wajid
If
you connect the mid-points of rectangles in a histogram by a series of lines that also
86
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
When
Q1 2 and Q3 4
1
2
3
4
In a
simple linear regression model, if it is assumed that the intercept parameter is equal to
zero, then:
The
degrees of freedom for a t-test with sample size 10 is:
5
8
9 n-1
10
Solved By Wajid
In
testing of hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
A
failing student is passed by an examiner is an example of:
Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision
87
How to find
P(X Y 1)
?
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
Three N n k
If
an automobile is driven on the average no more than 16000 Km per year, then
formulate the null and alternative hypothesis.
Solved By Wajid
0
1
16000
16000
H
H
Write down the test statistic when chi- square goodness of fit test is performed.
Find the value of F(table value), when n1 7 , 2 n 10 and = 0.05
3.37
If X
= 327, n = 634, 0 p
0.50 then find the z-test statistic for proportion.
If
population proportions are given as:
Find
1 2
2
p p
,where n = 10
1 2
2
p p
= p1q1/n1+p2q2/n2
88
A
candidate for mayor in a large city hires the services of a poll-taking organization, and
they found that 62 of 100 educated voters interviewed support the candidate, and 69 of
150 uneducated voters support him.
At the 0.05 significance level, test the following
1 2 : 0.05 o H P P
1 1 2 H : P P 0.05
1 2 P 0.30, P 0.20.
Solved By Wajid
Book Example # 16.17 on Page 155
Professor sher Muhammad Chaudhry
If
we have RCBD with MSE=3.19, no.of.treatments = 4, no.of.blocks = 5; then find the
value of LSD (least significant difference) for treatments by using =0.05 and error
degrees of freedom is 12.
Find the mean and variance for the sampling distribution given below.
p No. of
Samples
Probability
f p
0 1 1/20
1/3 9 9/20
2/3 9 9/20
1 1 1/20
20 1
P
F( P ) 2
P
P
F( P ) 2
P F( P )
0 1/20
1/3 9/20
2/3 9/20
1 1/20
1
Mean= = P f P
Variance= E(x)2 P 2 f P (P f P )2
Stat301 final term papers
Solved By Wajid
For
89
a particular data the value of Pearsons coefficient of skewness is greater then zero.
What will be
the shape of distribution?
Negatively skewed
J -shaped
Symmetrical
Positively skewed
Changed
Vanish
Does not changed
Dependent
The
F-distribution always ranges from:
0 to 1
0 to -
- to +
0 to +
In
chi-square test of independence the degrees of freedom are:
n - p
n - p-1
n - p- 2
n 2
The
Chi- Square distribution is continuous distribution ranging from:
Solved By Wajid
- 2
- 2 1
- 2 0
0 2 348
If X
and Y are random variables, then
E X Y
is equal to:
E X ) E(Y
E X ) E(Y
X E Y
90
E X Y answr
If
is the predicted value for a given x-value and b is the y-intercept then the equation of a
regression line for an independent variable x and a dependent variable y is:
The
location of the critical region depends upon:
Null hypothesis
Value of alpha
The
variance of the t-distribution is give by the formula:
2
2
Solved By Wajid
2
2
2
1
2
2
91
2

2
2
Z .
n
e
2
2
Z .
n
e

2
2
Z .X
n
e

2
Z .
n
e

A
discrete probability function f(x) is always:
92
Non-negative
Negative
One
Zero
Solved By Wajid
E(4X + 5) =__________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
The
f x |1
__________:
f 1,1
f x,1

,1
1
f x
h
Solved By Wajid

f x,1
h x
The
area under a normal curve between 0 and -1.75 is
.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599
In
93
normal distribution M.D. =
0.5
0.75
0.7979
0.6445
In
an ANOVA test there are 5 observations in each of three treatments. The degrees of
freedom in the numerator and denominator respectively are.......
2, 4
3, 15
3, 12
2, 12
Finite Set
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these
Solved By Wajid
Stem
and leaf is more informative when data is :
Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations
A
population that can be defined as the aggregate of all the conceivable ways in which a
specified event can
happen is known as:
Infinite population
Finite population
Concrete population
If E(T)
, what do you say about the estimator T, where is a parameter ?
What is a binomial experiment?
Formulate the null and alternative hypothesis in each of the following.
(1) Average domestic consumption of electricity is 50 units per month.
(2) Not more than 30% people pay Zakat (tax).
What is mathematical expectation of discrete random variable?
94
Why we prefer to use pooled estimator
c p
Solved By Wajid
Differentiate between grouped and ungrouped data.
A
population 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
N=6, n=2
After drawing possible samples, we have calculated sampling mean
7 x u
and
sampling variance
2 5.833 x
. Verify
2
) , ) 2 x x a b
n

A
random sample of size n is drawn from normal population with mean 5 and variance
2 .
Answer the following:
If s=15, x =14 and t=3, what is values of n?
Given the Probability density function
.
Compute the distribution function F(x).
An urn contains nine balls; five of them are red and four blue. Three balls are drawn
without replacement. Find the distribution of X= number of red balls drawn.
A
research worker wishes to estimate the mean of a population using a sample sufficiently
large that the probability will be 0.95 that the sample mean will not differ from the true

elsewhere
for x
f x
x
0,
, 0 2 2
95
Solved By Wajid
mean by more than 25 percent of the standard deviation. How large a sample should be
taken?
Paper 2
10!
=.
362880
3628800
362280
362800
2
0
0.5
1
The
value of 2can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative
The
curve of the F- distribution depends upon:
Degre es of freedom
Sample size
Mean
Variance
If X
E X Y
is equal to:
Solved By Wajid
E X ) E(Y
E X ) E(Y
X E Y
E X Y
96
In
testing hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
S ample size is large
For
the Poisson distribution P(x) =
0.135 0.1351
1!

the mean value is :
2
5
10
0.135
When two coins are tossed simultaneously, P (one head) is:
1
4
1
2
3
4
1
Solved By Wajid
From point estimation, we always get:
Single value
Two values
Range of values
Zero
The sample variance
2
S2 (x x)
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2
97
None of these
Var(4X + 5) =__________
16 Var (X)
16 Var (X) + 5
4 Var (X) + 5
12 Var (X)
When f (x, y) is bivariate probability density function of continuous r.v.'s X and Y, then
f x, ydx dy
is equal to:
Solved By Wajid
1
0
-1

The
.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599
When a fair die is rolled, the sample space consists of:
2 outcomes
6 outcomes
36 outcomes
16 outcomes
When testing for independence in a contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns, there
are
________ degrees of freedom.
5
6
7
12
The
F- test statistic in one-way ANOVA is:
SS W / SSE
MSW / MSE
SSE / SSW
98
MSE / MSW
Solved By Wajid
A uniform distribution is defined by:
Its largest and smallest value
Smallest value
Largest value
Mid value
Which graph is made by plotting the mid point and frequencies?
Frequency polygon
Ogive
Histogram
Frequency curve
In a
set of 20 values all the values are 10, what is the value of median?
2
5
10
20
If
P X 0
=
1
8
,
P X 1
=
3
8
,
P X 2
=
3
8
and
P(X 3)
=
1
99
8
Then find F (1)
Write down the formula of mathematical expectation.
e=(w * p) + (-v *1). e
Solved By Wajid
Discuss the statistical independence of two discrete random variables:
For
given data calculate the mean and standard deviation of sampling distribution of mean
if the
sampling is down without replacement.
N 1000, n 25, 68.5, 2.7
Elaborate the Least Significant Difference (LSD) Test.
State
the Bayes Theorem.
The
means and variances of the weekly incomes in rupees of two samples of workers are
given in the
following table, the samples being randomly drawn from two different factories:
Calculate the 90% confidence interval for the real difference in the incomes of the
workers from
the two factories.
From the given data
n 1340, x 723, p .54
and 0 0 1 0 H : P 0.5against H : P 0.5
.
Carry out the significance test for the stated hypothesis.
Factory Sample Size Mean Variance
A 160 12.80 64
B 220 11.25 47
Solved By Wajid
.
f(x,y) 1 (6 x y), 0 x 2; 2 y 4,
8
0, elsewhere

a) Verify that f(x,y) is a joint

100
density function.
b) Calculate
,
2
,Y 5
2
P X 3

Let
1 2 3 X , X , X
be a random sample of size 3 from a population with mean
and variance2
Consider the following two estimators of the mean
1 2 3
1
1 2 3
2
3
2
4
T X X X
T X X X

Which estimator should be preferred?

Stat final information
Total question 31
21 was mcqs and 10 was subjective questions.
2 was of 10,10 marks
2 was of 5,5 marks
4 was of 3,3 marks these question ware about properties and 1 was about
confidece interval

elsewhere
for x
f x
x
0,
, 0 2 2
101
Solved By Wajid
2 was of 1, 1 marks, these question were only about defitions.
1) 1 question from confidence interval , question was of 3 marks,
find the confidence interval for difference between two ( papolation means) u1 , u2,
ye question handouts main say hi aya tha, i think lecture no 35 main say tha.
2) 1 question from hypotheyes testing ( Z- test) , marks 10
3) 2 questions was about properties, one was, write the properties of binomial
distribution. and
other was ,
what is the good point estimator?
4) 1 question was from lecture no 23 , this was of 3 marks
page no 172, 1st example was same to same.
find the F(x) of { 1, 2}
x and f( x) was given.
Definition estimate n estimator
: x is poisson random variable with U(meu) =2 find (x=0)(x=1)(x=2)
Q : joint probabilty distribution ka ta...bht ezy table dia ta find px=0/y=1
Q: hypergeometric distibution ka ta....
Q: confidence interval level ka ta...
or baki choty choty shy....like why we use t-value...,
.s^2 ia approx equall to S^2 how....
FINALTERM EXAMINATION
Fall 2009
Ref No: 1319492
Time: 120 min
Marks: 70
Student Info
StudentID:
Center: OPKST
ExamDate: 2/24/2010 12:00:00 AM
Q No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Marks
Q No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Solved By Wajid
Marks
Q No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Marks
Q No. 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Marks
Solved By Wajid
10!
=.
362880
3628800
362280
102
362800
2
0
0.5
1
The
value of 2can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative
The
curve of the F- distribution depends upon:
Degrees of freedom
Sample size
Mean
Variance
If X
E X Y
is equal to:
E X ) E(Y
E X ) E(Y
Solved By Wajid
X E Y
E X Y
In
testing hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
For
the Poisson distribution P(x) =
0.135 0.1351
103
1!

the mean value is :
2
5
10
0.135
1
4
1
2
3
4
1
Single value
Solved By Wajid
Two values
Range of values
Zero
The sample variance
2
S2 (x x)
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2
None of these
Var(4X + 5) =__________
16 Var (X)
16 Var (X) + 5
4 Var (X) + 5
12 Var (X)
104
When f (x, y) is bivariate probability density function of continuous r.v.'s X and Y, then
f x, ydx dy

is equal to:
1
0
-1

Solved By Wajid
The
.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599
2 outcomes
6 outcomes
36 outcomes
16 outcomes
When testing for independence in a contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns, there
are
5
6
7
12
The
F- test statistic in one-way ANOVA is:
SSW / SSE
MSW / MSE
SSE / SSW
MSE / MSW
Solved By Wajid
105
Smallest value
Largest value
Mid value
Frequency polygon
Ogive
Histogram
Frequency curve
In a
set of 20 values all the values are 10, what is the value of median?
2
5
10
20
If
P X 0
=
1
8
,
P X 1
=
3
8
,
P X 2
=
3
8
and
P(X 3)
=
1
8
Then find F (1)
e=(w * p) + (-v *1). e
Discuss the statistical independence of two discrete random variables:
Solved By Wajid
106
For
given data calculate the mean and standard deviation of sampling distribution of mean
if the
sampling is down without replacement.
N 1000, n 25, 68.5, 2.7
State
the Bayes Theorem.
The
means and variances of the weekly incomes in rupees of two samples of workers are
given in the
following table, the samples being randomly drawn from two different factories:
Calculate the 90% confidence interval for the real difference in the incomes of the
workers from
the two factories.
From the given data
n 1340, x 723, p .54
and 0 0 1 0 H : P 0.5against H : P 0.5
.
.
A 160 12.80 64
B 220 11.25 47

elsewhere
for x
f x
x
0,
, 0 2 2
Solved By Wajid
f(x,y) 1 (6 x y), 0 x 2; 2 y 4,
8
0, elsewhere

107
density function.
b) Calculate
,
2
,Y 5
2
P X 3

Let
1 2 3 X , X , X
be a random sample of size 3 from a population with mean
and variance 2
1 2 3
1
1 2 3
2
3
2
4
T X X X
T X X X


www.virtualinspire.com
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
STA301- Statistics and Probability
Question No: 1 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one
10! =.
362880
3628800
362280
362800
If a player well shuffles the pack of 52 playing cards, then the probability of a
black card from 52 playing cards is:
108
1
52
13
52
4
52
26
52
The probability of drawing a jack card from 52 playing cards is:
1
52
4
52
13
52
26
52
Which dispersion is used to compare variation of two series?
C.V.
Q.D.
M.D.
S.D.
If all the values fall on the same straight line and the line has a positive slope
then what will be the value of the correlation coefficient r:
0 r 1
r 0
r = +1
r=-1
In a regression line Y= a + bX, the value of the correlation coefficient will be zero if:
Intercept a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0
When two coins are tossed the probability of at least one head is:
1/4
3/4
109
2/4
4/4
Which one of the following measurement does not divide a set of observations
into equal parts?
Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
Standard deviations
In the model Y = mX + a, Y is also known as the:
Predictor variable
Predicted (dependent) variable
According to empirical rule approximately 95% of the measurements will fall under
which interval?
X S
X 2S
X 3S
X 4S
Which one of the following is written at the top of the table?
Source note
Foot note
Prefatory note
Title
If a curve has a longer tail to the right, it is called:
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetric
Which one of the following is the class frequency?
If X is a discrete random variable, then the function
f (x)
is
A probability function
A probability density function
A density function
110
A distribution function
Which one of the following graphs is used for a time series data?
Histogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
If you connect the mid-points of rectangles in a histogram by a series of lines that
also touches the x-axis from both ends, what will you get?
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
If mean of the two observations is 10.5, then median of these two observations will be:
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
Which one is the formula of mid range?
m 0 x x
0 m x x
0
2
m x x
0
2
m x x
Which one of the following is not included in measures of central tendency?
Quartile deviation
Harmonic mean
Geometric mean
Arithmetic mean
For the given data 2, 3, 7, 0, -8 G. M will be:
Negative
Positive
Zero
Undefined
Question No: 21 (Marks: 2)
Why measure of central tendency and measure of dispersion are complementary to
111
each other?
Answer: Together both measures give us adequate description of data.
What do you know about discrete random variable?
Answer:
Such a numerical quantity whose value is determined by the value of a random
experiment is called a random variable.
Example: If we toss three dice together and let X represents the number of
heads, then the random variable X consists of the value 0, 1, 2, and 3. the X in
this example is a discrete random variable.
What is the subjective approach to the probability?
Answer:
Subjective probability is a measure of the strength of a persons belief regarding the
occurrence of an event A. Probability in this sense is purely subjective and is based on
whatever evidence is available to the individual.
It has a disadvantage that two or more persons faced with the same evidence may
arrive
at different probabilities.
Example:
Suppose a panel of three judges is hearing a trial. It is possible that based on the
evidence that is presented; two of them arrive at the conclusion that the accused is
guilty
while one of them decides that the evidence is not strong to draw this conclusion.
Explain the difference between absolute dispersion and relative dispersion:
Answer:
Differentiate between the mutually exclusive events and exhaustive events.
Answer:
Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events A and B of a single experiment are said to
be mutually exclusive if and only if they both cant occur at the same time.
Example:
When a die is rolled, the events even number and odd number are mutually
exclusive as we can get either an even number or an odd number in one throw,
not both at the same time.
Exhaustive Events: Events are said to be collectively exhaustive, when the
union of mutually exclusive events is equal to the entire sample space S.
Examples:
In the coin tossing experiment, head and tail are collectively exhaustive events.
Find the first two moments about mean from the following data.
X= 3www.virtualinspire.com
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
For a positively skewed distribution m3 will be:
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Positive
Negative
Zero
1
Ordinal
Interval
Nominal
Ratio
Suppose the estimated equation is has been calculated for a set of data. What
is slop of the line:
0
2
-2
5
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
Advance statistics
A sample
A population
Finite Set
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these
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Zero
Usually a mult iple of the lower limit of the first class
Ungrouped data
Secondary data
Primary data
Arrayed data
-12
8
-8
2
Maximum
Minimum
Zero
Undefined
Undefined
Zero
Maximum
Minimum
Population
Sample
D ata
114
Observations
Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic mean
Mode
We can say that the degree of scatter of data, usually about an average value, can be
the median.
Define population.
probabilities.
Independence of two events also know as stochastic independence.
0.012, 0.0235, 0.0135
Math=2/3
English=4/9
=1.11
4/5+1.11
=1.911
find
A hit first
B Hit first
B hit Second
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A Hit Second
Both Hit Equally
Both didn't Hit
3) Find the probability of getting sum 7 or 114, 70, 42, 54, 40, 68, 56, 38, 36, 72
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
10! =.
362880
3628800
362280
362800
1
52
13
52
4
52
26
52
1
52
4
52
13
52
26
52
C.V.
Q.D.
116
M.D.
S.D.
If all the values fall on the same straight line and the line has a positive slope
then what will be the value of the correlation coefficient r:
0 r 1
r 0
r = +1
r=-1
Intercept a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0
1/4
3/4
2/4
4/4
Which one of the following measurement does not divide a set of observations
into equal parts?
Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
Standard deviations
Predictor variable
In dependent variable
which interval?
X S
X+ 2S
X 3S
X 4S
Source note
Foot note
Prefatory note
Title
117
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetric
f (x)
is
A density function
Histogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
If you connect the mid-points of rectangles in a histogram by a series of lines that
also touches the x-axis from both ends, what will you get?
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
m 0 x x
0 m x x
0
2
m x x
118
0
2
m x x
Quartile deviation
Harmonic mean
Geometric mean
Arithmetic mean
Negative
Positive
Zero
Undefined
each other?
Answer:
heads, then the random variable X consists of the value 0, 1, 2, and 3. the X in
this example is a discrete random variable.
Answer:
arrive
Example:
guilty
Answer:
119
Answer:
Example:
exclusive as we can get either an even number or an odd number in one throw,
not both at the same time.
Exhaustive Events: Events are said to be collectively exhaustive, when the
union of mutually exclusive events is equal to the entire sample space S.
Examples:
X= 34, 70, 42, 54, 40, 68, 56, 38, 36, 72
Research Method (STA 630)
Success Objectives
1- Hypothesis refers to
A. The outcome of an experiment
B. A conclusion drawn from an experiment
C. A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
D. A tentative statement about the relationship
2- Statistics is used by researchers to
A. Analyze the empirical data collected in a study
B. Make their findings sound better
C. Operationally define their variables
D. Ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
3- A literature review requires
A. Planning
B. Good & clear writing
C. Lot of rewriting
D. All of the above
120
4- A literature review is based on the assumption that
A. Copy from the work of others
B. Knowledge accumulates and learns from the work of others
C. Knowledge disaccumulates
D. None of the above option
5- A theoretical framework
A. Elaborates the r/s among the variables
B. Explains the logic underlying these r/s
C. Describes the nature and direction of the r/s
D. All of the above
6- Which of the following statement is not true?
A. A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project
B. A research proposal shows that the researcher is capable of successfully
conducting the proposed research project
C. A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
D. A research proposal is just like a research report and written before the
research project
7- Preliminary data collection is a part of the
Success Objectives
A. Descriptive research
B. Exploratory research
C. Applied research
D. Explanatory research
8- Conducting surveys is the most common method of generating
A. Primary data
B. Secondary data
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C. Qualitative data
D. None of the above
9- After identifying the important variables and establishing the logical reasoning in
theoretical framework, the next step in the research process is
A. To conduct surveys
B. To generate the hypothesis
C. To focus group discussions
D. To use experiments in an investigation
10- The appropriate analytical technique is determined by
A. The research design
B. Nature of the data collected
C. Nature of the hypothesis
D. Both A & B
11- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as:
a. Mall interviews
b. Mall intercept interviews
c. Brief interviews
d. None of the given options
12-WATS lines provided by long distance telephone service at fixed rates. In this
regard, WATS is the abbreviation of:
e. West Africa Theological Seminary
f. Washtenaw Area Transportation Study
g. Wide Area Telecommunications Service
h. World Air Transport Statistics
13-A list of questions which is handed over to the respondent, who reads the questions
and records the answers himself is known as the:
i. Interview schedule
j. Questionnaire
k. Interview guide
l. All of the given options
122
14-One of the most critical stages in the survey research process is:
m. Research design
n. Questionnaire design
o. Interview design
p. Survey design
Success Objectives
15-Question that consists of two or more questions joined together is called a:
q. Double barreled question
r. General question
s. Accurate question
t. Confusing question
16-The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the total number of
eligible people who were contacted or asked to participate in the survey is called the:
u. Response rate
v. Participation rate
w. Inflation rate
x. None of the given options
17-To obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, when we ask general question before
a specific question then this procedure is called as the:
y. Research technique
z. Qualitative technique
aa. Funnel technique
bb. Quantitative technique
18-A small scale trial run of a particular component is known as:
cc. Pilot testing
dd. Pre-testing
ee. Lab experiments
ff. Both A & B
18-Field testing of the questionnaire shows that:
gg. Respondents are willing to co-operate
hh. Respondents are not willing to co-operate
ii. Respondents do not like any participation
jj. All of the given options
123
19- Service evaluation of hotels and restaurants can be done by the:
kk. Self-administered questionnaires
ll. Office assistant
mm. Manager
nn. None of the given options
oo. Self-administered questionnaires
pp. Office assistant
qq. Manager
rr. None of the given options
21-Discrete variable is also called.
A. Categorical variable
B. Discontinuous variable
C. Both A & B
22-Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment Such a
hypothesis is an example of.
A. Descriptive Hypothesis
B. Directional Hypothesis
C. Relational Hypothesis
D. All of the above
23-Science refers to.
A. A system for producing knowledge
B. The knowledge produced by a system
C. Both A & B
24-Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
A. Deterministic
Success Objectives
B. Rationalism
C. Empirical
D. Abstraction
25-The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the.
124
A. Variables
B. Hypothesis
C. Concept
D. Theory
26-research is based on naturalism.
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
27-Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as
E. Mall interviews
F. Mall intercept interviews
G. Brief interviews
H. None of the given options
28- is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general
question before a specific question.
I. Research technique
J. Qualitative technique
K. Funnel technique
L. Quantitative technique
29-In, ___________the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction
of the interview.
M. Field interview
N. Telephonic interview
O. Both A and B
P. None of the given options
30-Randomization of test units is a part of
Q. Pretest
R. Posttest
S. Matching
T. Experiment
31- Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
A. Logic and arguments
125
B. Research solution
C. Reasoning
D. Previous findings
32- On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
A. Logical understanding
B. Identification of events
C. Prior knowledge
D. All of the given options
33- Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable
evidence?
A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
C. Speculation
D. Rationalism
34-Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
A. Health care
B. Religion
Success Objectives
C. Business
D. Government offices
35- All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
A. Data are systematically analyzed
126
B. Data are collected systematically
C. Results are generalizable
D. Results are used to improve practice
36-Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
A. Variables are tightly controlled
B. Results are generalizable
C. Data are usually qualitative
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
37-If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain
their merit and worth; he is likely conducting which of the following types of research?
A. Experimental
B. Applied
C. Basic
D. Evaluation
38- Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of question?
A. If
B. How
C. Why
D. What
39- Which of the following is not the source for getting information for exploratory
research?
A. Content analysis
B. Survey
127
C. Case study
D. Pilot study
40- Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
A. A theory that has survived attempts at falsification
B. A theory that is proven to be right
C. A theory that has been disproved
D. A theory that has been falsified
41- A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
A. Discontinuous variable
B. Dependent variable
C. Independent variable
D. Intervening variable
42- Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
A. An extraneous variable
B. A dependent variable
C. A data set
D. A constant
43- Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership
B. Total Quality Management
C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
D. Human Resource Management
128
44- Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?
A. Age
B. Annual income
C. Grade point average
D. Religion
Success Objectives
45-Income distribution of employees in a specific organization is an example of which
of following type of variable?
B. Continuous variable
C. Dependent variable
D. Independent variable
46-There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher efficiency is
an example of which type of hypothesis?
A. Alternative
B. Null
C. Co relational
D. Research
47- Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
A. Guides the direction of the study
B. Determine feasibility of conducting the study
C. Identifies relevant and irrelevant facts
D. Provides framework for organizing the conclusions
129
48-Hypothesis test may also be called as:
A. Informal test
B. Significance test
C. Moderating test
D. T-test
49-Which type of review compares how different theories address an issue?
A. Context review
B. Integrated review
C. Theoretical review
D. Methodological review
50-After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference,
EXCEPT;
A. Volumes
B. Titles
C. Price
D. Full names of the authors
51- ___________research is based on naturalism.
A. Field research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
52- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as_________
A. Mall interviews
130
B. Mall intercepts interviews
C. Brief interviews
D. None of the given options
53- ____________is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking
general question before a specific question.
A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
54- In, ____________the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and
direction of the interview.
A. Field interview
B. Telephonic interview
C. Both A and B
Success Objectives
55- Randomization of test units is a part of ______________
A. Pretest
B. Posttest
C. Matching
D. Experiment
56- Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
131
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
b. Mean, median, standard deviation
c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
57- Internal validity refers to.
a. Researchers degree of confidence.
b. Generalisability
c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
58- How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of
_________.
a. Intensity
b. Space
c. Frequency
d. Direction
59- Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
a. High
b. Moderate
c. Low
d. Nil
60- Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is
the example of .
a. Quota sampling
132
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
61- In ___________, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables
in
the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
3. Theoretical framework
4. Research design
62- In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the
effect
produced by the ____.
1. Dependent variable
2. Extraneous variable
3. Independent variable
4. Confounding variable
63- A measure is reliable if it provides consistent ___________.
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
64- The interview in which questions are already prepared is called ________.
133
1. Telephonic interview
2. Personal interview
Success Objectives
3. Unstructured interview
4. Structured interview
65-The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from those
that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design
2. Non-probability sampling
3. Sampling error
4. Probability sampling
66- In ______________ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
selection.
1. Purposive sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Simple random sampling
67- ______ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used to measure
concept does indeed measure the intended concepts.
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
134
4. Validity
68- A researcher is interested in studying why the new math of the 1960s failed. She
interviews several teachers who used the new math during the 1960s. These teachers are
considered as:
1. Primary sources
2. Secondary Sources
3. External critics
4. Internal critics
69- Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
1. It involves a random selection process from identified subgroups
2. Proportions of groups in the sample must always match their population
proportions
3. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting
large
enough subgroup samples when subgroup comparisons are to be done
4. Proportional stratified random sampling yields a representative sample
70- Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_________ relationship
can
be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
4. Cause and Effect
71. Discrete variable is also called.
E. Categorical variable
135
F. Discontinuous variable
G. Both A & B
H. None of the above
72.Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment
Such a hypothesis is an example of.
E. Descriptive Hypothesis
F. Directional Hypothesis
G. Relational Hypothesis
H. All of the above
73.Science refers to.
E. A system for producing knowledge
Success Objectives
F. The knowledge produced by a system
G. Both A & B
H. None of the above
74.Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
E. Deterministic
F. Rationalism
G. Empirical
H. Abstraction
73.The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the.
E. Variables
F. Hypothesis
G. Concept
H. Theory
74.research is based on naturalism.
U. Field research
V. Descriptive research
W. Basic research
X. Applied research
75.Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as
136
Y. Mall interviews
Z. Mall intercept interviews
AA. Brief interviews
BB. None of the given options
76. is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general
CC. Research technique
DD. Qualitative technique
EE.Funnel technique
FF. Quantitative technique
77.In, the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction of the
interview.
GG. Field interview
HH. Telephonic interview
II. Both A and B
JJ. None of the given options
78.Randomization of test units is a part of
KK. Pretest
LL. Posttest
MM. Matching
NN. Experiment
79. In ___________, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables
in the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
4. Research design
80. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the
effect produced by the ____.
137
81. A measure is reliable if it provides consistent ___________.
Success Objectives
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
82. The interview in which questions are already prepared is called ________.
83. The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from
those that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling
process.
1. Sampling design
3. Sampling error
84. In ______________ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
138
selection.
2. Quota sampling
85. ______ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used to measure
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
4. Validity
86. A researcher is interested in studying why the new math of the 1960s failed. She
considered as:
1. Primary sources
3. External critics
4. Internal critics
87. Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
proportions
3. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large
139
88. Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_________ relationship
can be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
4. Cause and Effect
89. Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
C. Reasoning
90. On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
Success Objectives
C. Prior knowledge
91. Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable
evidence?
A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
C. Speculation
140
D. Rationalism
92. Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
A. Health care
B. Religion
C. Business
93. All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
94. Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship
95. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to
ascertain their merit and worth, he is likely conducting which of the
following types of research?
A. Experimental
B. Applied
C. Basic
141
D. Evaluation
96. Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of
question?
A. If
B. How
C. Why
D. What
97. Which of the following is not the source for getting information for
exploratory research?
A. Content analysis
B. Survey
C. Case study
D. Pilot study
98. Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
100. Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership
142
101. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is
known as:
Success Objectives
102. Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
C. A data set
D. A constant
103. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical
variable?
A. Age
B. Annual income
D. Religion
104. Income distribution of employees in a specific organization is an
example of which of following type of variable?
143
105. There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher
efficiency is an example of which type of hypothesis?
A. Alternative
B. Null
C. Correlational
D. Research
106. Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
107. Which type of review compares how different theories address an issue?
A. Context review
108. After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the
reference, EXCEPT;
A. Volumes
144
B. Titles
C. Price
109. What is the primary focus of establishment surveys in this case study?
A. Collect the data through past studies
B. Analyze the literature review
C. Using of quantitative techniques
D. Data collection through mail and Interview
110. Which one of following is generally common in establishment survey and
household survey?
A. Cognitive recall
B. Homogenous respondents
C. Error free
D. Response burden
Success Objectives
111. Which one of the following is not of important consideration in establishment
survey while designing questionnaires?
A. Response burden
B. Professional terminology
C. Cognitive recall
D. Use of Records
112. Which of the following method of data collection is not discussed in the case study?
145
A. Questionnaires
B. Interviews
C. Mail survey
D. Observations
113. Which of the following sampling technique is used for Employee Turnover and Job
Openings survey?
A. Simple random sampling
B. Cluster sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Convenience sampling
114. Which one of the following is the limitation of establishment survey in this case
study?
A. Cost
B. Limited data
C. Unskilled interviewer
D. Small sample size
115. Which of the following is not the part of specific protocol of focus groups in ETJO?
A. Concept and indicators
B. Definition
C. Availability of records
D. Cognitive recall
116. Which of the following is the draw back of pretest interview in ETJO survey?
A. Small simple size
146
B. Non cooperative response
C. Probing
D. Questionnaire format
117. Which of the following method of data collection is not used in the case study?
A. Questionnaires
B. Focus groups
C. Correlational method
D. Secondary data
118. What is the basic purpose of ETJO survey?
A. To assess the feasibility of collecting job-vacancy and turnover data by
occupation
B. To analyze the problem of labor shortage
C. To assess the motivation level of employees
D. To analyze the factor contributing towards employee turnover
119. Which of the following is the basic purpose of pretest interview in this case study?
A. To identified the potential problem
B. To know the sample size
C. To develop the questionnaire
D. To use agency representative
120. Which one of the following sampling type is used in operations test to select the
units?
147
Success Objectives
B. Cluster sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Judgment sampling
121. Which of the following is the basic purpose of Response analysis survey in the case
study?
A. To assess the quality of ETJO survey data
B. To know the sample size of ETJO survey data
C. To develop the questionnaire for ETJO
D. To use agency representative for ETJO
122. After Operation test, which of the following test findings were suggested by the
researcher?
A. Need of highly skilled and well trained interviewer
B. Sample size should be increased
C. A decent increase in survey budget
D. Focus group should be included
123. In which one of the following stage researcher consult the literature?
A. Operation test
B. Response analysis survey
C. Document design analysis
D. Pretest interviews
124. Which one of the following sampling type is used in Response analysis survey
148
(RAS)?
B. Cluster sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Stratified sampling
125. Which one of the following could be helpful for minimizing the bias in this case
study?
A. Cognitive research
B. Focus group
C. Pretest Interview
D. Response analysis survey
126. Which one of the following is useful in assessing and clarifying concepts and
definitions at the beginning stages of questionnaire?
A. Operation test
B. Document design analysis
C. Focus group
127. Which one of the following can be more helpful than others in order to determine
the exact source of measurement errors in establishment survey?
A. Focus group
B. Operation test
C. Response analysis survey
D. Document design analysis
149
Identify the True and False statements. (05)
(1) Review of literature shows the incredibility of the body of knowledge and
identifies the points at which the researcher made the research area ambiguous
and unclear. (False)
(2) The literature survey provides a solid foundation for developing the
theoretical framework. (True)
(3) The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and situation but
also these should be narrowed down with respect to its operation. (True )
(4) A cohort analysis is similar to cross-sectional research. (False)
Success Objectives
(5) A literature review does not consider the prior studies, their agreements
or disagreements in the field. (False)
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
(1) Research hypothesis is formulated by the researcher which suggests the
nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship.
(2) Correlational hypothesis merely states that the variables occur together
and does not imply that one causes the other.
(3) Longitudinal type of research examine feature of any unit at more than
one time.
(4) Historical review traces the development of an idea or shows how a
particular issue or theory has evolved over time.
(5) Discontinuous variable is also known as discrete/ categorical/
classificatory variable.
6. Validity problems occur when the researchers theoretical definition does not
match that of the government agency or organization that collected the
information.
7. Reliability problems occur when official definition or the method of collecting
Information changes over time.
8. Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the
150
researcher conducting the present study.
9. Experiments are best for topics where the researcher controls a situation and
manipulates an Independent variable.
10. A social indicator is any measure of wellbeing used in policy.
11.Two power bases of scientific knowledge are Empiricism and Rationalism
12.Action research is a type of Applied research
13.Three types of longitudinal research are time series, panel, and cohort
14.The research proposal is just like a research report, but it is written before the
research project begins.
15.Natural science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms.
16.The double blind experiment is designed to control experimenter expectancy.
17.Pilot testing is also called pre-testing.
18.The totality, out of which sample is drawn is referred to as population.
19.The physical setting of the interview creates Situational bias.
20.Probing is the verbal prompts made by field worker.
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Long Questions:
Q1. Write any five similarities of Historical-Comparative research and Field
research?
Answer:
1. Both H-C research and field research recognize that the researchers point of view
is an avoidable part of research. Both involve interpretation, which introduce the
interpreters location in time, place, and world-view.
2. Both field and H-C research examine a great diversity of data. In both the
research becomes immersed in data to gain an emphatic understanding of events
and people.
3. Both field and H-C research often use grounded theory (theory usually emerges
during the process of data collection.)
4. Both field and H-C research involves a type of translation. The researchers
meaning system usually differs from that of people he or she studies, but he or she
Success Objectives
tries to penetrate and understand their point of view.
5. Both field and H-C research focus on action, process, and sequence and see time
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process as essential.
6. Generalization and theory are limited in field and H-C research.
Q2. How quantitative and qualitative techniques are applied in Historical-
Comparative research.
Answer:
Quantitative approach
The quantitative techniques with some minor adjustment can be applied to study the
past
or other cultures.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one society, few societies or multiple
societies.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one time in the past or examine the issue
across many years/periods in the past.
The researcher can focus on the issue in the present or a recent past period.
The researchers analysis could be based primarily on quantitative data or
qualitative data.
Qualitative approach
The researcher must be able to take on, mentally, the circumstances, views, and
feelings of those being studied to interpret their action appropriately.
The historical-comparative research must find patterns among the voluminous
details describing the subject matter of study.
Question # 01
How do concrete and abstract concepts differ? Give example.
(Marks: 04)
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Solution:
Concrete Concepts:
Concrete ones refer to straightforward physical objects or familiar experiences.
Abstract concepts:
Abstract concepts refer to ideas that have a scattered meaning or an indirect expression
Abstraction is a thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.
The difference between concrete and abstract concepts can be expressed with some
characterizations like,
1. Abstract concepts have only relational properties while concrete concepts have
some fundamental properties.
2. Abstract concepts are universals and concrete concepts are particulars.
3. Abstract concepts are sets (generalized) and concrete concepts are individuals
(specified).
4. Concrete concepts are known by observation whereas abstract concepts are known in
some other way, e.g., by abstraction, by intuition, etc
Example
Print Media (Abstract)
Publication
News Paper
Daily Dawn (Concrete)
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Question # 02
Success Objectives
Given the situation below, Discuss with reason into which category they fall
According to the purpose of doing research and
The uses of research
(Marks: 03, 03)
Scenario 1:
Reasons for Absenteeism
A university professor wanted to analyze in depth the reasons for absenteeism of
employees in organizations. Fortunately, a company within 20 miles of the campus
employed her as a consultant to study that very issue.
Solution:
According to the purpose of doing research :
It is Explanatory research as the purpose is to find out the reasons for a
phenomenon i.e. absenteeism of employees in organizations. Research seeks to
determine the answers to why question about a specific behavior.
According to the uses of research:
It is applied research since, the problem is being faced by an organization and the
research is called upon to solve it.
Scenario 2:
Effects of Nasal Spray on Flu
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A research scientist surveys 1,000 employees in different organizational settings to
study the efficacy of several types of nasal sprays in controlling the flu virus. He
subsequently publishes his findings in a highly respected medical journal.
Solution:
It is Descriptive research, as, the research question only finds out the special effects
of several types of nasal sprays in controlling the flu virus in different
organizational settings. It is to find out the relationship among the substances under
study.
It is a Basic research since the underlying purpose is to expand the frontier of
knowledge
.
Question#01:
Why turn over is high in some organizations?
As per above given query, explain the following components of Theoretical frame work;
(Marks: 10)
i) Develop an inventory of variables (min. five variables required)
ii) Specify direction of relationship
iii) Give clear explanation why you should expect the proposed relationship
exists
iv) Make an inventory of propositions
Ans:
i) Develop an inventory of variables
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Salary Package is low, Inflexibility in working hours, Low decentralization
(participation in decision making), Lack of other benefits (bonus, appraisals,
conveyance facilities, etc), Poor working ambiance
ii) Specify direction of relationship
a) Between salary & turn-over negative relationship exists
b) Between flexible working hours & turn-over negative relationship exists
c) Between decentralization & turn-over negative relationship exists
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d) Between extra benefits & turn-over negative relationship exists
e) Between ambiance & turn-over negative relationship exists
iii) Give clear explanation why you should expect the proposed relationship
exists?
a) Between salary & turn-over negative relationship exists because in current era a
good salary package has more attraction for employees to remain in the same
organization. So organizations that keep themselves up-dated with privileged
market salary packages usually have low turn over ratio.
b) Between flexible working hours & turn-over negative relationship exists because
flexibility in working hours give some relaxation to employees especially in case
when their targets are not achieved due to a reason able fact.
c) Between decentralization & turn-over negative relationship exists because
participation in decision making raise confidence of employee and motivation
level. So, organization have more decentralized system face low turn-over ratio.
d) Between extra benefits & turn-over negative relationship exists. The
organizations offer different packages like bonuses, conveyance facilities etc,
such organizations have more satisfies employees and low turn over.
e) Between ambiance & turn-over negative relationship exists. Working ambiance
does matter a lot. Good ambiance that help in releasing working stress increase
the employee motivation and interest in doing job well.
Question#02:
What is meant by a Research Proposal? Explain briefly. Also mention at what time a
research proposal is submitted? (Marks: 05)
Note: (Copied data from hand outs will not be appreciated)
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Ans:
A research proposal is a document that plans how and in which manner a research will
be conducted. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. Such proposals
must offer convincing support for your research topic. It means the topic/issue for
which research study is being proposed should be sound enough to conduct a worthy
research. The proposal must describe a detailed methodology for conducting the
research i.e. which tools are going to be used in your research.
More over when writing a proposal it is well to assume that reader of your proposal is
interested to find out the answer of these questions;
What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it take?
What has already been done in the area of your project?
How do you plan to do it?
How will the results be evaluated?
A good proposal is that which well defines these questions and convinces the reader that
research on specified issue is needed to conduct. So, the research proposal is submitted
before starting the research project because in this you plan how the data will be
collected and analyzed.
Q. Explain the difference between these terms with one example of each.
i. Population and target population
ii. Sampling unit and observation unit
iii. Parameter and statistic
i. Population and Target Population.
Population refers to the entire group of people, events or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.
Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the
research project.
Example
Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the productivity of employees working in
multinationals in Pakistan.
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All the employees working in multinational will be the population.
The researcher wants to investigate the productivity of employees working in
multinational in FMCG sector in Pakistan.
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All the employees working in multinationals in FMCG sector in Pakistan will be the
target population.
ii. Sampling Unit and Observation Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
An observation unit is an element or aggregation of elements from which the
information is collected.
Example
In the above example the researcher selects employees from three FMCG
multinationals
(Procter and Gamble, Unilever and Nestle) for data collection. Among these employees
he selected First Line Managers for collecting the data. Among all First Line Manager
he
selects 40 Line managers for data collection.
In this example the employees from three FMCGs (Procter and Gamble, Unilever and
Nestle) are the primary sampling unit, all the First Line managers are the secondary/
final
sampling unit and the selected First Line managers are the observation unit.
iii. Parameter and Statistics
A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population while
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Statistic is the summary description of a given variable in a survey sample.
Example
In the above example the mean productivity of all the employees working in the
multinational is the Parameter and the mean productivity of the First Line managers
from
those the researcher collected the data is the Statistics.
Q: Define Research? Discuss the special features of Scientific method of Research?
Solution:
Definition of Research:
Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions by
gathering the needed information. General image of the research is that it has
something to do with the laboratory where scientists are supposedly doing some
experiments. Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. In research, we try to follow a
system or a procedure in an organized manner. It is all the more necessary in case we
want to repeat the study, or somebody else wants to verify our findings. In the latter
case the other person has to follow the same procedure that we followed. Hence not
only we have to do the study in a systematic manner but also that system should be
known to others.
Special Features of Scientific Method of Research:
The Scientific method of Research is a procedure to produce knowledge and to discover
the principles & laws in this universe.
Special Features of Scientific Method of Research are as follows:
1. Empirical
Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are observable through sensory
experiences. It generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or observation.
Some of the realities could be directly observed, like the number of students present in
the class and how many of them are male and how many female. The same students
have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and commitments. These are also
realities which cannot be observed directly, but the researchers have designed ways to
observe these indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to sensory experience directly
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or indirectly (existence of heaven, the Day of Judgment, life hereafter, Gods rewards
for good deeds) does not fall within the domain of scientific method.
2. Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the
senses to confirm or refute the previous findings. Such confirmations may have to be
made by the same researcher or others. We will place more faith and credence in those
findings and conclusions if similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected by
other researchers using the same methods. To the extent that it does happen (i.e. the
results are replicated or repeated) we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our
research. Replicability, in this way, is an important characteristic of scientific method.
Hence revelations and intuitions are out of the domain of scientific method.
3. Cumulative
Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan through the literature and see
that their study is not a repetition in ignorance. Instead of reinventing the wheel the
researchers take stock of the existing body of knowledge and try to build on it. Also the
researchers do
Success Objectives
not leave their research findings into scattered bits and pieces. Facts and figures are to
be provided with language and thereby inferences drawn. The results are to be
organized and systematized. Nevertheless, we dont want to leave our studies as stand
alone. A linkage between the present and the previous body of knowledge has to be
established, and that is how the knowledge accumulates.
4. Deterministic
Science is based on the assumption that all events have antecedent causes that are
subject to identification and logical understanding. For the scientist, nothing just
happens it happens for a reason. The scientific researchers try to explain the
emerging phenomenon by identifying its causes. Of the identified causes which ones
can be the most important? For example, in the 2006 BA/BS examination of the Punjab
University 67 percent of the students failed. What could be the determinants of such a
mass failure of students? The researcher may try to explain this phenomenon and come
up with variety of reasons which may pertain to students, teachers, administration,
curriculum, books, examination system, and so on. Looking into such a large number
of reasons may be highly cumbersome model for problem solution. It might be
appropriate to tell, of all these factors which one is the most important. The researcher
tries to narrow down the number of reasons in such a way that some action could taken.
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5. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality
The conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results of data analysis should be
objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual
data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. For instance, if we had a
hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment, and this was not supported by the results, it makes no
sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee
participation would still help. Such an argument would be based, not on the factual,
data based research findings, but on the subjective opinion of the researcher. If this was
the conviction of the researcher all along, then there was no need to do the research in
the first place. Researchers are human beings, having individual ideologies, religious
affiliations, cultural differences which can influence the research findings. Any
interference of their personal likings and dis-likings in their research can contaminate
the purity of the data, which ultimately can affect the predictions made by the
researcher. Therefore, one of the important characteristics of scientific method is to
follow the principle of objectivity, uphold neutrality, and present the results in an
unbiased manner.
6. Statistical Generalization
Generalisability refers to the scope of the research findings in one organizational setting
to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions
generated by research, the more useful the research is to users. For instance, if a
researchers findings that participation in decision making enhances organizational
commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial, and service
organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied by the researcher,
the generalisability of the findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. The
more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value.
For wider generalisability, the research sampling design has to be logically developed.
Here the use of statistics is very helpful. Statistics is device for comparing what is
observed and what is logically expected. The use of statistics becomes helpful in making
generalizations, which is one of the goals of scientific method.
7. Rationalism
Science is fundamentally a rational activity, and the scientific explanation must make
sense. Religion may rest on revelations, custom, or traditions, gambling on faith, but
science must rest on logical reason. There are two distinct logical systems important to
the scientific quest, referred to as deductive logic and inductive logic.
Q: Define Hypothesis? What are different types of hypothesis? Explain.
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Solution:
Definition of Hypothesis:
A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis. A hypothesis
may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables,
expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a
strong logical argumentation. This logical relationship may be part of theoretical
framework of the study.
For example,
Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment
(variable).
Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of
efficiency.
Success Objectives
The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of
absenteeism.
Types of Hypothesis:
There are different types of hypothesis which are as follows.
1-Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate
hypothesis. Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or
distribution of some variable. The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only
shows the distribution of the level of commitment among the officers of the organization
which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is an example of a Descriptive
Hypothesis.
2- Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The
relationship could be non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or
simply correlational.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive,
negative, more than, or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because
the direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) has been
indicated. These hypotheses are relational as well as directional. The directional
hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship has been specified.
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Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not
been specified. The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or
negative has not been postulated.
Correlational hypotheses state merely that the variables occur together in some
specified manner without implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are
often made when we believe that there are more basic causal forces that affect both
variables. For example:
efficiency.
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable
causes or leads to a change in the other variable. This brings in the notions of
independent and the dependent variables. Cause means to help make happen. So the
independent variable may not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the
dependent variable.
3- Null Hypothesis
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat
evidence that supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They
give negative evidence more importance than to the positive one. It is because the
negative evidence tarnishes the hypothesis. It shows that the predictions made by the
hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that there is no relationship
between the variables or the relationship between the variables is zero. That is how
symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as H0. For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of
efficiency. Or
H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is
zero. Or the two variables are independent of each other.
It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non
directional), which may be a second step in testing the hypothesis.
4- Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between
the variables under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between
the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association
between the two variables under study but also the relationship is perfect which is
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indicated by the number 1. Thereby the alternative hypothesis is symbolically
denoted as H1. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and
their level of efficiency.
5- Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may
also suggest the nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example
it could be:
efficiency.
Q: Ahmad is the manager of a restaurant; he wants to see his staff cooperative and
hardworking but his staff is not working well according to his will. He decided to give
the incentives in order to motivate and encourage them but his policy did not work
effectively. There can be many factors behind this behavior of staff that needs to be
researched. For this purpose, he appoints you as a researcher and asks you to discover
those factors and submit a report to him. How you will undertake this kind of
Success Objectives
research and what steps you will choose to make a report about the behavior of the
staff?
Solution:
The manager of the restaurant appoints me as a researcher to find out the factors
behind the staff behavior. I will take the following steps in order to undertake this
research and to make a report. These steps are as follows:
STEP 1: To Select the topic of research:
First of all I will select the topic which is a general area of study or issue. The topic in
this research is the factors behind the staff behavior. A topic appears to be too broad
for conducting research. The specific issues that need to be researched within the
situation may not be identified at this stage. I will try to analyze the problems currently
existing in the restaurant that needs to be solved and the areas that a manager believes
need to be improved in the restaurant (improving the existing policies). Then I will
develop some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically.
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STEP 2: Preliminary Data Collection or to Explore different areas from where I can
get information related to the restaurant and staff behavior:
After selecting the topic, I will collect data from different sources. This step may be
considered as part of the exploratory research. An exploration typically begins with a
search for published data and studies. Such sources can provide secondary data which
becomes part of the background information (about the restaurant & groups of people).
Some secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins, government publications,
information published or unpublished, case studies, online data, web sites, and the
Internet from where I can get information. In addition, information can also be
collected from the people who are well informed about the staff and restaurant,
especially those who have clearly stated positions on controversial aspects of the
problem. In certain situations, I will also focus on group discussions with the staff of the
restaurant. Such discussions can help me in the identification of factors and having
clarification of their behavior.
STEP 3: Problem Definition
After having discussions with the professionals as well as with the staff to whom the
issue relates, and the review of literature, now I will be in a position to narrow down
from its original broad base and define the factors clearly. Translate the broad issue
into a research question. As part of the applied research convert the management
dilemma into a management question, and then on to research question that fits the
need to resolve the dilemma. The symptoms of a problem might help tracing the real
problem. For example in this research, the productivity decline of workers is an issue.
The manager has tried to solve it by the provision of incentives but his policy did not
work. I will find the possible factors like the morale and motivation of the workers
having some other antecedents.
STEP 4: To develop the Theoretical Framework
Consultations with the informants and professionals, and the review of literature will
help me in the identification of different factors that are considered to be relevant. Now
I will need to make a logical relationship among several factors identified. This will help
in the delineation of the theoretical framework. The theoretical framework discusses
the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the
dynamics of the situation being investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework
helps to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships.
STEP 5: To Generate the Hypotheses
Once I have identified the important variables relevant to an issue and established the
logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, I will be in a position to test whether the
relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true. By testing these
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relationships scientifically, I will obtain reliable information to determine the
relationship among the variables. The results of these tests offer part of the answers to
the formulated research questions, whether these relate basic research or to applied
research.
STEP 6: To make a Research Design
Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting
and analyzing the needed information. It is a framework or the blueprint that plans the
action for research project. The objectives of the study determined during the early
stages of the research are included in the design to ensure that the information collected
is appropriate for solving the problem. It is very important to specify the sources of
information, and the research method or technique (survey or experiment, for example)
to be followed in the study. Broadly there are six basic research methods for descriptive
and causal research: surveys, experiments, observation, communication analysis
(content analysis), case study, focus group discussion.
STEP 7: Data Collection, Data Processing, and Analysis
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Data collection is integral part of the research design; Data collection is determined by
the research technique selected for the project. Data can be collected in a variety of
ways, in different settings field or lab and from different sources. It could include
interviews face to face interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews,
and interviews through electronic media; questionnaires that either personally
administered, sent through mail, or electronically administered; observation of
individuals and events which could be participant or non participant. Once the
fieldwork has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that will
answer the research questions and help testing the hypotheses. The computer can help
in making tables and the application of different statistics.
STEP 8: Testing the Hypotheses; Answering the Research Questions
The analysis and interpretation of the data shall be the means to testing the formulated
hypotheses as well as finding answers to the research questions. In case of applied
research, the research should be helpful in finding solutions to the problems of the
organization or society. Making recommendations may also be part of this process.
STEP 9: Report Writing
The research report should communicate the research findings effectively. All too often
the report is a complicated statement of the studys technical aspects and sophisticated
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research methods. The report has to be presented in the format as it may have been
part of the terms of reference if it is a sponsored study. I will write the basic factors
behind the staff behavior in my report and I will also give some suggestions to the
manager to motivate the staff so that they can work efficiently.
Q: Define the measure that is used by the researcher in order to capture the intensity,
direction, level, or potency of a variable construct. Also describes the different types of
that measure.
Solution:
The measure that is used by the researcher in order to capture the intensity, direction,
level, or potency of a variable construct:
A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or
potency of a variable construct. It arranges responses or observations on a continuum
or in series of categories. A scale can use a single indicator or multiple indicators.
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct
indicators of a construct into a single score. The composite scores is often a simple sum
of the multiple indicators. Indexes are often measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure.
This is common when a researcher has a several indicators that are scales (i.e. that
measure intensity or direction). The researcher then adds these indicators together to
yield a single score, thereby creating an index.
The different types of that measure:
A scale refers to any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value
or magnitude, into which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other
words, a scale is a continuous spectrum or series of categories.
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It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical
comparisons that are allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as
labels for identification or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type.
With nominal data, we are collecting information on a variable that naturally or by
design can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive, and
collectively exhaustive.
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or
distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can
be used, one can almost always one set of properties into a set of equivalent classes.
Ordinal Scale
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Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of
order. If a is greater than b and b is greater than c, then a is greater than c. The use of
ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or less than without stating how
much greater or less. Other descriptors can be: superior to, happier than,
poorer than, or above.
Interval Scale
Interval scales have the power of nominal and ordinal scales plus one additional
strength: they incorporate the concept of equality of interval (the distance between 1
and 2 equals the distance between 2 and 3). For example, the elapsed time between 3
and 6 A. M. equals the time between 4 and 7 A. M. One cannot say, however, 6 A.M. is
twice as late as 3 A.M. because zero time is an arbitrary origin. In the consumer
price index, if the base year is 1983, the price level during 1983 will be set arbitrarily as
100. Although this is an equal interval measurement scale, the zero point is arbitrary.
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Ratio Scale
Ratio scales incorporate all the powers of the previous scales plus the provision for
absolute zero or origin. Ratio data represent the actual amounts of variable. Measures
of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, and area are the examples. The
absolute zero represents a point on the scale where there is an absence of the given
attribute. If we hear that a person has zero amount of money, we understand the zero
value of the amount.
Q: (a) Define the Probability & non-Probability sampling.
Solution (a):
Probability Sampling:
In probability sampling, every element in the population has a known nonzero
probability of selection. The simple random is the best known probability sample, in
which each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected.
Non-Probability Sampling:
In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population
being chosen is unknown. The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite
arbitrary, as researchers rely heavily on personal judgment.
(b) Snowball sampling is also known as network, chain referral or reputational
sampling. Comment on this statement.
Solution (b):
Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling is also called network, chain referral, or reputational sampling. It is
a method for identifying and sampling cases in the network. It is based on an analogy to
a snowball, which begins small but becomes larger as it is rolled on wet snow and picks
up additional snow. It begins with one or a few people or cases and spreads out on the
basis of links to the initial cases.
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This design has been found quite useful where respondents are difficult to identify and
are best located through referral networks. In the initial stage of snowball sampling,
individuals are discovered and may or may not be selected through probability
methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess similar characteristics
and who, in turn, identify others. The snowball gather subjects as it rolls along.
Example:
For example, a researcher examines friendship networks among teenagers in a
community. He or she begins with three teenagers who do not know each other. Each
teen names four close friends. The researcher then goes to the four friends and asks
each to name four close friends, then goes to those four and does the same thing again,
and so forth. Before long, a large number of people are involved. Each person in the
sample is directly or indirectly tied to the original teenagers, and several people may
have named the same person. The researcher eventually stops, either because no new
names are given, indicating a closed network, or because the network is so large that it
is at thee limit of what he or she can study.

(c)The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample. At the same time, cluster sampling addresses
two major problems. Discuss those problems.
Success Objectives
Solution (c):
The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample. At the same time, Cluster sampling addresses
following two problems:
1. Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed population and the cost
to reach a sampled element is very high. A cluster is unit that contains final
sampling elements but can be treated temporarily as a sampling element itself.
A researcher first samples cluster, each of which contains elements, then draws a
second sample from within the clusters selected in the first stage of sampling. In
other words, the researcher randomly samples clusters, and then randomly
samples elements from within the selected clusters. He or she can create a good
sampling frame of clusters, even if it is impossible to create one for sampling
171
elements. Once the researcher gets a sample of clusters, creating a sampling
frame for elements within each cluster becomes more manageable.
2. A second advantage for geographically dispersed populations is that elements
within each cluster are physically closer to each other. This may produce a
savings in locating or reaching each element.
Q: Briefly discuss the steps that are involved in conducting an experiment.
Solution:
Steps in Conducting an Experiment
Broadly there are about 12 steps in conducting an experiment, which are as below:
1. Make a hypothesis that is appropriate for experimental research.
2. Decide about an experimental design that will test the hypothesis within practical
limitations.
3. Decide how to create a situation that induces the independent variable.
4. Develop a valid and reliable measure of the dependent variable.
5. Set up an experimental setting and conduct a pilot test of the treatment and dependent
variable measures.
6. Locate appropriate subjects or cases.
7. Randomly assign subjects to groups and give careful instructions.
8. Gather data for the pretest measure of the dependent variable for all groups.
9. Introduce the treatment to the experimental group only (or to the relevant groups if
there are multiple experimental groups) and monitor all groups.
10. Gather data for posttest measure of the dependent variable.
11. Debrief the subjects by informing them of the true purpose and reasons for the
experiment. Ask subjects what they thought was occurring.
12. Examine data collected and make comparisons between different groups. Where
appropriate, use statistics and graphs to determine whether or not the hypothesis is
supported.
Q. Classify this research on the basis of:
i. Purpose of doing research.
ii. The use of research
iii. Time dimension in research
Justify your answer.
172
Answer:
i. It is an exploratory research. Because it was a new issue and no research
was made on it before. The researchers had limited amount of information
on this issue and this research provided bases for many other studies.
ii. It is a basic research because it provides knowledge generated to understand
a phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
iii. It is a longitudinal research because it examines the employees at more than
one time. The research is spread upon 1927 to 1932. A group of 6 women
was selected for 5 years so it can be further classified as Panel study.
Success Objectives
Q. Identify these variables used in the experiment:
i. Dependent variables
ii. Independent variables
iii. Extraneous variables
Answer:
i. The variable that is the result of another variable(s) is called a dependent
variable. Productivity of the employees is the dependent variable in this
case. Because it depends on many other independent variables.
ii. The variable that causes the dependent variable is called independent
variable. It is a cause variable. In our example light illumination, rest
breaks, duration of work hours, temperature, food, wages and humidity are
independent variables because they affect productivity.
iii. Extraneous variables are factors other than the independent variable that
could result in changes in the dependent variable. In an experiment, these
factors should be controlled so that they are constant in all conditions. If
they are not well-controlled, then they result in possible alternative
explanations (other than changes in the independent variable) that could
account for the changes observed in the dependent variable. Possible
extraneous variables in this research can be knowledge of the employees that
they are being observed (when employees know that they are being watched,
they tend to modify their behavior), special attention paid to them,
supervisors style, etc.
173
Q: What do you understand by the term concepts are an abstraction of reality?
Explain with the help of an example.
Answer: Concepts are the terms and terminologies used by researchers as means of
communication. They are expressed in words, letters, signs and symbols that refer to
various events or objects. Abstraction simply means generalization. In research
methods, we use this term concepts are an abstraction of reality. It means that we
pick up concepts from observed reality and goes on to the abstraction level. It is a level
at which objects and events are expressed in more generalized form.
For example Toyota is a concept, its abstraction is a car and its further abstraction
would be motor vehicles. We have changed the simple concept (Toyota) into an
abstraction (motor vehicles) which is a more generalized term.
Q: Join the options in column A with appropriate options given in column B. Identify
the variables and give reasons for your choice.
Column A Column B
(a) Two men and three women were
seriously injured in a road accident 25
km away from Lahore.
(i) Intervening variable
(b) Out break of Malaria in the city
increased the consumption of mosquito
repellents.
(ii) Independent and dependent variable
(c) Distance learning system increased the
literacy level in the country.
(iii)Continuous and discontinuous variable
Answer:
Column A Column B
(a) (iii)
(b) (ii)
(c) (i)
174
Success Objectives
Identification of Variables:
(a) Men and Women are the example of discontinuous variables and the distance of
25 km is an example of continuous variable.
(b) Out break of malaria is the independent variable and increase in the purchase
of mosquito repellents is dependent variable.
(c) There is a clear indication of many intervening variable such as flexible timing,
low fees, low transportation cost, easy access to get education especially for far
off areas.
Reasons:
(a) Discontinuous variable has limited number of distinct values which can not be
divided into fractions, so male/female or men/women are discontinuous
variables. Continuous variable can take infinite number of values and can be
divided into fractions, so the distance is continuous variable as it can take any
value e.g. 35km, 55.5 km etc.
(b) Independent variables are those variables which identifies forces or conditions
that act on something. Malaria is the independent variable as it is causing
change in other variable. Dependent variables are the effect or result of another
variable. Their occurrence is dependent upon the occurrence of another
variable. Increase in the consumption of mosquito repellents is an outcome of
increasingly spreading Malaria disease.
(c) Intervening variables are those variables that come between independent and
dependent variables and shows a link or mechanism between them. Distance
learning (independent variable) has increased the literacy level (dependent
variable) and there are other intervening variables which are supporting this
relationship e.g. flexible timing, low fees, low transportation cost, easy access to
get education especially for far off areas.
Made by Armaan Makhani
Armaan.makhani@gmail.com
Sta 301 all quiz lec 1 to 45
Date 20/dec/2009to29/dec/2010
Mr. super .Cool
1. A quantity obtained by applying certain rule or formula is known as
Estimate
Estimator
2. Criteria to check a point estimator to be good involves
Consistency
Unbiasedness
Efficiency
175
Above all pg 258
3. The F-distribution always ranges from:
0 to 1
0 to -8
-8 to +8
0 to +8
4. 1-a is the probability of ......
Type 1 error
Rejection region
Acceptance region
Type 2 error
5. Parameter is a quantity.
Constant
Variable
6. To find the estimate of a parameter.methods are used.
Two
Three
Four
Many
7. A failing student is passed by an examiner. It is an example of:
Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision
8. For two mutually exclusive events A and B, P (A) = 0.2 and P (B) = 0.4, then P(AUB)
is:
0.8
0.2
0.6
0.5
P(AUB)=P(A)+p(B)=0.2+0.4=0.6
9. An urn contains 4 red balls and 6 green balls. A sample of 4 balls is selected from the
urn
without replacement. It is the example of:
Binomial distribution
Hypergrometric distribution
Poisson distribution
Exponential distribution
10. A standard deck of 52 cards is shuffled. What is the probability of choosing the 5 of
diamonds:
176
1/5
1/13
5/52
1/52
11. If P(AnB) = 0.12 P (A) = 0.3, find P (B) where A and B are independent:
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3X0.4=0.12
12. The mean deviation of the normal distribution is approximately:
7/8 of the S.D
4/5 of the S.D
3/4 of the S.D
1/2 of the S.D
13. We use the Poisson approximation to the binomial when:
p is 0.01 or less & n is 10 or more
p is 0.05 or less & n is 20 or more pg221
14. The conditional probability P (A\B) is:
P(A n B)/P(B) pg157
P(A n B)/P(A)
P(A U B)/P(B)
P(A U B)/P(A)
15. We use the General Rule of Multiplication to combine:
Events those are not independent
16. Which statement is NOT CORRECT?
The sample standard deviation measures variability of our sample values
A larger sample will give answers that vary less from the true value than smaller
samples
The sampling distribution describes how our estimate (answer) will vary if a new
sample is taken
A large sample size always gives unbiased estimators regardless of how the sample is
chosen
17. Probability of an impossible event is always:
Less than one
Greater than one
177
Zero
18. The number of parameters in uniform distribution is (are):
12
pg 224
34
19. The probability can never be:
1 1/2
1 -
1/2
P(A n B)/P(B)
P(A n B)/P(A)
P(A U B)/P(B)
P(A U B)/P(A)
21. A random sample of n=25 values gives sample mean 83. Can this sample be
regarded as drawn
from a normal population with = 80 and s= 7? In this question the alternative
hypothesis will
be:
H1: = 80
H1: ? 80
H1: > 80
H1: <80 pg 278
22. If f(x) is a continuous probability function, then P(X = 2) is:
10 1/2
2
23. The binomial distribution is negatively skewed when:
p>q pg 214
p<q
p=q
p=q=1/2
24. If we roll three fair dices then the total number of outcomes is:
6 36
216
1296
6^3=216
25. When we draw the sample with replacement, the probability distribution to be used
is:
Binomial
178
Hypergeometric
Binomial & hypergeometric pg 219
Poisson
26. The moment ratios of normal distribution come out to be:
0 and 1
0 and 2
0 and 3 pg 226
0 and 4
27. The probability of an event is always:
greater than 0
less than 1
between o and 1
greater than 1
28. Symbolically, a conditional probability is:
P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)
29. Suppose the test scores of 600 students are normally distributed with a mean of 76
and
standard deviation of 8. The number of students scoring between 70 and 82 is:
272
164
260
328
30. If P (A) = 0.3 and P (B) = 0.5, find P (A/B) where A and B are independent:
0.3
0.5
0.8
0.15
31. An urn contains 4 red balls and 6 green balls. A sample of 4 balls is selected from
the urn
32. If the second moment ratio is less than 3 the distribution will be:
Mesokurtic
Leptokurtic
Platykurtic pg 226
179
None of these
33. For the independent events A and B if P (A) = 0.25, P (B) =0.40 then P (A and B)
=
0.65
0.1
0.50
0.15
P(A)*P(B)0.25*0.40=0.1
34. A set of possible values that a random variable can assume and their associated
probabilities of
occurrence are referred to as __________.
The expected return
35. A random variable X has a probability distribution as follows: X | 0 1 2 3 P(X) | 2k
3k 13k 2k
What is the possible value of k:
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.07
36. The probability of drawing any one spade card is:
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
37. The function abbreviated to d.f. is also called the......
Probability distribution function pg 172
Discrete function
38. Binomial distribution is skewed to the right if:
p=q
P<q
p>q
p=n
39. A discrete probability function f(x) is always:
Zero
One pg 172
Negative
180
Non-negative
40. For a binomial distribution, n= 10 & q= 0.6, the mean of the distribution is:
0.6
6.0
10
4
P=1-q
1-0.6=0.4,
mean =np10*0.4=4
41. In the FA examination, 24candidates offered Statistics. If the probability of passing
the subject
be 1/3, what will be the mean of the distribution?
7865
42. The probability that a certain machine will produce a defective item is 1/4. If a
random sample
of 6 items is taken from the output of this machine, what is the probability that there
will be 5
or more defectives in the sample?
3/4096
18/4096
19/4096
4/4096
43. Probability of type II error is
a
B pg 276
1-a
1-B
44. If the values of variables are increasing or decreasing in the same direction then
such kind of
correlation is referred as
Zero Correlation
Perfect Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
45. The moving averages of the Prices 55,60,65,70 are
70, 75
60, 65
65,65
70,60
46. The best measure of variation is
Range
181
Quartile deviation
Variance
Coefficient of variance
47. Ms. Christian calculated a correlation coefficient of .75. Which of the following
reflects the
best interpretation of this?
Weak negative.
Strong negative.
Weak positive.
Strong positive.
48. use the division of a circle into different sectors. Select correct option:
Line graph
Sector graphs
Frequency Polygon
Conversion Graphs
49. The measurement of measure of degree of to which any two variables vary together
is called
Regression Coefficient
Correlation
Both (a) and (b)
None of these
50. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a test for equality of:
variances
means
proportions
only two parameters
51. For some data you are given Maximum value = 96 , Minimum Value = 23 , Range =
73,
number of classes selected between 5 and 15 Then class width will be Select correct
option:
15
85
All options 1,2 ,3 are possible
52. If strength of the association between X and Y is very weak, then r = ? Select correct
option:
r = - 1
r = 0
r = 1
r = 2
53. The moving averages of the Prices 90,70,30,110 are Select correct option:
63.33, 70
73.33, 80
45.45, 68
65.50, 75
54. With increase in sample size, distribution tends to be a.......
182
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
55. In the central tendency Mean, Median and Mode
Mean is better than Median
Median is better than Mode
Mean is better than Mode
All of these are true
56. The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average is called
The dispersion
Standard deviation
Correlation
None of these
57. ..graphs are similar to bar graphs.
column
line
conversion
sector
58. A pattern of variation of a time series that repeats every year is called:
Cyclical
Seasonal
Trend
Secular
The dispersion
Standard deviation
Correlation
None of these
column
line
conversion
sector
183
Cyclical
Seasonal
Trend
Secular
63. You have measured the systolic blood pressure of a random sample of 22 employees
of a
company. A 95% con?dence interval for the mean systolic blood pressure for the
employees is
computed to be (120,138). Which of the following statements gives a valid interpretation
of this
interval?
About 95% of the sample of employees has a systoli
About 95% of the employees in the company have a
If the sampling procedure were repeated many times
64. Assume that a population consists of 7 similar containers having the following
weights (km):
9.8, 10.2, 10.4, 9.8, 10.0, 10.2, 9.6 What is the second moment about mean?
0.262 kg
0.069kg
0.521 kg
0.313kg
65. How many numbers of parameter(s) are in t-distribution?
0
1 pg 292
2
3
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
67. F-distribution is a.. distribution.
Unimodel pg 312
Bimodal
Discrete
Negatively skewed
68. Which one of the following sampling methods would give unbiased results, if you
need to find
out the number of people in your town liking vanilla or chocolate ice creams?
Ask my neighbors
184
Randomly select a few ice cream shops in town, and
Ask my friends
Ask my classmates
69. A standard deviation obtained from sampling distribution of sample statistics is
known as
Sampling Error
Standard error pg 240
70. If the regression line: Y= 3+5X meets y-axis at 8 units distance from origin then
the value of
x-intercept is
-(3/5)
3/5
11/5
1
71. Sum of three terms whose mean is equal to 90 is
270
30
Also 90
None of these
270/3=90
72. FREQUENCY Function calculates how often values occur within a range of values.
true
False
73. Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the weakest correlation
between two
variables?
0.15
-0.15
0.02
-1.00
74. If the value of r is 0.8 ,then the coefficient of determination is
67%
64%
80%
75%
75. If the dependent variable increases with the independent variable then the
coefficient of
correlation is
0 to -1
0 to 0.5
0 to -2
185
0 to 1
76. F- distribution tends to normality, if
V1~8
V2~8
V1 and V2 ~8
77. Consistency of an estimator can be checked by comparing
Mean
MSE
Variance
Standard deviation
78. A standardized estimate has mean and variance
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(, s2)
(, s)
79. A composite hypothesis comprises of
Equality
Not equal to
Less than/greater
(b) and (c)
80. For a particular hypothesis test, a=0.05and B=0.05. The power of test is equal to:
0.14
0.90
0.95
0.25
81. In a t-distribution
Mean=median=mode
Mean>Median<Mode
Median >Mean>Mode
Media<Mode<Mean
82. If we reject the null hypothesis, we might be making
Type I error
Type II error
A correct decision
Unpredictable
83. The Central Limit Theorem is important in Statistics because it allows us to use the
normal
distribution to make inferences concerning the population mean:
Provided that the population is normally distributed a
186
Provided that the population is normally distributed (
Provided that the sample size is reasonably large (fo
Provided that the population is normally distributed and the population variance is
known (for
any sample size)
84. Herbicide A has been used for years in order to kill a particular type of weed, but an
experiment is to
be conducted in order to see whether a new herbicide, Herbicide B, is more effective
than
Herbicide A.
Herbicide A will continue to be used unless there is sufficient evidence that Herbicide B
is more
effective.
The alternative hypothesis in this problem is that
Herbicide A is more effective than Herbicide B
Herbicide B is more effective than Herbicide A
Herbicide A is not more effective than Herbicide B
Herbicide B is not more effective than Herbicide A
85. A data in which we study about Regions is called
Qualitative
Quantitative
Geographical
Chronological
86. If the median of an arrangement of numbers is equal to the mean of its middle terms
then the
arrangement contains
Odd number of terms
Even number of terms
Unlimited number of terms
Prime number
87. If the graph is very much scattered, then what can be the suitable value of r?
r = - 0.9
r = -0.5
r = 0.1
r=0.8
88. In scatter diagram, clustering of points around a straight line indicates
Linear regression
Non-linear regression
Curvilinear linear regression
Both a and b
89. If the standard deviation of a population is 9, the population variance is
39 21.35
187
81
90. How many steps are involved in general procedure for testing hypothesis:
4567 91. When testing for independence in a
contingency table with 2
rows and 5
columns, there are
4
10
75 r-1*c-1
2-1*5-1=4
92. The critical region is in:
The middle of a distribution
The tails of a distribution
Either the middle or the tails of a distribution
Neither the middle nor the tails of a distribution
93. t-distribution is used to test the hypothesis about.....
Mean
proportion
The term 1-B is called
Level of the test
power of the test
Size of the test
Critical region
94. The asymptotic distribution of t-statistic with n-degree of freedom is
F
Normal
Z T
95. The Gallup Poll has decided to increase the size of its random sample of Canadian
voters from
about 1200 people to about 4000 people. The e?ect of this increase is to:
Reduce the bias of the estimate
Increase the standard error of the estimate
Reduce the variability of the estimate
Increase the con?dence interval width for the parameter
96. The value of chi square can never be :
Zero
Less then 1
Greater then 1
Negative
97. The curve of the F- distribution depends upon:
Mean
Variance
Standard Deviation
Sample Size
98. We want to test H0 : = 1.5 vs. H1 : 6= 1.5 at _= .05 . A 95% confidence interval
for
calculated from a given random sample is (1.4, 3.6)Based on this finding we:
188
Fail to reject H0
Reject H0
Cannot make any decision at all because the value of the test statistic is not available
Cannot make any decision at all because (1.4, 3.6) is only a 95%
99. When we want to test the equality of two variances we usually use
F-test
Chi-square test
ANOVA
Z_test
100. To find the estimate of a parameter.methods are used.
Two
Three
Four
Many
101. In testing hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
102. t-distribtion is applicable in case of
Independent samples
Dependent samples
Both (a) and (b)
Normal populations
103. When testing for independence in a contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns,
there are
567 12
104. The Chi- Square distribution is continuous distribution ranging from:
0 = ?2= 8
-8 =?2 =0
-8 =?2 =1
-8 = ?2= 8
105. The location of the critical region depends upon:
Null hypothesis
Value of alpha
106. A random sample of n = 6 has the elements 6, 10,13,14,18 and 20.What is the point
estimate of the population mean?
12
13.5
11
11.5
107. ML estimators may not
Consistent
Efficient
Unbiased
189
Bised
108. Which of the following reveals the weakest fact.
The measure of central tendency measures that value which depends only on the
extreme values
The measure of central tendency measures that value in tha data which occurs in the
data most frequent
times.
The measure of central tendency measures the value which has tendency to lie in the
central part of the
data.
109. The measure of central tendency measures the distance of values from means
Frequency polygon is
Bar Charts
A line graph
Pareto Chats
None of these
110. A bar graph uses to show data.
Points
Bars
Lines
Pictures
111. Geographical data deals with
Religion
Height
Income
Regions
112. Which one provides the basis for hypothesis testing?
Null hypothesis
Critical value
Test-statistics
113. The test statistic to test the U1 = U2 (U represent the mean of population)for
normal
population for n>30.
F-test
Z-test
T-test
Chi-Square test
Mean=median=mode
Mean>Median<Mode
Median >Mean>Mode
Media<Mode<Mean
190
Type 1 error
Rejection region
Acceptance region
Type 2 error
116. Inferential statistics involves .
Testing
Confidence interval
Estimation
Above all
a
B 1-a
1-B
118. if the equation of regression line is y = 5, then what result will you take out from it?
The line passes through origin.
The line passes through (5, 0)
The line is parallel to y-axis.
The line is parallel to x-axis.
119. If the estimating equation is Y = a b X ,Which of the following is true
a)The y intercept isb
b) Slope of line is negative
c) There is inverse relationship
d) b & c
120. The variance of t-distribution, for v >2, is always:
Greater than zero
Less than one
Equal to one
Greater than one
121. Alpha is the probability of ......
Rejecting H0
Accepting H0
Rejecting H1
Accepting H1
122. What type of data is collected in population census?
Two Types
123. The collection of all outcomes for an experiment is called
a sample space
the intersection of events
joint probability
population
124. Which of the graph is used for a time series data:
191
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Historigram
Histogram
125. A histogram is consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off
by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class frequency
Class marks
126. The value that has half of the observations above it and half the observations below
it is
known as:
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
127. The height of a student is 60 inches. This is an example of ...........?
Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data
128. Range of the values -2,-3,-4,-3,-9,-2,-8,-1,0 is
0
-9
89
0-9=-9
129. If the both tails of the distribution are equal, then distribution is called:
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively Skewed
Negatively Skewed
130. Ranking scale also include the properties of which scale?
Nominal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale
All of these
131. Range of the values -2.50,-3.70,-4.80,-3.10,-9.70,-2.20,-8.90,-1.60, 0.60 is
10.03
10.30
9.10
192
9.00
0.60+9.70=10.30
132. What is/are the mode for the following data: 1,m,d,n,,2,d,2,d,s,5,5,7
2
d5 2,d,5
133. If the standard deviation of a population is 5.5, the population variance is:
5.5
31
25
30.25
134. What we commonly called a bell shaped distribution:
syme
bi moder
u shap
skewed
135. The beginnings of a cumulative frequency distribution are presented below. What
is the
next number in the Cumulative Frequency column? Classes Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
6.1 to 8 1 1 8.1 to 10 2 10.1 to 12 3
0
123
136. Range of the values -10,- 19, -9, -15, -28, -26, -25 is:
+18
-18
-19
+19
137. Which one of the following is less than median for a symmetrical distribution:
50percentile
51 percentile
2quartile
4decile
138. The value of the middle term in a ranked (ordered) data set is called the
mode
mean
median
harmonic mean
139. Sum of absolute deviations of the values is least when deviations are taken from
mean
median
193
mode
g.m
140. Statistic is a numerical quantity, which is calculated from
data
observation
sample
population
141. The branch of Statistics that is concerned with the procedures and methodology
for
descriptive
advance
infernetial
sample
142. How to find the class midpoint?
Half the sum of upper class limit and lower class limit
Find the difference between consecutive lower limits
Divide the class frequency by the number of observ
143. For given data, discuss the shape of the distribution: X f 0.2 8 1.2 15 2.2 23 3.2 40
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
Symmetric curve
U- Shaped curve
144. Data classified by attributes are called:
group
qulitative
quantitive
array
if 2 is a leading digit in 24335, than what are the trailing digits in the observation to
display a Stem-and Leaf display.
4 335
4335
43
145. A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies against what?
classbounday
cumulative frequency
relative frequency
mid point
146. When more values are lying at the start of the distribution, it is:
194
u shape
positive
negative
symmetrica
147. The data for an ogive is found in which distribution:
A cumulative frequency distribution
A joint frequency distribution
A frequency distribution
A relative frequency distribution
148. Which one of the following is greater than median for a symmetrical distribution:
1st Decile
7th Decile
44th Percentile
14th Percentile
149. Statistics deals with
Individuals
Isolated items
Isolated items
Aggregates of facts
Grouped data
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Arrayed data
151. As a general rule, statisticians tends to use which of the following number of classes
when
arranging the data
Fewer than 5
Between 5 & 20
Between 8 & 15
More than 20
a sample space
joint probability
population
153. If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of the following must be
false:
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
195
P(E)=1/3
154. If we roll a die then probability of getting a 2 will be
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
155. In a multiplication theorem P (A n B) equals:
P (A) P (B)
P (A) + P (B)
P (A) * P (B|A) pg 158
P(B\A)*P(B)
156. If Y=3X+5,then S.D of Y is equal to
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
157. In regression line Y=a+bX, X is called:
Dependent variable
Explained variable
Regressand
158. Symbolically, a marginal probability is:
P(AB)
P(AUB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
159. Which formula represents the probability of the complement of event A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
160. If A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.05 and P(B) = 0.65, then P(A|B)
= :
0.65
0.05
0.03
0.07 not sure
161. The probability of drawing a white ball from a bag containing 4 red, 8 black and
3 white
balls is:
196
0 3/15
1/12
1/2
Total ball= 4+8+3=15
P=3/15
162. An expected value of a random variable is equal to:
Variance
Mean
Standard deviation
Quartile
163. When we toss a fair coin 4 times, the sample space consists of.points.
48 12
16
164. 5C5=
51 10
25
165. In a probability distribution, the sum of the probabilities is equal to:
0 0.1
0.5
1
166. The simultaneous occurrence of two events is called:
Joint probability
Prior probability
167. Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment. Suppose the E and F
are
independent and that P(E) = 1/4 and P(F) = 1/2 Then P(E U F) is:
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
+1/2=3/4
Assignment No.3 (Course STA301)
Fall 2010 (Total Marks 30)
Muhammad Imran Ilyas
Contact 03124692231
03124692262
Assignment No. 3
Question 1 2+2+6=10Marks
197
a) Define Bernoulli trail and Binomial Experiment.
Sol.
Bernoulli Trail
A sequence of Bernoulli trials occurs when a Bernoulli experiment is
performed several independent times so that the probability of success, say, p,
remains the same from trial to trial. That is, in such a sequence we let p denote the
probability of success on each trial. In addition, frequently
q = 1 p denote the probability of failure; that is, we shall use q and p
Binomial Experiment
A binomial experiment (also known as a Bernoulli trial) is a statistical
experiment that has the following properties:
The experiment consists of n repeated trials.
Each trial can result in just two possible outcomes. We call one of these outcomes
a success and the other, a failure.
The probability of success, denoted by p, is the same on every trial.
The trials are independent; that is, the outcome on trial does not affect the
outcome on other trials.
b) In which condition, Poisson distribution is used to approximate hyper geometric
distribution?
Sol.
Poisson distribution is not used to approximate hypergeometric
distribution but hypergeometric can be used to approximate poision than N is very
large and successive terms K is very small
c) Find the probability that (i) No defective bolt (ii) at most 5 defective bolts will be
found in a box of 200 bolts if it is known that 2 percent of such bolts are expected
to be defective.
Sol.
n = 200 , probability of defective bolts are 2% or p = .02
= np = 200 * .02 = 4
in poision Distribution is P (X = x ) =
4
!
e x
x
-
(i) No defective bolt
(ii) At most 5 defective bolts
P(x < = 5) = p(x = 0) + p(x = 1) + p(x = 2) + p(x = 3) + p(x = 4) + p(x = 5)
= 0.0183 + 0.0732 + 0.1464 + 0.1952 + 0.1952 + 0.1562
= 0.7428
a) If its rain, an umbrella salesman can earn $ 30 per day. If it is fair, he can lose $ 6 per
day. What is his expectation if the probability of rain is 0.3?
X P(x) X.P(x)
30 0.3 9
-6 .7 -4.2
Total 4.8
E(X) = X . P(x) = 4.8
198
b) Show that the following is a density function.
f(x) =
2
x
0 < x < 2
= 0 elsewhere
f(x) =
2
x
f(0) = 0/2 = 0
f(2) = 2/2 =1
we know that function is a density function if total probability is 1
p( 0 < x < 2 ) = 1
L.H.S. = p( 0 < x < 2 )
= [f(2) + f(0)] * 2 / (2 0)
= [(1) + (0)] *2 / 2
= 1 so it is density function
c)
( )
( )
0,1 3/ 28 (0) 5 / 28
1/ 0
If we have f and f
then find f
= =
Sol.
f (1/0) = f( 0 , 1 ) / f( 0 )
= (3/28) / (5/28)
= 3 / 5
a) From the following table find P(X + Y < 1);
Sol.
P(X + Y < 1) = f( 0,0) + f( 0,1) + f( 1,0)
= 3/28 + 6/28 + 9/28
= 18/28
= 9/14
b) Write this expression h (3; 70, 20, 5) in probability notations/function.
c) An electrical firm manufactures light bulbs that have a length of life that is normally
distributed with mean equal to 800 hours and a standard deviation of 40 hours. Find
the
probability that
Joint Probability Y
X
0 3/
(i) A bulb will burn between 778 and 834 hours.
(ii) A bulb will burn in less than 778 hours.
Sol.
= 800 , = 40
199
(i) A bulb will burn between 778 and 834 hours.
Z1 = (X1 - )/
= (778 800) / 40
= -22 / 40
= -0.55
Area between and 778 at z = -.55 is 0.2088
Z2 = (X2 - )/
= (834 800) / 40
= 34 / 40
= 0.85
Area between and 834 at z = 0.85 is 0.3023
So
Area between 778 and 834 = 0.3023 + 0.2088
= 0.5111
(ii) A bulb will burn in less than 778 hours.
Z = (X - )/
= (778 800) / 40
= -22 / 40
= -0.55
Area between and 778 at z = -.55 is 0.2088
So
The Area less than 778 = 0.5 0.2088
= 0.2912

Mutually exclusive
Equally likely
Exhaustive



2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v
200

2
2
2
2
2
forv
v
v

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
1
2
2
forv
v
v


Rejected
Accepted
No conclusion
Acknowledged


Variances
Means
Proportions
Groups
201


Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis


Z-test PROPORTIONS ARE TESTED AND MEAN
t-Test MEAN IS TESTED
Both Z & T-test


0,1,2,3
1,3,3,1
1, 2, 3
3, 2

202

E(XX)
E(X).E(Y)
X.E(Y)
Y.E(X)


x & n
x & p
n & p
x, n & p


P(E)= - 1 ROBIBILITY SHOULD NEVER BE NEGATIVE AND NOT BE GREATER THAN
ONE
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3

203

E (T) =
EXPECTION OF STATISTIC IS EQUAL TO PARAMETER THAT IS

ESTIMATED THEN STATISTIC IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE
BIASED.
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1


2
is:
Sample mean
Sample median
Sample proportion
Sample variance
204


The sample variance
2
2
( ) x x
S
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2

BIASED
None of these


1
0
c
-c
0
205
1
-c



( ) g x
is:

( ) , f x y dx

( )
, f x y dy

( ) , f x y dx dy

( ) ,
b d
a c
f x y dy dx

206

Comparing variances




Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations
207


Advance Statistics
Sampled Statistics


Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart


208

0.5

0.75

0.7979

0.6745


2

1
2
3
0


Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram


209


When
1 3
2 4 Q and Q
1
2
3
4




5
8
9 n-1
210
10




Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision


How to find
( 1) P X Y +
?
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
211
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)


Three N n k


If an automobile is driven on the average no more than 16000 Km per year, then
formulate the null and alternative hypothesis.
0
1
16000
16000
H
H

>


Write down the test statistic when chi- square goodness of fit test is performed.

212

Find the value of F(table value), when
1
n 7
,
2
n 10
and = 0.05
3.37


If X = 327, n = 634,
0
p
0.50 then find the z-test statistic for proportion.


If population proportions are given as:
Find
1
2
2
p p

,where n = 10

1
2
2
p p

= p1q1/n1+p2q2/n2

A candidate for mayor in a large city hires the services of a poll-taking organization,
and they found that 62 of 100 educated voters interviewed support the candidate, and
69 of 150 uneducated voters support him.
At the 0.05 significance level, test the following
1 2
: 0.05
o
H P P
213
1 2
0.30, 0.20. P P
1 1 2
: 0.05 H P P <
Book Example # 16.17 on Page 155
Professor sher Muhammad Chaudhry


If we have RCBD with MSE=3.19, no.of.treatments = 4, no.of.blocks = 5; then find the
value of LSD (least significant difference) for treatments by using =0.05 and error
degrees of freedom is 12.


Find the mean and variance for the sampling distribution given below.

( ) p
No. of
Samples
Probability
( ) p f
0 1 1/20
1/3 9 9/20
2/3 9 9/20
1 1 1/20

20 1

P
F(
P
)
2
P
P
F(
P
)
2
P
F(
P
)
0 1/20
1/3 9/20
214
2/3 9/20
1 1/20
1
Mean=

= Pf P

Variance=

2 2
2
( ) ( ) E x P f P Pf P

In a multiplication theorem P (A and B) equals:
P (A) P (B)
P (A) + P (B)
P (A) * P (B|A)
P(B\A)*P(B)
The probability can never be:
215
1
1/2
1
-1/2
If two fair die are thrown, the probability of getting a double six is:
1/6
2/36
1/36
1/12
If A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.05 and P(B) = 0.65, then P(A|B) = :
0.65
0.05
0.03
0.07
Twenty percent of the students in a class of 100 are planning to go to graduate school. The
standard deviation of this binomial distribution is:
20
216
2
4
16
1
0
1/2
2
Less than one
Greater than one
Zero
Question # 8 of 10 ( Start time: 01:38:25
PM )
Total Marks: 1
E(4X + 5) =__________
12 E (X)
217
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
The location and shape of the normal curve is (are) determined by:
Mean
Variance
Mean & variance
Mean & standard deviation
The probability of success changes from trial to trial, is the property of:
Binomial experiment
Hypergeometric experiment
Both binomial & hypergeometric experiment
Poisson experiment
MIDTERM FALL 2010
MNADEEN204@GMAIL.COM
Dated 08-12-2010 (1st session)
STA301
If a player well shuffles the pack of 52 playing cards, then the probability of a black
card
from 52 playing cards is:
1
52
218
13
52
4
52
26
52

1
52
4
52
13
52
26
52

Intercept a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0
Which one of the following measurement does not divide a set of observations into equal
parts? Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
Standard deviations
Histogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
219
Question No:7 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one
Which one is equal to explained variation divided by total variation?
Sum of square due to regression
Coefficient of determinant
Standard error estimate
Coefficient of correlation (not confirmed)
in the given series 1,2,1,1,2,2,2,3,4,5,3,2,3,1,4,2,3 mode of given is
4
3
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
3 (not confirmed)
2*
True for the population,
it must be large number of values
It is collection of individual objects or measurement not confirmed)
It is the small part of whole
Data arrangement in ascending or descending order
Array data
Group data
Ungroup data
Raw data
What is the main objective of Descriptive statistics?
To test population properties
To describe the data we collected
To infer something about the population
Making estimate
Which measure of central tendency?
Variation of distribution
Average of distribution
Scattering of distribution
Dispersion of distribution
If a=4 b=2 estimate line (i.e y=a+bx) and independent veriable has value 3 the the value
of dependent veriable
6
220
9
10
11
The number of ways in which 4 books can be arranged
4
6
12
24
If we plot paired observed (x,y)=1.n on graph is called,
Polygon
Freasito diagram
Scatter diagram
Cumulative frequency diagram
The simultaneous occurrence of two events is called
Descriptive probability
Subjective probability not confirmed
Joint probability
Which one is the not measure of dispersion.
The range
50th percentile
Inter quartile range
Variance not confirmed
In positively skew cure which relation is
The mean, median and mode are equal
Mean is greater then median not confirmed
Median is greater then mean
Standard deviation must be greater then mean or median
When coin tossed we get only
1 outcome
2 outcomes
3 outcomes
4 outcomes
When mean is 25 and S.D is 5 then CV is
100%
25%
20% not confirmed
10%
Define rule for permutation
221
If mean x=0.645 and S2 =0.215
Then calculate coefficient of variation
Find the probability of drawing white ball from bag out of 4 red, 8 blue and 3 white
balls.
If the equation of the least square regression line are
y=2.64+0.648 and
X=-1.91+0.917x
Find coefficient of r.
A and B are two independent events, if
P(A)=0.40, P(B)=0.30
Find Probabilities i) P (AB)
ii) P(AB
If S={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
And
A={1,2,3,4} , B= {3,4,5,6}
Prove that
(A B) = (A B)
MIDTERM EXAMINATION (Spring 2010)
Time: 60 min Ref No: 1514379 Marks: 40
Student Info
Student ID: MC090407150
Center: OPKST
Exam Date: 5/30/2010 12:00:00 AM
Q No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
Marks
Q No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Marks
Q No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
222
Marks
Q No. 25 26
Marks

10! =.
362880
3628800
362280
362800


If a player well shuffles the pack of 52 playing cards, then the probability of a black
card from 52 playing cards is:

1
52

13
52

4
52

26
52


223

1
52

4
52

13
52

26
52


C.V.
Q.D.
M.D.
S.D.


If all the values fall on the same straight line and the line has a positive slope then what
will be the value of the correlation coefficient r:
0 r 1
r 0
r = +1
r=-1
224

I
n a regression line Y= a + bX, the value of the correlation coefficient will be zero if:
Intercept a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0

1/4
3/4
2/4
4/4


parts?
Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
Standard deviations

225

Predictor variable


which interval?

X S t

2 X S t

3 X S t

4 X S t


Source note
Foot note
Prefatory note
Title

226

Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetric



( ) f x
is
A density function

227

Histogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon

Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram


7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5


228

0 m
x x

0 m
x x

0
2
m
x x

0
2
m
x x +


Quartile deviation
Harmonic mean
Geometric mean
Arithmetic mean

Negative
Positive
Zero
Undefined


each other?
229

Answer:
Example: If we toss three dice together and let X represents the number of heads, then
the random variable X consists of the value 0, 1, 2, and 3. the X in this example is a
discrete random variable.

Answer:
arrive at different probabilities.
Example:
230
guilty while one of them decides that the evidence is not strong to draw this conclusion.


Answer:

Answer:
Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events A and B of a single experiment are said to be
mutually exclusive if and only if they both cant occur at the same time.
Example:
When a die is rolled, the events even number and odd number are mutually exclusive
as we can get either an even number or an odd number in one throw, not both at the
same time.
Exhaustive Events: Events are said to be collectively exhaustive, when the union of
mutually exclusive events is equal to the entire sample space S.
Examples:

231
X= 34, 70, 42, 54, 40, 68, 56, 38, 36, 72
Success Objectives
2. The outcome of an experiment
3. A conclusion drawn from an experiment
4. A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the experimenter
5. A tentative statement about the relationship
2. Analyze the empirical data collected in a study
3. Make their findings sound better
4. Operationally define their variables
5. Ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
(6) Planning
(7) Good & clear writing
(8) Lot of rewriting
(9) All of the above
Copy from the work of others
Knowledge accumulates and learns from the work of others
Knowledge disaccumulates
None of the above option
ii) Elaborates the r/s among the variables
232
iii) Explains the logic underlying these r/s
iv) Describes the nature and direction of the r/s
v) All of the above
A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a project
A research proposal shows that the researcher is capable of successfully
conducting the proposed research project
A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
A research proposal is just like a research report and written before the
research project
Success Objectives
3. Descriptive research
4. Exploratory research
5. Applied research
6. Explanatory research
iv. Primary data
v. Secondary data
vi. Qualitative data
vii. None of the above
9- After identifying the important variables and establishing the logical reasoning in
theoretical framework, the next step in the research process is
iv. To conduct surveys
v. To generate the hypothesis
vi. To focus group discussions
233
vii. To use experiments in an investigation
(d) The research design
(e) Nature of the data collected
(f) Nature of the hypothesis
(g) Both A & B
11- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as:
a. Mall interviews
b. Mall intercept interviews
c. Brief interviews
d. None of the given options
12-WATS lines provided by long distance telephone service at fixed rates. In this
regard, WATS is the abbreviation of:
e. West Africa Theological Seminary
f. Washtenaw Area Transportation Study
g. Wide Area Telecommunications Service
h. World Air Transport Statistics
13-A list of questions which is handed over to the respondent, who reads the questions
and records the answers himself is known as the:
i. Interview schedule
j. Questionnaire
k. Interview guide
l. All of the given options
14-One of the most critical stages in the survey research process is:
m. Research design
n. Questionnaire design
o. Interview design
p. Survey design
Success Objectives
15-Question that consists of two or more questions joined together is called a:
q. Double barreled question
234
r. General question
s. Accurate question
t. Confusing question
16-The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by the total number of
eligible people who were contacted or asked to participate in the survey is called the:
u. Response rate
v. Participation rate
w. Inflation rate
x. None of the given options
17-To obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, when we ask general question before
a specific question then this procedure is called as the:
y. Research technique
z. Qualitative technique
aa. Funnel technique
bb. Quantitative technique
18-A small scale trial run of a particular component is known as:
cc. Pilot testing
dd. Pre-testing
ee. Lab experiments
ff. Both A & B
18-Field testing of the questionnaire shows that:
gg. Respondents are willing to co-operate
hh. Respondents are not willing to co-operate
ii. Respondents do not like any participation
jj. All of the given options
kk. Self-administered questionnaires
ll. Office assistant
mm. Manager
nn. None of the given options
oo. Self-administered questionnaires
235
pp. Office assistant
qq. Manager
rr. None of the given options
21-Discrete variable is also called.
I. Categorical variable
J. Discontinuous variable
K. Both A & B
L. None of the above
22-Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment Such a
hypothesis is an example of.
1. Descriptive Hypothesis
2. Directional Hypothesis
3. Relational Hypothesis
4. All of the above
23-Science refers to.
1. A system for producing knowledge
2. The knowledge produced by a system
3. Both A & B
4. None of the above
24-Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
Deterministic
Success Objectives
Rationalism
Empirical
Abstraction
25-The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the.
Variables
Hypothesis
Concept
Theory
26-research is based on naturalism.
Field research
Descriptive research
236
Basic research
Applied research
27-Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as
Mall interviews
Mall intercept interviews
Brief interviews
None of the given options
28- is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general
Research technique
Qualitative technique
Funnel technique
Quantitative technique
29-In, ___________the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction
of the interview.
Field interview
Telephonic interview
Both A and B
30-Randomization of test units is a part of
Pretest
Posttest
Matching
Experiment
31- Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
C. Reasoning
32- On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
237
C. Prior knowledge
33- Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable
evidence?
A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
C. Speculation
D. Rationalism
34-Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
A. Health care
B. Religion
Success Objectives
C. Business
35- All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
36-Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
238
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships
37-If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to ascertain
their merit and worth; he is likely conducting which of the following types of research?
A. Experimental
B. Applied
C. Basic
D. Evaluation
38- Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of question?
A. If
B. How
C. Why
D. What
39- Which of the following is not the source for getting information for exploratory
research?
A. Content analysis
B. Survey
C. Case study
D. Pilot study
40- Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
239
41- A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is known as:
42- Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
C. A data set
D. A constant
43- Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership
44- Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable?
A. Age
B. Annual income
D. Religion
240
Success Objectives
45-Income distribution of employees in a specific organization is an example of which
of following type of variable?
46-There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher efficiency is
an example of which type of hypothesis?
A. Alternative
B. Null
C. Co relational
D. Research
47- Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
48-Hypothesis test may also be called as:
A. Informal test
B. Significance test
C. Moderating test
D. T-test
241
49-Which type of review compares how different theories address an issue?
A. Context review
50-After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the reference,
EXCEPT;
A. Volumes
B. Titles
C. Price
51- ___________research is based on naturalism.
A. Field research
C. Basic research
D. Applied research
52- Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as_________
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercepts interviews
C. Brief interviews
53- ____________is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking
general question before a specific question.
242
A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
54- In, ____________the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and
direction of the interview.
A. Field interview
B. Telephonic interview
C. Both A and B
Success Objectives
55- Randomization of test units is a part of ______________
A. Pretest
B. Posttest
C. Matching
D. Experiment
56- Which one of the following sets is the measure of central tendency?
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
b. Mean, median, standard deviation
c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
57- Internal validity refers to.
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a. Researchers degree of confidence.
b. Generalisability
c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
58- How many times the students appear in the research class is the example of
_________.
a. Intensity
b. Space
c. Frequency
d. Direction
59- Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
a. High
b. Moderate
c. Low
d. Nil
60- Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising display system is
the example of .
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
61- In ___________, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables
in
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the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
4. Research design
62- In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the
effect
produced by the ____.
63- A measure is reliable if it provides consistent ___________.
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
64- The interview in which questions are already prepared is called ________.
Success Objectives
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65-The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from those
that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling process.
1. Sampling design
3. Sampling error
66- In ______________ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
selection.
2. Quota sampling
67- ______ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used to measure
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
4. Validity
68- A researcher is interested in studying why the new math of the 1960s failed. She
considered as:
1. Primary sources
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3. External critics
4. Internal critics
69- Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
proportions
3. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting
large
70- Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_________ relationship
can
be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
4. Cause and Effect
71. Discrete variable is also called.
M. Categorical variable
N. Discontinuous variable
O. Both A & B
P. None of the above
72.Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment
5. Descriptive Hypothesis
6. Directional Hypothesis
7. Relational Hypothesis
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8. All of the above
73.Science refers to.
5. A system for producing knowledge
Success Objectives
6. The knowledge produced by a system
7. Both A & B
8. None of the above
74.Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific method?
Deterministic
Rationalism
Empirical
Abstraction
73.The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the.
Variables
Hypothesis
Concept
Theory
74.research is based on naturalism.
Field research
Basic research
Applied research
75.Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as
Mall interviews
Brief interviews
76. is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by asking general
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Research technique
Funnel technique
77.In, the interviewer and members jointly control the pace and direction of the
interview.
Field interview
Both A and B
78.Randomization of test units is a part of
Pretest
Posttest
Matching
Experiment
79. In ___________, the researcher attempts to control and/ or manipulate the variables
in the study.
1. Experiment
2. Hypothesis
4. Research design
80. In an experimental research study, the primary goal is to isolate and identify the
effect produced by the ____.
81. A measure is reliable if it provides consistent ___________.
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Success Objectives
1. Hypothesis
2. Results
3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
82. The interview in which questions are already prepared is called ________.
83. The numerical description that describe sample may be expected to differ from
those that describe population because of random fluctuations inherent in sampling
process.
1. Sampling design
3. Sampling error
84. In ______________ , each population element has a known and equal chance of
selection.
2. Quota sampling
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85. ______ is the evidence that the instrument, techniques, or process used to measure
1. Reliability
2. Replicability
3. Scaling
4. Validity
86. A researcher is interested in studying why the new math of the 1960s failed. She
considered as:
1. Primary sources
3. External critics
4. Internal critics
87. Which of the following is NOT true about stratified random sampling?
proportions
3. Disproportional stratified random sampling is especially helpful for getting large
88. Experimental design is the only appropriate design where_________ relationship
can be established.
1. Strong
2. Linear
3. Weak
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4. Cause and Effect
89. Rationalism is the application of which of the following?
C. Reasoning
90. On which of the following, scientific knowledge mostly relies?
Success Objectives
C. Prior knowledge
91. Which of the following refers to research supported by measurable
evidence?
A. Opinion
B. Empiricism
C. Speculation
D. Rationalism
92. Research method is applicable in all of the following fields, EXCEPT;
A. Health care
B. Religion
C. Business
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93. All of the following are true statements about action research, EXCEPT;
94. Which of the following is characteristic of action research?
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship
95. If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to
ascertain their merit and worth, he is likely conducting which of the
following types of research?
A. Experimental
B. Applied
C. Basic
D. Evaluation
96. Exploratory research addresses which of the following types of
question?
A. If
B. How
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C. Why
D. What
97. Which of the following is not the source for getting information for
exploratory research?
A. Content analysis
B. Survey
C. Case study
D. Pilot study
98. Which of the following is the main quality of a good theory?
100. Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership
101. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is
known as:
Success Objectives
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102. Which of the following is the opposite of a variable?
C. A data set
D. A constant
103. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical
variable?
A. Age
B. Annual income
D. Religion
104. Income distribution of employees in a specific organization is an
example of which of following type of variable?
105. There is no relationship between higher motivation level and higher
efficiency is an example of which type of hypothesis?
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A. Alternative
B. Null
C. Correlational
D. Research
106. Which of the following is not a role of hypothesis?
107. Which type of review compares how different theories address an issue?
A. Context review
108. After you locate a source, you should write down all details of the
reference, EXCEPT;
A. Volumes
B. Titles
C. Price
109. What is the primary focus of establishment surveys in this case study?
A. Collect the data through past studies
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B. Analyze the literature review
C. Using of quantitative techniques
D. Data collection through mail and Interview
110. Which one of following is generally common in establishment survey and
household survey?
A. Cognitive recall
B. Homogenous respondents
C. Error free
D. Response burden
Success Objectives
111. Which one of the following is not of important consideration in establishment
survey while designing questionnaires?
A. Response burden
B. Professional terminology
C. Cognitive recall
D. Use of Records
112. Which of the following method of data collection is not discussed in the case study?
A. Questionnaires
B. Interviews
C. Mail survey
D. Observations
113. Which of the following sampling technique is used for Employee Turnover and Job
Openings survey?
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B. Cluster sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Convenience sampling
114. Which one of the following is the limitation of establishment survey in this case
study?
A. Cost
B. Limited data
C. Unskilled interviewer
D. Small sample size
115. Which of the following is not the part of specific protocol of focus groups in ETJO?
A. Concept and indicators
B. Definition
C. Availability of records
D. Cognitive recall
116. Which of the following is the draw back of pretest interview in ETJO survey?
A. Small simple size
B. Non cooperative response
C. Probing
D. Questionnaire format
117. Which of the following method of data collection is not used in the case study?
A. Questionnaires
B. Focus groups
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C. Correlational method
D. Secondary data
118. What is the basic purpose of ETJO survey?
A. To assess the feasibility of collecting job-vacancy and turnover data by
occupation
B. To analyze the problem of labor shortage
C. To assess the motivation level of employees
D. To analyze the factor contributing towards employee turnover
119. Which of the following is the basic purpose of pretest interview in this case study?
A. To identified the potential problem
B. To know the sample size
C. To develop the questionnaire
D. To use agency representative
120. Which one of the following sampling type is used in operations test to select the
units?
Success Objectives
B. Cluster sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Judgment sampling
121. Which of the following is the basic purpose of Response analysis survey in the case
study?
259
A. To assess the quality of ETJO survey data
B. To know the sample size of ETJO survey data
C. To develop the questionnaire for ETJO
D. To use agency representative for ETJO
122. After Operation test, which of the following test findings were suggested by the
researcher?
A. Need of highly skilled and well trained interviewer
B. Sample size should be increased
C. A decent increase in survey budget
D. Focus group should be included
123. In which one of the following stage researcher consult the literature?
A. Operation test
B. Response analysis survey
C. Document design analysis
D. Pretest interviews
124. Which one of the following sampling type is used in Response analysis survey
(RAS)?
B. Cluster sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Stratified sampling
125. Which one of the following could be helpful for minimizing the bias in this case
260
study?
A. Cognitive research
B. Focus group
C. Pretest Interview
126. Which one of the following is useful in assessing and clarifying concepts and
definitions at the beginning stages of questionnaire?
A. Operation test
B. Document design analysis
C. Focus group
127. Which one of the following can be more helpful than others in order to determine
the exact source of measurement errors in establishment survey?
A. Focus group
B. Operation test
C. Response analysis survey
D. Document design analysis
Identify the True and False statements. (05)
13. Review of literature shows the incredibility of the body of knowledge and
identifies the points at which the researcher made the research area ambiguous
and unclear. (False)
14. The literature survey provides a solid foundation for developing the theoretical
framework. (True)
15. The hypothesis should not only be specific to a place and situation but also these
should be narrowed down with respect to its operation. (True )
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16. A cohort analysis is similar to cross-sectional research. (False)
Success Objectives
17. A literature review does not consider the prior studies, their agreements or
disagreements in the field. (False)
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
1. Research hypothesis is formulated by the researcher which suggests the nature
of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship.
2. Correlational hypothesis merely states that the variables occur together and
does not imply that one causes the other.
3. Longitudinal type of research examine feature of any unit at more than one
time.
4. Historical review traces the development of an idea or shows how a particular
issue or theory has evolved over time.
5. Discontinuous variable is also known as discrete/ categorical/ classificatory
variable.
6. Validity problems occur when the researchers theoretical definition does not
match that of the government agency or organization that collected the
information.
7. Reliability problems occur when official definition or the method of collecting
Information changes over time.
8. Secondary data refer to information gathered by someone other than the
researcher conducting the present study.
9. Experiments are best for topics where the researcher controls a situation and
manipulates an Independent variable.
10. A social indicator is any measure of wellbeing used in policy.
11.Two power bases of scientific knowledge are Empiricism and Rationalism
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12.Action research is a type of Applied research
13.Three types of longitudinal research are time series, panel, and cohort
14.The research proposal is just like a research report, but it is written before the
research project begins.
15.Natural science concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms.
16.The double blind experiment is designed to control experimenter expectancy.
17.Pilot testing is also called pre-testing.
18.The totality, out of which sample is drawn is referred to as population.
19.The physical setting of the interview creates Situational bias.
20.Probing is the verbal prompts made by field worker.
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Long Questions:
Q1. Write any five similarities of Historical-Comparative research and Field
research?
Answer:
1. Both H-C research and field research recognize that the researchers point of view
is an avoidable part of research. Both involve interpretation, which introduce the
interpreters location in time, place, and world-view.
2. Both field and H-C research examine a great diversity of data. In both the
research becomes immersed in data to gain an emphatic understanding of events
and people.
3. Both field and H-C research often use grounded theory (theory usually emerges
during the process of data collection.)
4. Both field and H-C research involves a type of translation. The researchers
meaning system usually differs from that of people he or she studies, but he or she
Success Objectives
tries to penetrate and understand their point of view.
5. Both field and H-C research focus on action, process, and sequence and see time
process as essential.
6. Generalization and theory are limited in field and H-C research.
Q2. How quantitative and qualitative techniques are applied in Historical-
Comparative research.
Answer:
Quantitative approach
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The quantitative techniques with some minor adjustment can be applied to study the
past
or other cultures.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one society, few societies or multiple
societies.
The researcher can focus on the issue in one time in the past or examine the issue
across many years/periods in the past.
The researcher can focus on the issue in the present or a recent past period.
The researchers analysis could be based primarily on quantitative data or
qualitative data.
Qualitative approach
The researcher must be able to take on, mentally, the circumstances, views, and
feelings of those being studied to interpret their action appropriately.
The historical-comparative research must find patterns among the voluminous
details describing the subject matter of study.
Question # 01
How do concrete and abstract concepts differ? Give example.
(Marks: 04)
Solution:
Concrete Concepts:
Concrete ones refer to straightforward physical objects or familiar experiences.
Abstract concepts:
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Abstract concepts refer to ideas that have a scattered meaning or an indirect expression
Abstraction is a thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.
The difference between concrete and abstract concepts can be expressed with some
characterizations like,
c) Abstract concepts have only relational properties while concrete concepts
have some fundamental properties.
d) Abstract concepts are universals and concrete concepts are particulars.
e) Abstract concepts are sets (generalized) and concrete concepts are
individuals (specified).
f) Concrete concepts are known by observation whereas abstract concepts are
known in some other way, e.g., by abstraction, by intuition, etc
Example
Print Media (Abstract)
Publication
News Paper
Daily Dawn (Concrete)
Question # 02
Success Objectives
Given the situation below, Discuss with reason into which category they fall
266
According to the purpose of doing research and
The uses of research
(Marks: 03, 03)
Scenario 1:
Reasons for Absenteeism
A university professor wanted to analyze in depth the reasons for absenteeism of
employees in organizations. Fortunately, a company within 20 miles of the campus
employed her as a consultant to study that very issue.
Solution:
It is Explanatory research as the purpose is to find out the reasons for a
phenomenon i.e. absenteeism of employees in organizations. Research seeks to
determine the answers to why question about a specific behavior.
It is applied research since, the problem is being faced by an organization and the
research is called upon to solve it.
Scenario 2:
Effects of Nasal Spray on Flu
A research scientist surveys 1,000 employees in different organizational settings to
study the efficacy of several types of nasal sprays in controlling the flu virus. He
subsequently publishes his findings in a highly respected medical journal.
Solution:
It is Descriptive research, as, the research question only finds out the special effects
of several types of nasal sprays in controlling the flu virus in different
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organizational settings. It is to find out the relationship among the substances under
study.
It is a Basic research since the underlying purpose is to expand the frontier of
knowledge
.
Question#01:
Why turn over is high in some organizations?
As per above given query, explain the following components of Theoretical frame work;
(Marks: 10)
Develop an inventory of variables (min. five variables required)
Specify direction of relationship
Give clear explanation why you should expect the proposed relationship exists
Make an inventory of propositions
Ans:
Develop an inventory of variables
Salary Package is low, Inflexibility in working hours, Low decentralization
(participation in decision making), Lack of other benefits (bonus, appraisals,
conveyance facilities, etc), Poor working ambiance
Specify direction of relationship
Between salary & turn-over negative relationship exists
Between flexible working hours & turn-over negative relationship exists
Between decentralization & turn-over negative relationship exists
Success Objectives
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Between extra benefits & turn-over negative relationship exists
Between ambiance & turn-over negative relationship exists
Give clear explanation why you should expect the proposed relationship exists?
o Between salary & turn-over negative relationship exists because in
current era a good salary package has more attraction for employees to remain
in the same organization. So organizations that keep themselves up-dated with
privileged market salary packages usually have low turn over ratio.
o Between flexible working hours & turn-over negative relationship exists
because flexibility in working hours give some relaxation to employees especially
in case when their targets are not achieved due to a reason able fact.
o Between decentralization & turn-over negative relationship exists
because participation in decision making raise confidence of employee and
motivation level. So, organization have more decentralized system face low turn-
over ratio.
o Between extra benefits & turn-over negative relationship exists. The
organizations offer different packages like bonuses, conveyance facilities etc,
such organizations have more satisfies employees and low turn over.
o Between ambiance & turn-over negative relationship exists. Working
ambiance does matter a lot. Good ambiance that help in releasing working stress
increase the employee motivation and interest in doing job well.
Question#02:
What is meant by a Research Proposal? Explain briefly. Also mention at what time a
research proposal is submitted? (Marks: 05)
Note: (Copied data from hand outs will not be appreciated)
Ans:
A research proposal is a document that plans how and in which manner a research will
be conducted. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. Such proposals
must offer convincing support for your research topic. It means the topic/issue for
which research study is being proposed should be sound enough to conduct a worthy
research. The proposal must describe a detailed methodology for conducting the
research i.e. which tools are going to be used in your research.
More over when writing a proposal it is well to assume that reader of your proposal is
interested to find out the answer of these questions;
269
a. What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it take?
b. What has already been done in the area of your project?
c. How do you plan to do it?
d. How will the results be evaluated?
A good proposal is that which well defines these questions and convinces the reader that
research on specified issue is needed to conduct. So, the research proposal is submitted
before starting the research project because in this you plan how the data will be
collected and analyzed.
Q. Explain the difference between these terms with one example of each.
i. Population and target population
ii. Sampling unit and observation unit
iii. Parameter and statistic
i. Population and Target Population.
Population refers to the entire group of people, events or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.
Target population is the complete group of specific population elements relevant to the
research project.
Example
Suppose a researcher wants to investigate the productivity of employees working in
multinationals in Pakistan.
All the employees working in multinational will be the population.
The researcher wants to investigate the productivity of employees working in
multinational in FMCG sector in Pakistan.
Success Objectives
All the employees working in multinationals in FMCG sector in Pakistan will be the
target population.
270
ii. Sampling Unit and Observation Unit
A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage
of sampling.
An observation unit is an element or aggregation of elements from which the
information is collected.
Example
In the above example the researcher selects employees from three FMCG
multinationals
(Procter and Gamble, Unilever and Nestle) for data collection. Among these employees
he selected First Line Managers for collecting the data. Among all First Line Manager
he
selects 40 Line managers for data collection.
In this example the employees from three FMCGs (Procter and Gamble, Unilever and
Nestle) are the primary sampling unit, all the First Line managers are the secondary/
final
sampling unit and the selected First Line managers are the observation unit.
iii. Parameter and Statistics
A parameter is the summary description of a given variable in a population while
Statistic is the summary description of a given variable in a survey sample.
Example
In the above example the mean productivity of all the employees working in the
multinational is the Parameter and the mean productivity of the First Line managers
from
those the researcher collected the data is the Statistics.
Q: Define Research? Discuss the special features of Scientific method of Research?
Solution:
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Definition of Research:
Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions by
gathering the needed information. General image of the research is that it has
something to do with the laboratory where scientists are supposedly doing some
experiments. Research is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. In research, we try to follow a
system or a procedure in an organized manner. It is all the more necessary in case we
want to repeat the study, or somebody else wants to verify our findings. In the latter
case the other person has to follow the same procedure that we followed. Hence not
only we have to do the study in a systematic manner but also that system should be
known to others.
Special Features of Scientific Method of Research:
The Scientific method of Research is a procedure to produce knowledge and to discover
the principles & laws in this universe.
Special Features of Scientific Method of Research are as follows:
1. Empirical
Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are observable through sensory
experiences. It generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or observation.
Some of the realities could be directly observed, like the number of students present in
the class and how many of them are male and how many female. The same students
have attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations, and commitments. These are also
realities which cannot be observed directly, but the researchers have designed ways to
observe these indirectly. Any reality that cannot be put to sensory experience directly
or indirectly (existence of heaven, the Day of Judgment, life hereafter, Gods rewards
for good deeds) does not fall within the domain of scientific method.
2. Verifiable
Observations made through scientific method are to be verified again by using the
senses to confirm or refute the previous findings. Such confirmations may have to be
made by the same researcher or others. We will place more faith and credence in those
findings and conclusions if similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected by
other researchers using the same methods. To the extent that it does happen (i.e. the
results are replicated or repeated) we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our
research. Replicability, in this way, is an important characteristic of scientific method.
Hence revelations and intuitions are out of the domain of scientific method.
3. Cumulative
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Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan through the literature and see
that their study is not a repetition in ignorance. Instead of reinventing the wheel the
researchers take stock of the existing body of knowledge and try to build on it. Also the
researchers do
Success Objectives
not leave their research findings into scattered bits and pieces. Facts and figures are to
be provided with language and thereby inferences drawn. The results are to be
organized and systematized. Nevertheless, we dont want to leave our studies as stand
alone. A linkage between the present and the previous body of knowledge has to be
established, and that is how the knowledge accumulates.
4. Deterministic
Science is based on the assumption that all events have antecedent causes that are
subject to identification and logical understanding. For the scientist, nothing just
happens it happens for a reason. The scientific researchers try to explain the
emerging phenomenon by identifying its causes. Of the identified causes which ones
can be the most important? For example, in the 2006 BA/BS examination of the Punjab
University 67 percent of the students failed. What could be the determinants of such a
mass failure of students? The researcher may try to explain this phenomenon and come
up with variety of reasons which may pertain to students, teachers, administration,
curriculum, books, examination system, and so on. Looking into such a large number
of reasons may be highly cumbersome model for problem solution. It might be
appropriate to tell, of all these factors which one is the most important. The researcher
tries to narrow down the number of reasons in such a way that some action could taken.
5. Ethical and Ideological Neutrality
The conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results of data analysis should be
objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual
data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values. For instance, if we had a
hypothesis that stated that greater participation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment, and this was not supported by the results, it makes no
sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee
participation would still help. Such an argument would be based, not on the factual,
data based research findings, but on the subjective opinion of the researcher. If this was
the conviction of the researcher all along, then there was no need to do the research in
the first place. Researchers are human beings, having individual ideologies, religious
affiliations, cultural differences which can influence the research findings. Any
interference of their personal likings and dis-likings in their research can contaminate
the purity of the data, which ultimately can affect the predictions made by the
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researcher. Therefore, one of the important characteristics of scientific method is to
follow the principle of objectivity, uphold neutrality, and present the results in an
unbiased manner.
6. Statistical Generalization
Generalisability refers to the scope of the research findings in one organizational setting
to other settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions
generated by research, the more useful the research is to users. For instance, if a
researchers findings that participation in decision making enhances organizational
commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial, and service
organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied by the researcher,
the generalisability of the findings to other organizational settings is enhanced. The
more generalizable the research, the greater its usefulness and value.
For wider generalisability, the research sampling design has to be logically developed.
Here the use of statistics is very helpful. Statistics is device for comparing what is
observed and what is logically expected. The use of statistics becomes helpful in making
generalizations, which is one of the goals of scientific method.
7. Rationalism
Science is fundamentally a rational activity, and the scientific explanation must make
sense. Religion may rest on revelations, custom, or traditions, gambling on faith, but
science must rest on logical reason. There are two distinct logical systems important to
the scientific quest, referred to as deductive logic and inductive logic.
Q: Define Hypothesis? What are different types of hypothesis? Explain.
Solution:
Definition of Hypothesis:
A proposition that can be verified to determine its reality is a hypothesis. A hypothesis
may be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables,
expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is proposed by using a
strong logical argumentation. This logical relationship may be part of theoretical
framework of the study.
For example,
a. Officers in my organization have higher than average level of commitment
(variable).
b. Level of job commitment of the officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
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c. Level of job commitment of the officers is positively associated with their level of
efficiency.
Success Objectives
d. The higher the level of job commitment of the officers the lower their level of
absenteeism.
Types of Hypothesis:
There are different types of hypothesis which are as follows.
1-Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypothesis contains only one variable thereby it is also called as univariate
hypothesis. Descriptive hypotheses typically state the existence, size, form, or
distribution of some variable. The first hypothesis contains only one variable. It only
shows the distribution of the level of commitment among the officers of the organization
which is higher than average. Such a hypothesis is an example of a Descriptive
Hypothesis.
2- Relational Hypothesis
These are the propositions that describe a relationship between two variables. The
relationship could be non-directional or directional, positive or negative, causal or
simply correlational.
While stating the relationship between the two variables, if the terms of positive,
negative, more than, or less than are used then such hypotheses are directional because
the direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) has been
indicated. These hypotheses are relational as well as directional. The directional
hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the relationship has been specified.
Non-directional hypothesis is the one in which the direction of the association has not
been specified. The relationship may be very strong but whether it is positive or
negative has not been postulated.
Correlational hypotheses state merely that the variables occur together in some
specified manner without implying that one causes the other. Such weak claims are
often made when we believe that there are more basic causal forces that affect both
variables. For example:
efficiency.
275
Explanatory (causal) hypotheses imply the existence of, or a change in, one variable
causes or leads to a change in the other variable. This brings in the notions of
independent and the dependent variables. Cause means to help make happen. So the
independent variable may not be the sole reason for the existence of, or change in the
dependent variable.
3- Null Hypothesis
It is used for testing the hypothesis formulated by the researcher. Researchers treat
evidence that supports a hypothesis differently from the evidence that opposes it. They
give negative evidence more importance than to the positive one. It is because the
negative evidence tarnishes the hypothesis. It shows that the predictions made by the
hypothesis are wrong. The null hypothesis simply states that there is no relationship
between the variables or the relationship between the variables is zero. That is how
symbolically null hypothesis is denoted as H0. For example:
H0 = There is no relationship between the level of job commitment and the level of
efficiency. Or
H0 = The relationship between level of job commitment and the level of efficiency is
zero. Or the two variables are independent of each other.
It does not take into consideration the direction of association (i.e. H0 is non
directional), which may be a second step in testing the hypothesis.
4- Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative (to the null) hypothesis simply states that there is a relationship between
the variables under study. In our example it could be: there is a relationship between
the level of job commitment and the level of efficiency. Not only there is an association
between the two variables under study but also the relationship is perfect which is
indicated by the number 1. Thereby the alternative hypothesis is symbolically
denoted as H1. It can be written like this:
H1: There is a relationship between the level of job commitment of the officers and
their level of efficiency.
5- Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is the actual hypothesis formulated by the researcher which may
also suggest the nature of relationship i.e. the direction of relationship. In our example
it could be:
efficiency.
276
Q: Ahmad is the manager of a restaurant; he wants to see his staff cooperative and
hardworking but his staff is not working well according to his will. He decided to give
the incentives in order to motivate and encourage them but his policy did not work
effectively. There can be many factors behind this behavior of staff that needs to be
researched. For this purpose, he appoints you as a researcher and asks you to discover
those factors and submit a report to him. How you will undertake this kind of
Success Objectives
research and what steps you will choose to make a report about the behavior of the
staff?
Solution:
The manager of the restaurant appoints me as a researcher to find out the factors
behind the staff behavior. I will take the following steps in order to undertake this
research and to make a report. These steps are as follows:
STEP 1: To Select the topic of research:
First of all I will select the topic which is a general area of study or issue. The topic in
this research is the factors behind the staff behavior. A topic appears to be too broad
for conducting research. The specific issues that need to be researched within the
situation may not be identified at this stage. I will try to analyze the problems currently
existing in the restaurant that needs to be solved and the areas that a manager believes
need to be improved in the restaurant (improving the existing policies). Then I will
develop some research questions that a basic researcher wants to answer empirically.
STEP 2: Preliminary Data Collection or to Explore different areas from where I can
get information related to the restaurant and staff behavior:
After selecting the topic, I will collect data from different sources. This step may be
considered as part of the exploratory research. An exploration typically begins with a
search for published data and studies. Such sources can provide secondary data which
becomes part of the background information (about the restaurant & groups of people).
Some secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins, government publications,
information published or unpublished, case studies, online data, web sites, and the
Internet from where I can get information. In addition, information can also be
collected from the people who are well informed about the staff and restaurant,
especially those who have clearly stated positions on controversial aspects of the
problem. In certain situations, I will also focus on group discussions with the staff of the
277
restaurant. Such discussions can help me in the identification of factors and having
clarification of their behavior.
STEP 3: Problem Definition
After having discussions with the professionals as well as with the staff to whom the
issue relates, and the review of literature, now I will be in a position to narrow down
from its original broad base and define the factors clearly. Translate the broad issue
into a research question. As part of the applied research convert the management
dilemma into a management question, and then on to research question that fits the
need to resolve the dilemma. The symptoms of a problem might help tracing the real
problem. For example in this research, the productivity decline of workers is an issue.
The manager has tried to solve it by the provision of incentives but his policy did not
work. I will find the possible factors like the morale and motivation of the workers
having some other antecedents.
STEP 4: To develop the Theoretical Framework
Consultations with the informants and professionals, and the review of literature will
help me in the identification of different factors that are considered to be relevant. Now
I will need to make a logical relationship among several factors identified. This will help
in the delineation of the theoretical framework. The theoretical framework discusses
the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the
dynamics of the situation being investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework
helps to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships.
STEP 5: To Generate the Hypotheses
Once I have identified the important variables relevant to an issue and established the
logical reasoning in the theoretical framework, I will be in a position to test whether the
relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true. By testing these
relationships scientifically, I will obtain reliable information to determine the
relationship among the variables. The results of these tests offer part of the answers to
the formulated research questions, whether these relate basic research or to applied
research.
STEP 6: To make a Research Design
Research design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting
and analyzing the needed information. It is a framework or the blueprint that plans the
action for research project. The objectives of the study determined during the early
stages of the research are included in the design to ensure that the information collected
is appropriate for solving the problem. It is very important to specify the sources of
information, and the research method or technique (survey or experiment, for example)
to be followed in the study. Broadly there are six basic research methods for descriptive
278
and causal research: surveys, experiments, observation, communication analysis
(content analysis), case study, focus group discussion.
STEP 7: Data Collection, Data Processing, and Analysis
Success Objectives
Data collection is integral part of the research design; Data collection is determined by
the research technique selected for the project. Data can be collected in a variety of
ways, in different settings field or lab and from different sources. It could include
interviews face to face interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews,
and interviews through electronic media; questionnaires that either personally
administered, sent through mail, or electronically administered; observation of
individuals and events which could be participant or non participant. Once the
fieldwork has been completed, the data must be converted into a format that will
answer the research questions and help testing the hypotheses. The computer can help
in making tables and the application of different statistics.
STEP 8: Testing the Hypotheses; Answering the Research Questions
The analysis and interpretation of the data shall be the means to testing the formulated
hypotheses as well as finding answers to the research questions. In case of applied
research, the research should be helpful in finding solutions to the problems of the
organization or society. Making recommendations may also be part of this process.
STEP 9: Report Writing
The research report should communicate the research findings effectively. All too often
the report is a complicated statement of the studys technical aspects and sophisticated
research methods. The report has to be presented in the format as it may have been
part of the terms of reference if it is a sponsored study. I will write the basic factors
behind the staff behavior in my report and I will also give some suggestions to the
manager to motivate the staff so that they can work efficiently.
Q: Define the measure that is used by the researcher in order to capture the intensity,
direction, level, or potency of a variable construct. Also describes the different types of
that measure.
Solution:
279
The measure that is used by the researcher in order to capture the intensity, direction,
level, or potency of a variable construct:
A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or
potency of a variable construct. It arranges responses or observations on a continuum
or in series of categories. A scale can use a single indicator or multiple indicators.
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct
indicators of a construct into a single score. The composite scores is often a simple sum
of the multiple indicators. Indexes are often measured at the interval or ratio level.
Researchers sometimes combine the features of scales and indexes in a single measure.
This is common when a researcher has a several indicators that are scales (i.e. that
measure intensity or direction). The researcher then adds these indicators together to
yield a single score, thereby creating an index.
The different types of that measure:
A scale refers to any series of items that are arranged progressively according to value
or magnitude, into which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other
words, a scale is a continuous spectrum or series of categories.
It is traditional to classify scales of measurement on the basis of the mathematical
comparisons that are allowable with these scales. Four types of scales are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the one in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as
labels for identification or classification. This measurement scale is the simplest type.
With nominal data, we are collecting information on a variable that naturally or by
design can be grouped into two or more categories that are mutually exclusive, and
collectively exhaustive.
280
Nominal scales are the least powerful of the four scales. They suggest no order or
distance relationship and have no arithmetic origin. Nevertheless, if no other scale can
be used, one can almost always one set of properties into a set of equivalent classes.
Ordinal Scale
Success Objectives
Ordinal scales include the characteristics of the nominal scale plus an indicator of
order. If a is greater than b and b is greater than c, then a is greater than c. The use of
ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or less than without stating how
much greater or less. Other descriptors can be: superior to, happier than,
poorer than, or above.
Interval Scale
Interval scales have the power of nominal and ordinal scales plus one additional
strength: they incorporate the concept of equality of interval (the distance between 1
and 2 equals the distance between 2 and 3). For example, the elapsed time between 3
and 6 A. M. equals the time between 4 and 7 A. M. One cannot say, however, 6 A.M. is
twice as late as 3 A.M. because zero time is an arbitrary origin. In the consumer
price index, if the base year is 1983, the price level during 1983 will be set arbitrarily as
100. Although this is an equal interval measurement scale, the zero point is arbitrary.
Ratio Scale
Ratio scales incorporate all the powers of the previous scales plus the provision for
absolute zero or origin. Ratio data represent the actual amounts of variable. Measures
of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, and area are the examples. The
absolute zero represents a point on the scale where there is an absence of the given
attribute. If we hear that a person has zero amount of money, we understand the zero
value of the amount.
Q: (a) Define the Probability & non-Probability sampling.
281
Solution (a):
Probability Sampling:
In probability sampling, every element in the population has a known nonzero
probability of selection. The simple random is the best known probability sample, in
which each member of the population has an equal probability of being selected.
Non-Probability Sampling:
In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population
being chosen is unknown. The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite
arbitrary, as researchers rely heavily on personal judgment.
(b) Snowball sampling is also known as network, chain referral or reputational
sampling. Comment on this statement.
Solution (b):
Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling is also called network, chain referral, or reputational sampling. It is
a method for identifying and sampling cases in the network. It is based on an analogy to
a snowball, which begins small but becomes larger as it is rolled on wet snow and picks
up additional snow. It begins with one or a few people or cases and spreads out on the
basis of links to the initial cases.
This design has been found quite useful where respondents are difficult to identify and
are best located through referral networks. In the initial stage of snowball sampling,
individuals are discovered and may or may not be selected through probability
methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess similar characteristics
and who, in turn, identify others. The snowball gather subjects as it rolls along.
Example:
For example, a researcher examines friendship networks among teenagers in a
community. He or she begins with three teenagers who do not know each other. Each
teen names four close friends. The researcher then goes to the four friends and asks
each to name four close friends, then goes to those four and does the same thing again,
282
and so forth. Before long, a large number of people are involved. Each person in the
sample is directly or indirectly tied to the original teenagers, and several people may
have named the same person. The researcher eventually stops, either because no new
names are given, indicating a closed network, or because the network is so large that it
is at thee limit of what he or she can study.

(c)The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample. At the same time, cluster sampling addresses
two major problems. Discuss those problems.
Success Objectives
Solution (c):
The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample. At the same time, Cluster sampling addresses
following two problems:
1. Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed population and the cost
to reach a sampled element is very high. A cluster is unit that contains final
sampling elements but can be treated temporarily as a sampling element itself.
A researcher first samples cluster, each of which contains elements, then draws a
second sample from within the clusters selected in the first stage of sampling. In
other words, the researcher randomly samples clusters, and then randomly
samples elements from within the selected clusters. He or she can create a good
sampling frame of clusters, even if it is impossible to create one for sampling
elements. Once the researcher gets a sample of clusters, creating a sampling
frame for elements within each cluster becomes more manageable.
2. A second advantage for geographically dispersed populations is that elements
within each cluster are physically closer to each other. This may produce a
savings in locating or reaching each element.
Q: Briefly discuss the steps that are involved in conducting an experiment.
Solution:
283
Steps in Conducting an Experiment
Broadly there are about 12 steps in conducting an experiment, which are as below:
Make a hypothesis that is appropriate for experimental research.
Decide about an experimental design that will test the hypothesis within practical
limitations.
Decide how to create a situation that induces the independent variable.
Develop a valid and reliable measure of the dependent variable.
Set up an experimental setting and conduct a pilot test of the treatment and dependent
variable measures.
Locate appropriate subjects or cases.
Randomly assign subjects to groups and give careful instructions.
Gather data for the pretest measure of the dependent variable for all groups.
Introduce the treatment to the experimental group only (or to the relevant groups if
there are multiple experimental groups) and monitor all groups.
Gather data for posttest measure of the dependent variable.
Debrief the subjects by informing them of the true purpose and reasons for the
experiment. Ask subjects what they thought was occurring.
Examine data collected and make comparisons between different groups. Where
appropriate, use statistics and graphs to determine whether or not the hypothesis is
supported.
Q. Classify this research on the basis of:
Purpose of doing research.
The use of research
Time dimension in research
Answer:
It is an exploratory research. Because it was a new issue and no research was
made on it before. The researchers had limited amount of information on
this issue and this research provided bases for many other studies.
It is a basic research because it provides knowledge generated to understand a
phenomenon of interest to the researcher.
It is a longitudinal research because it examines the employees at more than one
time. The research is spread upon 1927 to 1932. A group of 6 women was
selected for 5 years so it can be further classified as Panel study.
Success Objectives
284
Q. Identify these variables used in the experiment:
Dependent variables
Independent variables
Extraneous variables
Answer:
The variable that is the result of another variable(s) is called a dependent variable.
Productivity of the employees is the dependent variable in this case. Because
it depends on many other independent variables.
The variable that causes the dependent variable is called independent variable. It is
a cause variable. In our example light illumination, rest breaks, duration of
work hours, temperature, food, wages and humidity are independent
variables because they affect productivity.
Extraneous variables are factors other than the independent variable that could
result in changes in the dependent variable. In an experiment, these factors
should be controlled so that they are constant in all conditions. If they are
not well-controlled, then they result in possible alternative explanations
(other than changes in the independent variable) that could account for the
changes observed in the dependent variable. Possible extraneous variables
in this research can be knowledge of the employees that they are being
observed (when employees know that they are being watched, they tend to
modify their behavior), special attention paid to them, supervisors style, etc.
Q: What do you understand by the term concepts are an abstraction of reality?
Explain with the help of an example.
Answer: Concepts are the terms and terminologies used by researchers as means of
communication. They are expressed in words, letters, signs and symbols that refer to
various events or objects. Abstraction simply means generalization. In research
methods, we use this term concepts are an abstraction of reality. It means that we
pick up concepts from observed reality and goes on to the abstraction level. It is a level
at which objects and events are expressed in more generalized form.
For example Toyota is a concept, its abstraction is a car and its further abstraction
would be motor vehicles. We have changed the simple concept (Toyota) into an
abstraction (motor vehicles) which is a more generalized term.
285
Q: Join the options in column A with appropriate options given in column B. Identify
the variables and give reasons for your choice.
Column A Column B
Two men and three women were seriously
injured in a road accident 25 km away from
Lahore.
(i) Intervening variable
Out break of Malaria in the city increased the
consumption of mosquito repellents.
(ii) Independent and dependent variable
Distance learning system increased the literacy
level in the country.
(iii)Continuous and discontinuous variable
Answer:
Column A Column B
(a) (iii)
(b) (ii)
(c) (i)
Success Objectives
Identification of Variables:
Men and Women are the example of discontinuous variables and the distance of 25 km
is an example of continuous variable.
Out break of malaria is the independent variable and increase in the purchase of
mosquito repellents is dependent variable.
There is a clear indication of many intervening variable such as flexible timing, low
fees, low transportation cost, easy access to get education especially for far off areas.
Reasons:
Discontinuous variable has limited number of distinct values which can not be divided
into fractions, so male/female or men/women are discontinuous variables. Continuous
variable can take infinite number of values and can be divided into fractions, so the
distance is continuous variable as it can take any value e.g. 35km, 55.5 km etc.
286
Independent variables are those variables which identifies forces or conditions that act
on something. Malaria is the independent variable as it is causing change in other
variable. Dependent variables are the effect or result of another variable. Their
occurrence is dependent upon the occurrence of another variable. Increase in the
consumption of mosquito repellents is an outcome of increasingly spreading Malaria
disease.
Intervening variables are those variables that come between independent and
dependent variables and shows a link or mechanism between them. Distance learning
(independent variable) has increased the literacy level (dependent variable) and there
are other intervening variables which are supporting this relationship e.g. flexible
timing, low fees, low transportation cost, easy access to get education especially for far
off areas.
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Median can be found only when:
Data is Discrete
Data is Attributed
Data is continuous
Data is continuous
Data is attributed
Data is arranged
From the following observations 2,3,4,5,4,6,4, the mode is:
2
3
4
5
How many elements are in the sample space of rolling one die:
6
12
24
36
1/4
2/4
287
3/4
4/4
If A and B are mutually exclusive events then P(AB or ) equals:
P A ( )P +B ( )P (A aBnd )
P A (P)B ( )
P A ( )P +B ( )
P (A|B)P+ A(B| )
In scatter diagram the variable plotted along Y-axis is:
Dependent variable
Any one
Undefined
Positive square root of variance of a distribution is:
Rang
Quartile deviation
Standard deviation
only (a) &(c)
When more values are lying at the start of the distribution, it is a:
Symmetrical distribution
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
U shape figure
What is
m f
in the formula of mode:
First frequency
Last frequency
Maximum frequency
Minimum frequency
If median = 7 and Mean = 5, what is the value of
2 Q
:
1
3
5
7
The probability of drawing a king of spade from a pack of 52 cards is:
1/4
1/13
1/26
1/52
288
When referring to a curve whose longer tail is to the left, you would call it:
U shape
Skewed to the left
Skewed to the right
Symmetrical
In statistics,we deal with:
Individuals
Isolated items
Aggregates of facts
Qualitative data
Ordinal
Interval
Nominal
Ratio
The distribution is mesokurtic if the Moment Coefficient of kurtosis
2 b
is:
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class marks
Class frequency
Stem and leaf was introduced by:
Francis Galton
Friedman
John Tukey
Pearson
For positively skewed distribution
Mean.Median.Mode:
=
<
>
For a positively skewed distribution:
Mean<Mode<Median
Mdian<Mode>Mean
289
Mode>Mean>Median
Mean>Median>Mode
C equals 5
5
:
1
5
10
25
If a curve has a longer tail to the right, it is called :
Positively skewed
negatively skewed
J-shaped
symmetric
Changed
Vanish
Does not changed
Dependent
Data used by an agency which is originally collected by them is :
Primary data
Raw data
Secondary data
Grouped data
1 outcome
2 outcomes
3 outcomes
4 outcomes
Standard deviation is affected by the change of________:
Origin & scale
Origin only
Scale only
Not origin & scale
For a moderately skewed distributions, the approxi mate percentage of case included
290
between X 2S and X 2S is :
99.7%
68%
95%
50%
A die is rolled. What is the probability that the number rolled is greater than 2 and
even:
1/2
1/3
2/3
5/6
The probability of drawing any one spade card is:
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
Which of the following is not the type of frequency curves?
The symmetrical frequency curve
The extremely skewed frequency curve
The U-shaped frequency curve
Frequency polygon
If the third moment about mean is zero
( m3 0)
, then the distribution is:
Symmetrical
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class marks
Class frequency
Stem and leaf was introduced by:
Francis Galton
Friedman
John Tukey
Pearson
291
For positively skewed distribution
Mean.Median.Mode:
=
<
>
For a positively skewed distribution:
Mean<Mode<Median
Mdian<Mode>Mean
Mode>Mean>Median
Mean>Median>Mode
C equals 5
5
:
1
5
10
25
If a curve has a longer tail to the right, it is called :
Positively skewed
negatively skewed
J-shaped
symmetric
Changed
Vanish
Does not changed
Dependent
Data used by an agency which is originally collected by them is :
Primary data
Raw data
Secondary data
Grouped data
1 outcome
2 outcomes
3 outcomes
4 outcomes
292
Standard deviation is affected by the change of________:
Origin & scale
Origin only
Scale only
Not origin & scale
For a moderately skewed distributions, the approxi mate percentage of case included
between X 2S and X 2S is :
99.7%
68%
95%
50%
even:
1/2
1/3
2/3
5/6
The probability of drawing any one spade card is:
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
Which of the following is not the type of frequency curves?
The symmetrical frequency curve
The extremely skewed frequency curve
The U-shaped frequency curve
Frequency polygon
If the third moment about mean is zero
( m3 0)
, then the distribution is:
Symmetrical
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
STA301 - STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY (Session - 4
)
Marks: 30
Time: 60min
StudentID/LoginID: ______________________________
Student Name: ______________________________
Center Name/Code: ______________________________
293
Exam Date: Monday, June 05, 2006
Please read the following instructions carefully before attempting any of the
questions:
1. Attempt all questions. Marks are written adjacent to each
question.
2. Do not ask any question about the contents of this examination from
anyone.
a. If you think that there is something wrong with any of the
questions, attempt it to the best of your understanding.
b. If you believe that some essential piece of information is missing,
make an appropriate assumption and use it to solve the problem.
c. Write all steps, missing steps may lead to deduction of marks.
3. You are allowed to use the calculator & Statistical tables in order to solve the
questions.
4. For your convenience we are providing you the following symbols,
or write Mean, s, or sd for standard ,, X deviation, s2 2 or sd2 or
variance for variance, ,
log x
,for square root or whole square root.
**WARNING: Please note that Virtual University takes serious note of unfair
means. Anyone found involved in cheating will get an `F` grade in this
course.
For Teacher's use only
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
Marks
The least squares regression line always goes through the:
Centre of the distribution
-0.5 and +0.5
Means of X and Y
None of the these

Cumulative frequency polygon is also known as:
Histogram
Pie chart
Frequency Polygon
Ogive
If any value in the series is negative, the geometric mean will be:
294
Negative
Positive
Zero
Undefined
When three dice are rolled then number of possible sample points is:
18
36
216
Correct formula of is : 3 m
( )/ / / / 3
3 2 1 1 3m 2m m + m
( )/ / / / 3
3 2 1 1 m 3m m + m
( )/ / / / 3
3 2 1 1 m 3m m + 2 m
None of the these

What is five number Summary?
When ,find
n = 5,X = 30, SX = 3.286
X 2
from the given information.
During the first 10 weeks of a session, marks obtained by two students A and B were as
follows.
A 58 59 60 54 65 66 52 75 69 52
B 56 87 80 78 72 73 84 65 66 48
Which of the two students A and B was more consistent?
295
Show that in a single throw of two dice, the probability of throwing more than 7 is
equal to that of
throwing less than 7, and hence find the probability of exactly 7.
STA301- MCQs:

If ( ) 0 P X =
1
8
, ( ) 1 P X =
3
8
, ( ) 2 P X =
3
8
and
( 3) P X
=
1
8
Then find F (1)


e=(w * p) + (-v *1). e


Discuss the statistical independence of two discrete random
variables:

For given data calculate the mean and standard deviation of
sampling distribution of mean if the sampling is down without
replacement.
1000, 25, 68.5, 2.7 N n




State the Bayes Theorem.


The means and variances of the weekly incomes in rupees of two
samples of workers are given in the following table, the samples
being randomly drawn from two different factories:
296
Calculate the 90% confidence interval for the real difference in
the incomes of the workers from the two factories.


From the given data
1340, 723, .54 n x p
and
0 0 1 0
: 0.5 : 0.5 H P against H P
.


.


1
f(x,y) (6 x y), 0 x 2; 2 y 4,
8
0, elsewhere


density function.
b) Calculate ,
2
5
Y ,
2
3
X P

,
_


Let
1 2 3
, , X X X
be a random sample of size 3 from a population with
mean
2
and variance

1 2 3
1
1 2 3
2
3
2
4
X X X
T
X X X
T
+ +
+ +
297
A 160 12.80 64
B 220 11.25 47

( )
'

elsewhere
x for
x f
x
, 0
2 0 ,
2

For a particular data the value of Pearsons coefficient of
skewness is greater then zero. What will be the shape of
distribution?
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively skewed


Changed
Vanish
Does not changed
Dependent


0 to 1
0 to -
- to +
0 to +


In chi-square test of independence the degrees of freedom are:
n - p
n - p-1
n - p- 2
n 2


The Chi- Square distribution is continuous distribution ranging
from:
-
2

298
-
2
1
-
2
0
0
2
348


is equal to:
( ) ) ( E X E Y +
( ) ) ( E X E Y
( ) X E Y

( ) E X Y
answr


If is the predicted value for a given x-value and b is the y-intercept then the
equation of a regression line for an independent variable x and a dependent
variable y is:


The location of the critical region depends upon:
Null hypothesis
Value of alpha


The variance of the t-distribution is give by the formula:

2
2

2
2
2

1
2

2
2

299


2
2
. Z
n
e
_

,

2
2
. Z
n
e

,

2
2
. Z X
n
e

,

2
. Z
n
e


Non-negative
Negative
One
Zero


E(4X + 5) =__________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)


f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
300
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)


The ( ) | 1 f x
__________:
( ) 1,1 f
( ) ,1 f x

( )
( )
,1
1
f x
h

( )
( )
,1 f x
h x


.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599


In normal distribution M.D. =
0.5
0.75
0.7979
0.6445


In an ANOVA test there are 5 observations in each of three treatments. The
degrees of freedom in the numerator and denominator respectively are.......
2, 4
3, 15
3, 12
2, 12


Finite Set
301
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these


Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations


A population that can be defined as the aggregate of all the
conceivable ways in which a specified event can happen is known as:
Infinite population
Finite population
Concrete population
P (A) P (B)
P (A) + P (B)
P (A) * P (B|A)
P(B\A)*P(B)
1
1/2
1
302
-1/2
1/6
2/36
1/36
1/12
If A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.05 and P(B) = 0.65, then
P(A|B) = :
0.65
0.05
0.03
0.07
Twenty percent of the students in a class of 100 are planning to go to
graduate school. The standard deviation of this binomial distribution is:
20
2
4
16
1
0
1/2
2
303
Less than one
Greater than one
Zero
Question # 8 of 10 ( Start time:
01:38:25 PM )
Total Marks: 1
E(4X + 5) =__________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
Mean
Variance
Mean & variance
Binomial experiment
Poisson experiment
304

Mean deviation is always:
Less than S.D
Greater than S.D
Greater or equal to S.D
Less or equal to S.D


The value of
2
can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative



2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
2
2
2
forv
v
v

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
1
2
2
forv
v
v


is equal to:
( ) ) ( E X E Y +
( ) ) ( E X E Y
( ) X E Y
( ) E X Y


Evaluate: (9-4)!
362880
120
305
24
6


Which formula represents the probability of the complement of event A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1


Ideally the width of confidence interval should be:
0
1
99
100


If the sampling distribution of
X
is normal, the interval
3
x x
t

includes:
99% of the sample means
99.73% of the sample means


The probability distribution of a statistic is called the:
Population distribution
Frequency distribution
Sampling distribution
Sample distribution


E (T) =
306
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1


If the following is a probability distribution, then what is the value of 'a':
X 1 2 3
P(X)
0.1 a 0.1
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4


Non-negative
Negative
One
Zero


An expected value of a random variable is equal to:
Variance
Mean
Standard deviation
Covariance


The ( ) | 1 f x
__________:
( ) 1,1 f
307
( ) ,1 f x

( )
( )
,1
1
f x
h

( )
( )
,1 f x
h x


.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599




Which of the following is impossible in sampling:
Destructive tests
Heterogeneous
To make voters list
None of these


Which of the following is a systematic arrangement of data into rows
and columns?
Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart

308

Which one of the following statements is true regarding a
sample?
It is a part of population
It must contain at least five observations
It refers to descriptive statistics
It produces True value


The data for an ogive is found in which distribution?

The outcome of an experiment
A conclusion drawn from an experiment
A form of bias in which the subject tries to outguess the
experimenter
A tentative statement about the relationship
Analyze the empirical data collected in a study
Make their findings sound better
Operationally define their variables
Ensure the study comes out the way it was intended
Planning
Good & clear writing
Lot of rewriting
All of the above
Copy from the work of others
Knowledge accumulates and learns from the work of others
Knowledge disaccumulates
None of the above option
Elaborates the r/s among the variables
Explains the logic underlying these r/s
Describes the nature and direction of the r/s
All of the above
309
A research proposal is a document that presents a plan for a
project
A research proposal shows that the researcher is capable of
successfully conducting the proposed research project
A research proposal is an unorganized and unplanned project
A research proposal is just like a research report and written
before the research project
Exploratory research
Applied research
Explanatory research
Primary data
Secondary data
Qualitative data
None of the above
9- After identifying the important variables and establishing the
logical reasoning in theoretical framework, the next
step in the research process is
To conduct surveys
To generate the hypothesis
To focus group discussions
To use experiments in an investigation
The research design
Nature of the data collected
Nature of the hypothesis
Both A & B
Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known as:
Mall interviews
Brief interviews
WATS lines provided by long distance telephone service at fixed
rates. In this regard, WATS is the abbreviation of:
West Africa Theological Seminary
Washtenaw Area Transportation Study
Wide Area Telecommunications Service
World Air Transport Statistics
310
A list of questions which is handed over to the respondent, who
reads the questions and records the answers himself is known as
the:
Interview schedule
Questionnaire
Interview guide
All of the given options
One of the most critical stages in the survey research process is:
Research design
Questionnaire design
Interview design
Survey design
Question that consists of two or more questions joined together
is called a:
Double barreled question
General question
Accurate question
Confusing question
The number of questionnaires returned or completed divided by
the total number of eligible people who were contacted or asked
to participate in the survey is called the:
Response rate
Participation rate
Inflation rate
To obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, when we ask
general question before a specific question then this procedure is
called as the:
Research technique
Funnel technique
A small scale trial run of a particular component is known as:
Pilot testing
311
Pre-testing
Lab experiments
Both A & B
Field testing of the questionnaire shows that:
Respondents are willing to co-operate
Respondents are not willing to co-operate
Respondents do not like any participation
Service evaluation of hotels and restaurants can be done by the:
Self-administered questionnaires
Office assistant
Manager
The ___________analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing
the content of a text:
Content analysis
Graphical analysis
Field analysis
Mathematical analysis
__________is the strength or power of a message in a direction:
Intensity
Frequency
Direction
Space
__________data refers to information gathered by someone other
than the researcher conducting the present study:
Primary data
Secondary data
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
___________research produces soft data:
Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Applied research
312
____________research produces hard data:
Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Applied research
___________research is based on naturalism:
Field research
Basic research
Applied research
_________interview is always with one respondent alone:
Survey interview
Field interview
Telephone interview
Electronic interview
Historiography is the method of doing _________research or of
gathering & analyzing historical evidence:
Historical research
Basic research
Applied research
Action research
Historical comparative researches often use _________sources or
different data types in combination:
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Internal sources
External sources
_________is a comprehensive description and analysis of a single
situation in a number of specific situations or cases:
Case study
Content analysis
313
Field research

314
1. Which one of the following sets is the measure of central
tendency?
Mean, standard deviation, mode
Mean, median, standard deviation
Arithmetic mean, median, mode
Standard deviation, internal validity, mode
In lab experiment the effect of Variables is controlled to
evaluate the causal relationship.
Extraneous
Moderate
Intervening
All of the above
Internal validity refers to .
Researchers degree of confidence.
Generalizability
Operationalization
All of the above
315
Which of the following is the weakest experimental design?
One group pretest-posttest design
Quasi- experimental design
Two group posttest only design
Ex post facto design
How many times the students appear in the research class is the
example of _________.
Intensity
Space
Frequency
Direction
Disadvantage of content analysis is .
Researcher can increase the sample size
Provides access on the subjects to which researcher does have
physical access.
Sometime documents provide incomplete account to the
researcher
Spontaneous feelings can be recorded when they occurred
7. Which of the following statement is incorrect with respect
to An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:
How the test units (subjects) are to be divided into homogenous
sub samples.
What independent variables or treatments are to be measured?
What dependent variables are to be measured?
How the extraneous variables are to be controlled?
8. Time consumed in mall intercept interview is .
High
Moderate
Low
Nil
9. Teacher should create a friendly environment in the
classroom this is the type of .
Leading question
Loaded question
Double Barreled
Burdensome question
10. Departmental stores selected to test a new merchandising
display system is the example of .
Quota sampling
316
Convenience sampling
Judgmental sampling
Purposive sampling
Discrete variable is also called.
Categorical variable
Discontinuous variable
Both A & B
None of the above
Officers in my organization have higher than average level of
commitment
317
Descriptive Hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis
Relational Hypothesis
All of the above
318
Science refers to.
A system for producing knowledge
The knowledge produced by a system
Both A & B
None of the above
Which one of the following is not a characteristic of scientific
method?
Deterministic
Rationalism
Empirical
Abstraction
The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships
among the.
Variables
Hypothesis
Concept
Theory
research is based on naturalism.
Field research
Basic research
Applied research
Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are known
as
Mall interviews
Brief interviews
is used to obtain the freest opinion of the respondent, by
asking general question before a specific question.
Research technique
319
Funnel technique
In, the interviewer and members jointly control the pace
and direction of the interview.
Field interview
Both A and B
Randomization of test units is a part of
Pretest
Posttest
Matching
Experiment
The independent variable is;
The variable manipulated in order to observe its effects
The variable that is measured
The free spirited variable
A confounding variable
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional
approaches to the "multiple intelligences" of his students, he is
likely to be conducting which type of research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
Research may differ along a series of dimensions. Which of the
following may be applied to this statement?
The type of data collected.
The data-collection technique.
The level of manipulation used to elicit data collection.
Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical
problem with e-research?
People are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun
participating.
320
Informed consent cannot be completely monitored.
Debriefing could be avoided.
Privacy could be invaded.
Which of the following is the least obtrusive and most accurate
method for recording data in an interview?
Note taking
Videotaping
Audio taping
Writing notes after the interview
The most critical areas of an article to read is;
Results section
Introduction
Abstract
Limitations
Quantitative social researchers rarely claim to have established
causality because:
They are more concerned with publishing the results of their
reliability tests. They do not believe that this is an appropriate
goal to be striving for.
They keep forgetting which of the variables they have
manipulated.
They tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only
correlations.
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
Methods
Introduction
Figures
References
If a nominal scale is used, it is permissible to calculate which of
the following statistics?
Mean
Range
Percentile
321
Mode
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with
generalization, which is a sign of:
External validity
Internal reliability
External reliability
Internal validity
Which of the following is the least appropriate research problem?
Does studying Latin improve the standardized vocabulary
test scores of seventh grade students?
Does a drilling fifth grade student with multiplication facts
improve their standardized test scores?
What is the relationship between students' math attitudes
and math achievement? Should students have access to
controversial novels in school?
The following journal article would be an example of _______
research; "The benefits of florescent lighting on production in a
factory setting."
Applied
Interview
Basic
Stupid
The purpose of a literature review is to:
Help you find out what is already known about this area.
Identify any inconsistencies or gaps in the literature.
Demonstrate an awareness of the theoretical context in which
the current study can be located.
Find what is already known, identify gaps demonstrate
awareness.
Quantitative research has been criticized because:
The measurement process suggests a spurious and artificial
sense of accuracy.
The reliance on instruments and procedures makes it high in
ecological validity. It underestimates the similarities between
objects in the natural and social worlds. It has no validity.
The ________ is only useful if the concepts, ideas, questions, etc. to
be investigated are both testable and falsifiable.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
322
Experimental Method
Scientific Method
A ________ scale only assigns numbers to objects to classify the
objects according to the characteristic of interest.
Ratio
Nominal
Interval
Dichotomous
12. Which of the following true about the relationship between
theory building and data collection?
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the
theory is gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an
example of affirming the consequent.
When a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has
been learned about the theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every
possible research outcome.
Ms. Laiba has decided to use the test at the end of the textbook
to measure the achievement levels of the students in her study.
Which of the following BEST describes the chapter test?
Definition Construct Variable Operationalized variable
What is the reason for consulting handbooks, yearbooks,
encyclopedias, or reviews in the initial stages of identifying a
research topic?
They are readily available.
They provide an overview of the issues related to a topic.
They are primary sources.
They avoid reporting statistical data so one can interpret the
results more easily.
What type of process research is?
A process to discover the truth
A process to invent the machines
A process to make new medicines
A process to create theories
Which one of the following is not an assumption of science?
There are reoccurring patterns in the world.
Events happen because of preceding causes.
323
We can discover solutions to problems of interest.
Theoretical explanations must agree with common sense.
A good qualitative problem statement:
Defines the independent and dependent variables
Conveys a sense of emerging design
Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested
Specifies the relationship between variables that the
researcher expects to find.
Why do you need to review the existing literature?
, To give your dissertation a proper academic appearance, with lots of
references
, Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
, To find out what is already known about your area of interest
, To help in your general studying
If a researcher was studying the use of various instructional approaches to
the "multiple intelligences" of his students, he is likely to be conducting
which type of research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
Grounded theory
Ms. Roshi has been coordinating the Annual Festival at her school for the
last several years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy
the festival again this year. On which source is she LEAST likely to rely
when making decisions about what to do?
Tradition
Personal experience
Research
324
Expert opinion
A review that only demonstrates familiarity with an area is rarely
published but it often is part of an educational program is which type of
review?
Integrative reviews
Theoretical reviews
Self-study reviews
Historical reviews
A researcher developed a measure of shyness and is now asking whether
this measure does in fact measure a person's true state of shyness. This is
a question of:
Reactivity
Construct validity
Reliability
Content validity
When you are confident that the experimental manipulation produced the
changes you measured in the dependent variable, your study probably
has good ________ validity.
Construct
Internal
External
Causal
If a researcher is studying the effect of using laptops in his classroom to
ascertain their merit and worth, he is likely conducting which type of
research?
Basic
Applied
Evaluation
325
Experimental
When doing research involving deception with human subjects,
researchers have an obligation to do which of the following?
Tell subjects the truth about the studys purpose and methods after
the study is completed
Prevent mental and physical harm to subjects
Let subjects withdraw from the study at any time if they dont want
to keep participating
A literature review requires;
planning
clear writing
good writing
All of the given option
A measure has high internal consistency reliability when:
Multiple observers make the same ratings using the measure.
Participants score at the high end of the scale every time they
complete the measure.
Multiple observers obtain the same score every time they use the
measure.
Each of the items correlates with other items on the measure.
Which of the following is not a function of clearly identified research
questions?
They guide your literature search.
They keep you focused throughout the data collection period.
They make the scope of your research as wide as possible.
They are linked together to help you construct a coherent
argument.
Procedures determining what two issues are rarely used in quantitative
research?
326
Objectivity and subjectivity
Reliability and validity
Accessibility and replicability
Quality and quantity
Which of the following true about the relationship between theory
building and data collection?
When studies come out as expected, inductive support for the
theory is gained.
If an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of
affirming the consequent.
When a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been
learned about the theory.
A good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible
research outcome.
Temperature is measured from which scale?
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
All the given options.
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity of an
experimental design?
Maturation
Interaction of setting and treatment
Interaction effects of pre-testing
reactive effects of experimental design
Which of the following statements is correct about validity and
reliability?
When internal validity is high, external validity is low
When internal validity is high, there is no change in external
validity
When internal validity is high, external validity is also high
All of the given option
Which of the following effect in internal validity occurs when test
units with extreme scores move closer to the average score
during the course of the experiment?
Statistical Regression
Selection bias
Maturation
Instrumentation
327
Interval scale measures which of the following?
The distance between each participants individual score
An individuals score from zero upwards
more or less of some underlying assumptions
Absolute Zero
Which of the following best describes an assessment that
examines students ability to conduct a chemistry experiment in
the lab?
Aptitude
interest inventory
Performance Assessment
Standardized test
Which of the following are legitimate frameworks for setting out
a literature review?
(1)Constructing interextual coherence (2) Deconstruction of
textual coherence
(3) Problematizing the situation (4) Resolving the
discovered problems?
1 &2
2&3
1&3
2&4
If researcher was studying the use of various instructional
approaches to the multiple intelligence of his students, he is
likely to be conducting which of the following type of research?
Basic
Evaluation
Applied
Ground theory
Which of the following is most beneficial to read in an article?
Methods
Introduction
Figures
reference
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with
generalization, which is a sign of
External validity
Internal Reliability
External Reliability
Internal validity
328
Which of the following is likely to reduce the validity of a test?
Unclear test directions
Ambiguous test items
Unclear, ambiguous and untaught items
Untaught items
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)

1
0
1/2
2

Dependent variable
Regressor

If A and B are mutually exclusive events with P (A) =0.25 and P (B) = 0.50, Then P (A
or B) =
0.25
0.75
329
0.50
1

P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)

diamond card is
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52

8
1
0
0.5
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
cards is
4/52
2/52
13/52
26/52
0.05
0.80
330
0.95
0.75
1/8
3/8
3/6
2/8
In how many ways can a team of 11 players be chosen from a total of 16 players?
4368(not confirmed)
2426
5400
2680
c
c square
0
does not exist
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment. Suppose the E and F are
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8

0.25
0.5
1
0

331
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)

Exhaustive events
Independent evens

Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable

20. Which of the following measures of dispersion are based on deviations from
the mean?
Variance

Standard deviation
Mean deviation
All of the these

21. What does it mean when a data set has a standard deviation equal to zero?

332
The expected return

0
1
0.5
-0.5

1
-1
0
Does not exist

1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1

Independent Events

Empty Set
Power Set
Universal Set
Super Set

28. E(4X + 5) =________
333
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)

6
12
24
36

P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)

31.
Evaluate (10-4)!
1000
720
480
32

0
1
2
0.5

334
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome

34.
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)

0.25
0.5
1
0

The expected return

37.
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
335
1.4
1.8
0.714
0.556

Percentile
Quartile
Standard deviation
Mode

Different
Similar
What is the probability of sure event?
0
1
0.5
2
Joint probability
Prior probability
Dependent variable
336
None of these
6. Question # 1 of 10 ( Start time: 08:23:14 PM ) Total
Marks: 1
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
Marks: 1
1
0
1/2
2
Marks: 1
Dependent variable
Regressor
Marks: 1
If A and B are mutually exclusive events with P (A) =0.25
and P (B) = 0.50, Then P (A or B) =
0.25
0.75
0.50
1
337
10. Question # 5 of 10 ( Start time: 08:28:06 PM )
Total Marks: 1
P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)
Total Marks: 1
In a 52 well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, the
probability of drawing any one diamond card is
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
Total Marks: 1
8
1
0
0.5
Total Marks: 1
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
Total Marks: 1
The probability of drawing a red queen card from well-
shuffled pack of 52 playing cards is
338
4/52
2/52
13/52
26/52
Total Marks: 1
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
Total Marks: 1
When a coin is tossed 3 times, the probability of getting 3
tails is
1/8
3/8
3/6
2/8
Total Marks: 1
In how many ways can a team of 11 players be chosen from
a total of 16 players?
4368(not confirmed)
2426
5400
2680
Total Marks: 1
c
c square
0
does not exist
339
Total Marks: 1
If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of
the following must be false:
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
Total Marks: 1
Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment.
Suppose the E and F are independent and that P(E) = 1/4
and P(F) = 1/2 Then P(E U F) is:
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
Total Marks: 1
A student solved 25 questions from first 50 questions of a
book to be solved. The probability that he will solve the
remaining all questions is:
0.25
0.5
1
0
Total Marks: 1
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
Total Marks: 1
340
Exhaustive events
Independent evens
Total Marks: 1
Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
25. Which of the following measures of dispersion are
based on deviations from the mean?
Variance

Standard deviation
Mean deviation
All of the these
26. What does it mean when a data set has a standard
deviation equal to zero?
27. A set of possible values that a random variable can
assume and their associated probabilities of occurrence are
referred to as ________.
The expected return
341
28. Which of the following can never be probability of an
event?
0
1
0.5
-0.5
1
-1
0
Does not exist
30. Which formula represents the probability of the
complement of event A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
Independent Events
Empty Set
Power Set
Universal Set
Super Set
33. E(4X + 5) =________
342
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
34. When two dice are rolled the number of possible
sample points is :
6
12
24
36
Marks: 1
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
36.
Question # 2 of 10 ( Start time: 09:43:59 PM ) Total Marks:
1
Evaluate (10-4)!
1000
720
480
32
Marks: 1
0
1
2
0.5
343
Marks: 1
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome
39.
1
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
Marks: 1
A student solved 25 questions from first 50 questions of a
book to be solved. The probability that he will solve the
remaining all questions is:
0.25
0.5
1
0
41. A set of possible values that a random variable can
assume and their associated probabilities of occurrence are
referred to as ________.
The expected return
42.
344
1
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
Marks: 1
If P(A) = 0.45, P(B) = 0.35, and P(A and B) = 0.25, then P(A |
B) is:
1.4
1.8
0.714
0.556
Marks: 1

Percentile
Quartile
Standard deviation
Mode
Marks: 1
Random experiment can be repeated any no. of times under
the conditions.
Different
345
Similar
Marks: 1
0
1
0.5
2
Marks: 1
Joint probability
Prior probability
Marks: 1
In regression analysis, the variable that is being predicted is
the
Dependent variable
None of these
Thanks to Armaan Makhani for His Sharing
1. A quantity obtained by applying certain rule or formula is known as
Estimate
Estimator
2. Criteria to check a point estimator to be good involves
346
Consistency
Unbiasedness
Efficiency
Above all pg 258
3. The F-distribution always ranges from:
0 to 1
0 to -8
-8 to +8
0 to +8
Type 1 error
Rejection region
Acceptance region
Type 2 error
5. Parameter is a quantity.
Constant
Variable
6. To find the estimate of a parameter .methods are used.
Two
Three
Four
Many
7. A failing student is passed by an examiner. It is an example of:
Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision
8. For two mutually exclusive events A and B, P (A) = 0.2 and P (B) = 0.4, then P(AUB)
is:
0.8
0.2
0.6
0.5
P(AUB)=P(A)+p(B)=0.2+0.4=0.6
9. An urn contains 4 red balls and 6 green balls. A sample of 4 balls is selected from the
urn
347
10. A standard deck of 52 cards is shuffled. What is the probability of choosing the 5 of
diamonds:
1/5
1/13
5/52
1/52
11. If P(AnB) = 0.12 P (A) = 0.3, find P (B) where A and B are independent:
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3X0.4=0.12
12. The mean deviation of the normal distribution is approximately:
7/8 of the S.D
4/5 of the S.D
3/4 of the S.D
1/2 of the S.D
13. We use the Poisson approximation to the binomial when:
p is 0.05 or less & n is 20 or more pg221
P(A n B)/P(B) pg157
P(A n B)/P(A)
P(A U B)/P(B)
P(A U B)/P(A)
15. We use the General Rule of Multiplication to combine:
Events those are not independent
16. Which statement is NOT CORRECT?
The sample standard deviation measures variability of our
sample values
A larger sample will give answers that vary less from the true
value than smaller samples
348
The sampling distribution describes how our estimate (answer)
will vary if a new sample is taken
A large sample size always gives unbiased estimators regardless
of how the sample is chosen
17. Probability of an impossible event is always:
Less than one
Greater than one
Zero
18. The number of parameters in uniform distribution is (are):
1
2 pg 224
3
4
19. The probability can never be:
1
1/2
1
-1/2
P(A n B)/P(B)
P(A n B)/P(A)
P(A U B)/P(B)
P(A U B)/P(A)
21. A random sample of n=25 values gives sample mean 83. Can this sample be
regarded as drawn
from a normal population with = 80 and s= 7? In this question the alternative
hypothesis will
be:
H1: = 80
H1: ? 80
H1: > 80
H1: <80 pg 278
22. If f(x) is a continuous probability function, then P(X = 2) is:
1
0
1/2
2
23. The binomial distribution is negatively skewed when:
p>q pg 214
349
p<q
p=q
p=q=1/2
6
36
216
1296
6^3=216
25. When we draw the sample with replacement, the probability distribution to be used
is:
Binomial
Hypergeometric
Binomial & hypergeometric pg 219
Poisson
26. The moment ratios of normal distribution come out to be:
0 and 1
0 and 2
0 and 3 pg 226
0 and 4
greater than 0
less than 1
between o and 1
greater than 1
28. Symbolically, a conditional probability is:
P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)
29. Suppose the test scores of 600 students are normally distributed with a mean of 76
and
standard deviation of 8. The number of students scoring between 70 and 82 is:
272
164
260
328
30. If P (A) = 0.3 and P (B) = 0.5, find P (A/B) where A and B are independent:
0.3
0.5
350
0.8
0.15
31. An urn contains 4 red balls and 6 green balls. A sample of 4 balls is selected from
the urn
32. If the second moment ratio is less than 3 the distribution will be:
Mesokurtic
Leptokurtic
Platykurtic pg 226
None of these
33. For the independent events A and B if P (A) = 0.25, P (B) =0.40 then P (A and B)
=
0.65
0.1
0.50
0.15
P(A)*P(B)0.25*0.40=0.1
34. A set of possible values that a random variable can assume and their associated
probabilities of
occurrence are referred to as __________.
The expected return
35. A random variable X has a probability distribution as follows: X | 0 1 2 3 P(X) | 2k
3k 13k 2k
What is the possible value of k:
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.07
36. The probability of drawing any one spade card is:
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
37. The function abbreviated to d.f. is also called the......
351
Probability distribution function pg 172
Discrete function
38. Binomial distribution is skewed to the right if:
p=q
P<q
p>q
p=n
Zero
One pg 172
Negative
Non-negative
40. For a binomial distribution, n= 10 & q= 0.6, the mean of the distribution is:
0.6
6.0
10
4
P=1-q
1-0.6=0.4,
mean =np10*0.4=4
41. In the FA examination, 24candidates offered Statistics. If the probability of passing
the subject
be 1/3, what will be the mean of the distribution?
7
8
6
5
42. The probability that a certain machine will produce a defective item is 1/4. If a
random sample
of 6 items is taken from the output of this machine, what is the probability that there
will be 5
or more defectives in the sample?
3/4096
18/4096
19/4096
4/4096
a
B pg 276
1-a
352
1-B
44. If the values of variables are increasing or decreasing in the same direction then
such kind of
correlation is referred as
Zero Correlation
Perfect Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
45. The moving averages of the Prices 55,60,65,70 are
70, 75
60, 65
65,65
70,60
46. The best measure of variation is
Range
Quartile deviation
Variance
Coefficient of variance
47. Ms. Christian calculated a correlation coefficient of .75. Which of the following
reflects the
best interpretation of this?
Weak negative.
Strong negative.
Weak positive.
Strong positive.
48. use the division of a circle into different sectors. Select correct option:
Line graph
Sector graphs
Frequency Polygon
Conversion Graphs
49. The measurement of measure of degree of to which any two variables vary
together is called
Regression Coefficient
Correlation
Both (a) and (b)
None of these
50. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a test for equality of:
variances
means
proportions
only two parameters
353
51. For some data you are given Maximum value = 96 , Minimum Value = 23 , Range
= 73,
number of classes selected between 5 and 15 Then class width will
be Select correct option:
15
8
5
All options 1,2 ,3 are possible
52. If strength of the association between X and Y is very weak, then r = ? Select correct
option:
r = - 1
r = 0
r = 1
r = 2
53. The moving averages of the Prices 90,70,30,110 are Select correct option:
63.33, 70
73.33, 80
45.45, 68
65.50, 75
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
The dispersion
Standard deviation
Correlation
None of these
column
line
conversion
sector
Cyclical
Seasonal
354
Trend
Secular
The dispersion
Standard deviation
Correlation
None of these
column
line
conversion
sector
Cyclical
Seasonal
Trend
Secular
63. You have measured the systolic blood pressure of a random sample of 22 employees
of a
company. A 95% con?dence interval for the mean systolic blood pressure for the
employees is
computed to be (120,138). Which of the following statements gives a valid interpretation
of this
interval?
64. Assume that a population consists of 7 similar containers having the following
weights (km):
9.8, 10.2, 10.4, 9.8, 10.0, 10.2, 9.6 What is the second moment about mean?
0.262 kg
0.069kg
0.521 kg
0.313kg
65. How many numbers of parameter(s) are in t-distribution?
355
0
1 pg 292
2
3
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
67. F-distribution is a.. distribution.
Unimodel pg 312
Bimodal
Discrete
Negatively skewed
68. Which one of the following sampling methods would give unbiased results, if you
need to find
out the number of people in your town liking vanilla or chocolate ice creams?
Ask my neighbors
Randomly select a few ice cream shops in town, and
Ask my friends
Ask my classmates
69. A standard deviation obtained from sampling distribution of sample statistics is
known as
Sampling Error
Standard error pg 240
70. If the regression line: Y= 3+5X meets y-axis at 8 units distance from origin then
the value of
x-intercept is
-(3/5)
3/5
11/5
1
71. Sum of three terms whose mean is equal to 90 is
270
30
Also 90
None of these
270/3=90
72. FREQUENCY Function calculates how often values occur within a range of values.
356
true
False
73. Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the weakest correlation
between two
variables?
0.15
-0.15
0.02
-1.00
74. If the value of r is 0.8 ,then the coefficient of determination is
67%
64%
80%
75%
75. If the dependent variable increases with the independent variable then the
coefficient of
correlation is
0 to -1
0 to 0.5
0 to -2
0 to 1
76. F- distribution tends to normality, if
V1~8
V2~8
V1 and V2 ~8
77. Consistency of an estimator can be checked by comparing
Mean
MSE
Variance
Standard deviation
78. A standardized estimate has mean and variance
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(, s2)
(, s)
79. A composite hypothesis comprises of
Equality
Not equal to
Less than/greater
(b) and (c)
357
80. For a particular hypothesis test, a=0.05and B=0.05. The power of test is equal to:
0.14
0.90
0.95
0.25
Mean=median=mode
Mean>Median<Mode
Median >Mean>Mode
Media<Mode<Mean
82. If we reject the null hypothesis, we might be making
Type I error
Type II error
A correct decision
Unpredictable
83. The Central Limit Theorem is important in Statistics because it allows us to use the
normal
distribution to make inferences concerning the population mean:
Provided that the sample size is reasonably large (fo
Provided that the population is normally distributed and the population variance is
known (for
any sample size)
84. Herbicide A has been used for years in order to kill a particular type of weed, but
an
experiment is to
be conducted in order to see whether a new herbicide, Herbicide
B, is more effective than
Herbicide A.
Herbicide A will continue to be used unless there is sufficient
evidence that Herbicide B is more
effective.
The alternative hypothesis in this problem is that
Herbicide A is more effective than Herbicide B
Herbicide B is more effective than Herbicide A
Herbicide A is not more effective than Herbicide B
Herbicide B is not more effective than Herbicide A
85. A data in which we study about Regions is called
Qualitative
Quantitative
358
Geographical
Chronological
86. If the median of an arrangement of numbers is equal to the mean of its middle terms
then the
arrangement contains
Odd number of terms
Even number of terms
Unlimited number of terms
Prime number
87. If the graph is very much scattered, then what can be the suitable value of r?
r = - 0.9
r = -0.5
r = 0.1
r=0.8
88. In scatter diagram, clustering of points around a straight line indicates
Linear regression
Non-linear regression
Curvilinear linear regression
Both a and b
89. If the standard deviation of a population is 9, the population variance is
3
9
21.35
81
90. How many steps are involved in general procedure for testing hypothesis:
4
5
6
7
there are
4
10
7
5
r-1*c-1
2-1*5-1=4
92. The critical region is in:
The middle of a distribution
The tails of a distribution
Either the middle or the tails of a distribution
Neither the middle nor the tails of a distribution
93. t-distribution is used to test the hypothesis about.....
359
Mean
proportion
The term 1-B is called
Level of the test
power of the test
Size of the test
Critical region
94. The asymptotic distribution of t-statistic with n-degree of freedom is
F
Normal
Z T
95. The Gallup Poll has decided to increase the size of its random sample of Canadian
voters from
about 1200 people to about 4000 people. The e?ect of this increase is to:
Reduce the bias of the estimate
Increase the standard error of the estimate
Reduce the variability of the estimate
Increase the con?dence interval width for the parameter
96. The value of chi square can never be :
Zero
Less then 1
Greater then 1
Negative
97. The curve of the F- distribution depends upon:
Mean
Variance
Standard Deviation
Sample Size
98. We want to test H0 : = 1.5 vs. H1 : 6= 1.5 at _= .05 . A 95% confidence interval
for
calculated from a given random sample is (1.4, 3.6)Based on this finding we:
Fail to reject H0
Reject H0
Cannot make any decision at all because the value of the test statistic is not available
Cannot make any decision at all because (1.4, 3.6) is only a 95%
99. When we want to test the equality of two variances we usually use
F-test
Chi-square test
ANOVA
Z_test
100. To find the estimate of a parameter .methods are used.
Two
Three
Four
Many
101. In testing hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:
360
102. t-distribtion is applicable in case of
Independent samples
Dependent samples
Both (a) and (b)
Normal populations
there are
5
6
7
12
104. The Chi- Square distribution is continuous distribution ranging from:
0 = ?2= 8
-8 =?2 =0
-8 =?2 =1
-8 = ?2= 8
105. The location of the critical region depends upon:
Null hypothesis
Value of alpha
106. A random sample of n = 6 has the elements 6, 10,13,14,18 and 20. What is the point
estimate of the population mean?
12
13.5
11
11.5
107. ML estimators may not
Consistent
Efficient
Unbiased
Bised
108. Which of the following reveals the weakest fact.
The measure of central tendency measures that value which depends only on the
extreme values
The measure of central tendency measures that value in tha data
which occurs in the data most frequent
times.
The measure of central tendency measures the value which has
tendency to lie in the central part of the
data.
109. The measure of central tendency measures the distance of values from means
Frequency polygon is
361
Bar Charts
A line graph
Pareto Chats
None of these
110. A bar graph uses to show data.
Points
Bars
Lines
Pictures
111. Geographical data deals with
Religion
Height
Income
Regions
112. Which one provides the basis for hypothesis testing?
Null hypothesis
Critical value
Test-statistics
113. The test statistic to test the U1 = U2 (U represent the mean of population)for
normal
population for n>30.
F-test
Z-test
T-test
Chi-Square test
Mean=median=mode
Mean>Median<Mode
Median >Mean>Mode
Media<Mode<Mean
Type 1 error
Rejection region
Acceptance region
Type 2 error
116. Inferential statistics involves .
Testing
Confidence interval
Estimation
Above all
a
B
1-a
362
1-B
118. if the equation of regression line is y = 5, then what result will you take out from it?
The line passes through origin.
The line passes through (5, 0)
The line is parallel to y-axis.
The line is parallel to x-axis.
119. If the estimating equation is Y = a b X ,Which of the following is true
a)The y intercept isb
b) Slope of line is negative
c) There is inverse relationship
d) b & c
120. The variance of t-distribution, for v >2, is always:
Greater than zero
Less than one
Equal to one
Greater than one
121. Alpha is the probability of ......
Rejecting H0
Accepting H0
Rejecting H1
Accepting H1
122. What type of data is collected in population census?
Two Types
a sample space
joint probability
population
124. Which of the graph is used for a time series data:
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Historigram
Histogram
125. A histogram is consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off
by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class frequency
Class marks
363
126. The value that has half of the observations above it and half the observations below
it is
known as:
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
127. The height of a student is 60 inches. This is an example of ...........?
Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data
128. Range of the values -2,-3,-4,-3,-9,-2,-8,-1,0 is
0
-9
8
9
0-9=-9
129. If the both tails of the distribution are equal, then distribution is called:
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively Skewed
Negatively Skewed
130. Ranking scale also include the properties of which scale?
Nominal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale
All of these
131. Range of the values -2.50,-3.70,-4.80,-3.10,-9.70,-2.20,-8.90,-1.60, 0.60 is
10.03
10.30
9.10
9.00
0.60+9.70=10.30
132. What is/are the mode for the following data: 1,m,d,n,,2,d,2,d,s,5,5,7
2
d
5
2,d,5
133. If the standard deviation of a population is 5.5, the population variance is:
364
5.5
31
25
30.25
134. What we commonly called a bell shaped distribution:
syme
bi moder
u shap
skewed
135. The beginnings of a cumulative frequency distribution are presented below. What
is the
next number in the Cumulative Frequency column? Classes Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
6.1 to 8 1 1 8.1 to 10 2 10.1 to 12 3
0
1
2
3
136. Range of the values -10,- 19, -9, -15, -28, -26, -25 is:
+18
-18
-19
+19
137. Which one of the following is less than median for a symmetrical distribution:
50percentile
51 percentile
2quartile
4decile
138. The value of the middle term in a ranked (ordered) data set is called the
mode
mean
median
harmonic mean
139. Sum of absolute deviations of the values is least when deviations are taken from
mean
median
mode
g.m
140. Statistic is a numerical quantity, which is calculated from
365
data
observation
sample
population
141. The branch of Statistics that is concerned with the procedures and methodology
for
descriptive
advance
infernetial
sample
142. How to find the class midpoint?
Half the sum of upper class limit and lower class limit
Find the difference between consecutive lower limits
Divide the class frequency by the number of observ
143. For given data, discuss the shape of the distribution: X f 0.2 8 1.2 15 2.2 23 3.2 40
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
Symmetric curve
U- Shaped curve
group
qulitative
quantitive
array
if 2 is a leading digit in 24335, than what are the trailing digits
in the observation to
display a Stem-and Leaf display.
4
335
4335
43
145. A frequency polygon is obtained by plotting the class frequencies against what?
classbounday
cumulative frequency
relative frequency
mid point
146. When more values are lying at the start of the distribution, it is:
u shape
366
positive
negative
symmetrica
147. The data for an ogive is found in which distribution:
148. Which one of the following is greater than median for a symmetrical
distribution:
1st Decile
7th Decile
44th Percentile
14th Percentile
149. Statistics deals with
Individuals
Isolated items
Isolated items
Aggregates of facts
Grouped data
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
Arrayed data
151. As a general rule, statisticians tends to use which of the following number of classes
when
arranging the data
Fewer than 5
Between 5 & 20
Between 8 & 15
More than 20
a sample space
joint probability
population
153. If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur, which of the following must be
false:
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
367
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
154. If we roll a die then probability of getting a 2 will be
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
155. In a multiplication theorem P (A n B) equals:
P (A) P (B)
P (A) + P (B)
P (A) * P (B|A) pg 158
P(B\A)*P(B)
156. If Y=3X+5,then S.D of Y is equal to
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
157. In regression line Y=a+bX, X is called:
Dependent variable
Explained variable
Regressand
158. Symbolically, a marginal probability is:
P(AB)
P(AUB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
160. If A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.05 and P(B) = 0.65, then P(A|B)
= :
0.65
0.05
0.03
0.07 not sure
161. The probability of drawing a white ball from a bag containing 4 red, 8 black and
3 white
368
balls is:
0
3/15
1/12
1/2
Total ball= 4+8+3=15
P=3/15
162. An expected value of a random variable is equal to:
Variance
Mean
Standard deviation
Quartile
163. When we toss a fair coin 4 times, the sample space consists of.points.
4
8
12
16
164. 5C5=
5
1
10
25
165. In a probability distribution, the sum of the probabilities is equal to:
0
0.1
0.5
1
166. The simultaneous occurrence of two events is called:
Joint probability
Prior probability
167. Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment. Suppose the E and F
are
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
+1/2=3/4
369

Mutually exclusive
Equally likely
Exhaustive



2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
2
2
2
forv
v
v

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
1
2
2
forv
v
v


Rejected
370
Accepted
No conclusion
Acknowledged


http://vustudents.ning.com
Variances
Means
Proportions
Groups


Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis


Z-test
t-Test
Both Z & T-test
371
F test


0,1,2,3
1,3,3,1
1, 2, 3
3, 2


If X and Y are independent variables, then E (XY) is: http://vustudents.ning.com
E(XX)
E(X).E(Y)
X.E(Y)
Y.E(X)


x & n
x & p
n & p
372
x, n & p


P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3


An estimator T is said to be unbiased estimator of if http://vustudents.ning.com
E (T) =
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1


2
is:
Sample mean
373
Sample median
Sample proportion
Sample variance


The sample variance
2
2
( ) x x
S
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2
None of these

Question No: 14 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one

1
374
0
c
-c
0
1
c
-c



( ) g x
is:
( ) , f x y dx
( ) , f x y dy
( ) , f x y dx dy

( ) ,
b d
a c
f x y dy dx

375


The analysis of variance technique is a method for : http://vustudents.ning.com
Comparing variances




Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations
376


obtaining valid conclusions is called: http://vustudents.ning.com
Advance Statistics
Sampled Statistics


Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart


377
0.5
0.75
0.7979
0.6745


2

1
2
3
0


Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram

Question No: 24 ( Marks: 1 ) http://vustudents.ning.com - Please choose one

378


When
1 3
2 4 Q and Q
1
2
3
4




5
8
9
379
10




Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision


How to find
( 1) P X Y +
?
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
380
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)

The value of
2
can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative



2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
2
2
2
forv
v
v

2
2
1
1
1
forv
v
v

2
2
1
2
2
forv
v
v
www.vuzs.net
http://groups.google.com/group/vuzs
381

0 to 1
0 to -
- to +
0 to +


The total number of samples when sampling is done with replacement :

n
N

N
n
C

1
N n
N
1


Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis
382


The test statistic used in analysis of variance procedure follow the ....... distribution.:

2
T
Z
F
www.vuzs.net

Z-test
t-Test
Both Z & T-test
F test


is equal to:

( ) ) ( E X E Y +

( ) ) ( E X E Y
383

( ) X E Y

( ) E X Y


even:
1/2
1/3
2/3
5/6


The probability of drawing a king of spade from a pack of 52 cards is:
1/4
1/13
1/26
1/52
www.vuzs.net

E (T) =
384
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1


Single value
Two values
Range of values
Zero


2
is:
Sample mean
Sample median
385
Sample proportion
Sample variance


1
0
c
-c
0
1
c
-c
www.vuzs.net

Var(4X + 5) =__________
386
16 Var (X)
16 Var (X) + 5
4 Var (X) + 5
12 Var (X)


When f(x) is continuous probability function, then P(X = 1) is:
1

0


The hyper geometric random variable is a(an):
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
Undefined
387


From a sample of 200 people were asked whether they like a particular product. Fifty
said 'yes' and remain said 'no', assuming yes means a success, which of the following is
correct?
Sample proportion p=0.33
Sample proportion p=0.25
Population proportion p= 0.33
Population proportion p=0.25
www.vuzs.net


In any data set, what percent of values fall in the interval
. Median QD t
?
50 per cent
68.5 per cent
388
95.4 per cent
99 per cent


If
( )
5
1
20 0, .......
i
i
X then X
0
20
5
25


The height of a student is 60 inches. This is an example of ...........?
Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data


In Statistics, we have MSE which is abbreviation of
Mean square error
389
Measured square error
Medical screening exam
Major sampling error


Which one is the formula of mid range:

0 m
x x

0 m
x x

0
2
m
x x

0
2
m
x x +
www.vuzs.net

The deviation of a distribution from symmetry is called:
Kurtosis
Skewness
Dispersion
Flatness

390

If E is an impossible event, then P(E) is:
1
2
0
0.5


If a data set has the even number of observations, the median :
Is the average value of the two middle items
Can not be determined
must be equal to the mean
Is the average value of the two middle items when all items are arranged in
ascending order


For the Poisson distribution
0.135 1
0.135
( 1)
1!
e
P X

the mean value is :
2
5
391
10
0.135


www.vuzs.net

Variance of the t-distribution is given by the formula:

2
2

2
2
2

1
2

2
2

392

If a continuous probability distribution has
2
2.14
then what will be peakedness of
the distribution?
Platykurtic
Mesokurtic
Leptokutic
Moderately skewed
When two dice are rolled the number of possible sample points
is :

6
12
24
36

A fair coin is tossed three times, the probability that at least one
head appear is:

1/8
7/8
3/8
5/8


Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
of the following is not a measure of central tendency?
393

Percentile

Quartile

Standard deviation

Mode

Which of the following is NOT a possible probability?

25/100
1.25
0
1

Evaluate (10-4)!

1000
720
480
32


0
1
2
0.5

The probability of drawing a white ball from a bag containing 4
red, 8 black and 3 white balls is:

0
394
3/15
1/12
1/2

standard deck of 52 cards is shuffled. What is the probability of
choosing the 5 of diamonds:

1/5
1/13
5/52
1/52

If we roll three fair dices then the total number of outcomes is:

6
36
216
1296
Mean deviation is always:
Less than S.D
Greater than S.D
Greater or equal to S.D
Less or equal to S.D
The value of 2can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative
395

If X and Y are random variables, then is equal to:

Evaluate: (9-4)!
362880
120
24
6
Which formula represents the probability of the complement of
event A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
Ideally the width of confidence interval should be:
0
1
99
100
If the sampling distribution of is normal, the interval includes:
99.73% of the sample means
396
The probability distribution of a statistic is called the:
Population distribution
Frequency distribution
Sampling distribution
Sample distribution
E (T) =
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1
If the following is a probability distribution, then what is the
value of 'a':
X
1 2 3
P(X)
0.1 a 0.1
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
397
Non-negative
Negative
One
Zero
An expected value of a random variable is equal to:
Variance
Mean
Standard deviation
Covariance
The __________:

.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599
A continuous distribution is used to approximate a discrete
distribution
Which of the following is impossible in sampling:
398
Destructive tests
Heterogeneous
To make voters list
None of these
Which of the following is a systematic arrangement of data into
rows and columns?
Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart
Which one of the following statements is true regarding a
sample?
It is a part of population
It must contain at least five observations
It refers to descriptive statistics
It produces True value
The data for an ogive is found in which distribution?
Mutually exclusive
Equally likely
Exhaustive

399
Rejected
Accepted
No conclusion
Acknowledged
Variances
Means
Proportions
Groups
Helmert
Pearson
R.A Fisher
Francis
Z-test
t-Test
Both Z & T-test
F test
0,1,2,3
1,3,3,1
1, 2, 3
3, 2
E(XX)
E(X).E(Y)
X.E(Y)
Y.E(X)
400
x & n
x & p
n & p
x, n & p
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
E (T) =
E (T) =T
E (T) =0
E (T) =1
The best unbiased estimator for population variance is:
Sample mean
Sample median
Sample proportion
Sample variance
The sample variance is:
Biased estimator of
401
None of these
1
0
c
-c
0
1
c
-c
is:

Comparing variances
402
Equal to 100
Greater Than 100
Less than 100
In all situations
Advance Statistics
Sampled Statistics
Classification
Tabulation
Bar chart
Component bar chart

1
2
3
0
403
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
When ,what is the value of Median, if the distribution is symmetrical:
1
2
3
4
5
8
9
10
404
Type I error
Type II error
Correct decision
How to find ?
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 2)
f(2, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(1, 1) + f(1, 0)
f(0, 0) + f(0, 1) + f(1, 0)

10! =.
362880
3628800
362280
362800


2
0
0.5
1


The value of
2
can never be :
Zero
Less than 1
Greater than 1
Negative


The curve of the F- distribution depends upon:
405
Degrees of freedom
Sample size
Mean
Variance


If X and Y are random variables, then ( ) E X Y is equal to:
( ) ) ( E X E Y +
( ) ) ( E X E Y
( ) X E Y
( ) E X Y


In testing hypothesis, we always begin it with assuming that:


For the Poisson distribution P(x) =
0.135 1
0.135
1!
l
the mean value is :
2
5
10
0.135



1
4

1
2

3
4
1
406


Single value
Two values
Range of values
Zero


The sample variance
2
2
( ) x x
S
n

is:
2
Biased estimator of
2

None of these


Var(4X + 5) =__________
16 Var (X)
16 Var (X) + 5
4 Var (X) + 5
12 Var (X)


When f (x, y) is bivariate probability density function of
continuous r.v.'s X and Y, then
( ) , f x y dx dy

is equal to:
1
0
-1

407

.0401
.5500
.4599
.9599


2 outcomes
6 outcomes
36 outcomes
16 outcomes


When testing for independence in a contingency table with 3
rows and 4 columns, there are ________ degrees of freedom.
5
6
7
12


The F- test statistic in one-way ANOVA is:
SSW / SSE
MSW / MSE
SSE / SSW
MSE / MSW




Smallest value
Largest value
408
Mid value


Frequency polygon
Ogive
Histogram
Frequency curve


In a set of 20 values all the values are 10, what is the value of
median?
2
5
10
20
STA301 Online 5 Quizzes from Lectures 1-27 Shared by Shazia , sent by
Waqas
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)

1
0
1/2
2
409

Dependent variable
Regressor
If A and B are mutually exclusive events with P (A) =0.25 and P (B) = 0.50, Then P (A
or B) =
0.25
0.75
0.50
1
P(AB)
P(A/B)
P(A)
P(AUB)
diamond card is
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
8
1
0
0.5
410
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
cards is
4/52
2/52
13/52
26/52
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
1/8
3/8
3/6
2/8
In how many ways can a team of 11 players be chosen from a total of 16 players?
4368(not confirmed)
2426
5400
2680
411
c
c square
0
does not exist
P(E)= - 1
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
Let E and F be events associated with the same experiment. Suppose the E and F are
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
0.25
0.5
1
0
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)

412

Exhaustive events
Independent evens
Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
20. Which of the following measures of dispersion are based on deviations from
the mean?
Variance

Standard deviation
Mean deviation
All of the these
21. What does it mean when a data set has a standard deviation equal to zero?

413
The expected return
0
1
0.5
-0.5
1
-1
0
Does not exist
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
Independent Events
Empty Set
Power Set
414
Universal Set
Super Set
28. E(4X + 5) =________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
6
12
24
36
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
31.
Evaluate (10-4)!
1000
720
480
32
415
0
1
2
0.5
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome
34.
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
0.25
0.5
1
0
The expected return
416
37.
2/6
1/6
4/6
1

1.4
1.8
0.714
0.556

Percentile
Quartile
417
Standard deviation
Mode
Different
Similar
Joint probability
Prior probability
Dependent variable
None of these
a)
Solution:

An array is a systematic arrangement of objects, usually in rows and columns.

418
(b)
Make discrete frequency distribution from the given data,
1,2,3,2,1,2,1,3, 4,5,1,2,3,1,4,2, 2,3,2,1,4,4,4,2,1,

Also find;
Cumulative frequencies
Relative frequencies
Solution:

CLASS NO. Frequencies Cumulative
frequency
Relative
frequency
1 7 7 0.28
2 8 7+8 = 15 0.32
3 4 15+4 =19 0.16
4 5 19+5 = 24 0.2
5 1 24+1 = 25 0.04
Total 25 ----

Question no.02

(a) Find Geometric mean from the following data.
1, 2, 3,2,4,5,4,3,4,-1,4, 3,0,1,-3, 2,4
Solution:

Geometric mean can not b calculated as there are some negative values and zero values
present in the data.
419

(b) The weight of the 40 male students at a university is given in the following frequency
table:
Calculate median and mode from the above data.
Weight Class Boundary frequency CF
118-126 117.5 126.5 3 3
127-135 126.5 135.5 5 3+5 = 8
136-144 135.5 144.5 9 8+9 = 17
145-153 144.5 153.5 12 17+12 = 29
154-162 153.5 162.5 5 29+5 = 34
163-171 162.5 171.5 4 34+4 = 38
172-180 171.5 180.5 2
38+2 =40
(equal to the
sum of total
frequency.. !

Solution:

MODE:

420
Where l=144.5 , h =9 , fm= 12 , f1 = 9 , f 2 = 5

MEDIAN:

Where l=144.5, h=9, f=12, n/2=20 and c = 17

Put these values in formal and then calculate

Question no.03

(b) For given data calculate range and coefficient of range,
0.035, 0.045, 0.031, 0.044, 0.032
Solution:
Xm=0.045
X0=0.031
Range: =

421

Coefficient of range: =
Put the values in the formula then calculate

(c) Calculate an appropriate measure of dispersion for the following data.

Farm Size
(acre)
No. of
Farms
Bellow 40 394
41-80 461
81-120 391
121-160 334
161-200 169
201-240 113
241 and
above
148

Solution:
Question solve with quartile deviation;;;

Quartile deviation = Q
3
- Q
1
/ 2

My Dear friend in blue line are correct if u have any problem in these Questions that
call me at my number 0312 4070263
422
a) Area Table
For
/ 2
0.02 0.01 (1 ) 98% and z as

if we have two tail tests. Just see this value in
the cumulative table that is 2.33.
b) BASIC Derivative Formulas/Rules:
Derivatives are solved according to some specific rules/formulas. You need to
remember them. Three very BASIC rules are.
1) Derivative of a constant is always ZERO.
2) Derivative of a variable x with respect to x, is always x.
( ) 0
d
x
dx

3) And derivative of a exponential is given by following rule.
1
( )
n n
d
x nx
dx

For some more basic formulas, you can click here

c) Binomial distribution:
Many times we deal with situation where a g group can be categorized into two
mutually exclusive subgroups, e.g. sick and not sick, male and female, success and
failure. Distribution of such data will be called binomial distribution.
Binomial population:
A population which can be divided into a binomial distribution.
423
( ) 0
d
c
dx

Confidence interval for binomial distribution:
We may use the confidence interval method to estimate the value of parameter of
binomial distribution. For example, Population proportion can be found out with by
this formula.
2
(1 )
p P
p z
n
t
d) combination
Here in the example we will use the combination rule to find the number of outcomes
The sample space S contains
sample points
ways of selecting four items out of twelve
The box contains 3 faulty and 9 good items. The box is accepted if there is (i) no faulty
items, or (ii) one faulty item in the sample of 4 items selected.
As a hint, remember when the word or is used between two events then we add their
probabilities.
Let A denote the event the number of faulty items chosen is 0 or 1.
424
,
_
4
12
Then
e) Explanation of Double Integral (Example in Lesson # 26)
The double integral is
( , ) f x y dx dy

Putting the value of f(x,y) [given]
( )
2 4
0 2
1
6
8
x y dy dx

For a moment consider x and dx as constant factor and ONLY integrate it w.r.t dy
4
2 2
0 2
1
6
8 2
y
y xy dx
1

1
]
( )
2
0
1
6 2
8
x dx
Now integrate this w.r.t dx

[ ]
2
2
0
1
6
8
1
12 4 1
8
x x
1

]

425
( )
. int 378 252 126
3
9
1
3
4
9
0
3
s po sample
A n
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
( ) 76 . 0
495
378
n
m
A P
[Note: w.r.t is abbreviation of with respect to]
f) Takin power
In the above picture the buttons in the circle can be used to take power, base and
the both at a time as well, specially the button with arrow sign can be used to take
the power, press this button and type the digit which you want to take as power.
Hope you get the idea and now would be able to use it.
g) Finding the critical value using the table of standard normal distribution
Finding the critical value using the table of standard normal distribution (Z table)
1) If critical value 5% or 0.05 then this imply that confidence level is 95% or 0.95
2) If we have TWO tail tests, this mean half of 0.95 will lie on each side normal
distribution. The half of is 0.95/2= 0.4750. Now we need to find that value of Z under
which this area value of 0.4750 lies.
426
3) In the area table of normal distribution (available below), inside the rows and
columns, locate the value of 0.4750
4) Note down which row and column are crossing this value? You will see the row 1.9
and column 0.06 are crossing this value. {This is called the inverse use of area table}
5) Now combined these two values, you will get 1.96.
6) So this mean that the table value of Z that contain .4750 area is Z=1.96.
7) Since we have TWO tail test and normal distribution is symmetric so we will say on
the left side of curve this value will be -1.96 and on the right side of the curve the value
will be +1.96.
DO YOURSELF:
Try to find value of 10% for TWO tail test, by adopting this process from
step 1 through 7
For single sided test (one tail test), do the same procedure BUT omit the step
2 and 7
You can also find this table at http://business.statistics.sweb.cz/normal.jpg
427
INTEGRATION FORMULAS
This page contains a list of very commonly used integration formulas.
b) Area Table
428
1.
1
1
r
r
x
x dx C
r
+
+
+
2. ( ) ( ) kf x dx k f x dx

(where k is a constant)
3. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx t t 1
]
4. Integration by Substitution
( ) ( ) f u du F u C +
where ( ) u g x and ( ) ' du g x dx

Also written as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
' f g x g x dx F g x C +
5.
u u
e du e C +
6.
ln
u
u
a
a du C
a
+
7.
1
ln dx u C
u
+
For
/ 2
0.02 0.01 (1 ) 98% and z as

if we have two tail tests. Just see this value in
the cumulative table that is 2.33.
b) BASIC Derivative Formulas/Rules:
Derivatives are solved according to some specific rules/formulas. You need to
remember them. Three very BASIC rules are.
1) Derivative of a constant is always ZERO.
2) Derivative of a variable x with respect to x, is always x.
( ) 0
d
x
dx

3) And derivative of a exponential is given by following rule.
1
( )
n n
d
x nx
dx

For some more basic formulas, you can click here

h) Binomial distribution:
Many times we deal with situation where a g group can be categorized into two
mutually exclusive subgroups, e.g. sick and not sick, male and female, success and
failure. Distribution of such data will be called binomial distribution.
Binomial population:
A population which can be divided into a binomial distribution.
429
( ) 0
d
c
dx

Confidence interval for binomial distribution:
We may use the confidence interval method to estimate the value of parameter of
binomial distribution. For example, Population proportion can be found out with by
this formula.
2
(1 )
p P
p z
n
t
i) combination
Here in the example we will use the combination rule to find the number of outcomes
The sample space S contains
sample points
ways of selecting four items out of twelve
The box contains 3 faulty and 9 good items. The box is accepted if there is (i) no faulty
items, or (ii) one faulty item in the sample of 4 items selected.
As a hint, remember when the word or is used between two events then we add their
probabilities.
Let A denote the event the number of faulty items chosen is 0 or 1.
Then
430
( )
. int 378 252 126
3
9
1
3
4
9
0
3
s po sample
A n
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
4
12
j) Explanation of Double Integral (Example in Lesson # 26)
The double integral is
( , ) f x y dx dy

Putting the value of f(x,y) [given]
( )
2 4
0 2
1
6
8
x y dy dx

For a moment consider x and dx as constant factor and ONLY integrate it w.r.t dy
4
2 2
0 2
1
6
8 2
y
y xy dx
1

1
]
( )
2
0
1
6 2
8
x dx
Now integrate this w.r.t dx

[ ]
2
2
0
1
6
8
1
12 4 1
8
x x
1

]

[Note: w.r.t is abbreviation of with respect to]
431
( ) 76 . 0
495
378
n
m
A P
k) Takin power
In the above picture the buttons in the circle can be used to take power, base and
the both at a time as well, specially the button with arrow sign can be used to take
the power, press this button and type the digit which you want to take as power.
Hope you get the idea and now would be able to use it.
l) Finding the critical value using the table of standard normal distribution
Finding the critical value using the table of standard normal distribution (Z table)
1) If critical value 5% or 0.05 then this imply that confidence level is 95% or 0.95
2) If we have TWO tail tests, this mean half of 0.95 will lie on each side normal
distribution. The half of is 0.95/2= 0.4750. Now we need to find that value of Z under
which this area value of 0.4750 lies.
3) In the area table of normal distribution (available below), inside the rows and
columns, locate the value of 0.4750
432
4) Note down which row and column are crossing this value? You will see the row 1.9
and column 0.06 are crossing this value. {This is called the inverse use of area table}
5) Now combined these two values, you will get 1.96.
6) So this mean that the table value of Z that contain .4750 area is Z=1.96.
7) Since we have TWO tail test and normal distribution is symmetric so we will say on
the left side of curve this value will be -1.96 and on the right side of the curve the value
will be +1.96.
DO YOURSELF:
Try to find value of 10% for TWO tail test, by adopting this process from
step 1 through 7
For single sided test (one tail test), do the same procedure BUT omit the step
2 and 7
You can also find this table at http://business.statistics.sweb.cz/normal.jpg
433
INTEGRATION FORMULAS
This page contains a list of very commonly used integration formulas.
434
1.
1
1
r
r
x
x dx C
r
+
+
+
2. ( ) ( ) kf x dx k f x dx

(where k is a constant)
3. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x dx g x dx t t 1
]
4. Integration by Substitution
( ) ( ) f u du F u C +
where ( ) u g x and ( ) ' du g x dx

Also written as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
' f g x g x dx F g x C +
5.
u u
e du e C +
6.
ln
u
u
a
a du C
a
+
7.
1
ln dx u C
u
+
STA301 Qezz no 1
Quiz Start Time: 05:01 PM
Time Left 81
sec(s)
What type of data is collected in population census?
Two Types
Quiz Start Time: 05:01 PM Time Left 77
sec(s)

The collection of all outcomes for an experiment is called

a sample space
joint probability
population

sec(s)

435
Which of the graph is used for a time series data:

Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Historigram
Histogram ( not sure)

sec(s)

A histogram is consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off by:

Class boundaries
Class limits
Class frequency
Class marks
sec(s)

436
The value that has half of the observations above it and half the observations below it is
known as:

Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation

sec(s)


Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data

sec(s)

437
Range of the values -2,-3,-4,-3,-9,-2,-8,-1,0 is

0
-9
8
9

sec(s)

If the both tails of the distribution are equal, then distribution is called:

J-shaped
Symmetrical

Positively Skewed
Negatively Skewed
sec(s)

438

Ranking scale also include the properties of which scale?

Nominal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale
All of these

sec(s)

Range of the values -2.50,-3.70,-4.80,-3.10,-9.70,-2.20,-8.90,-1.60, 0.60 is

10.03
10.30
9.10
9.00

STA 301 All Definitions
(Muhammad Rashid Chishti)
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Statistics - a set of concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to:
o organize numerical information in the form of tables, graphs, and
charts;
o understand statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect
our lives and well-being; and
o make informed decisions.
Data - facts, observations, and information that come from
investigations.
o Measurement data sometimes called quantitative data -- the result
of using some instrument to measure something (e.g., test score,
weight);
o Categorical data also referred to as frequency or qualitative data.
Things are grouped according to some common property(ies) and the
number of members of the group are recorded (e.g., males/females,
vehicle type).
Variable - property of an object or event that can take on different
values. For example, college major is a variable that takes on values like
mathematics, computer science, English, psychology, etc.
o Discrete Variable - a variable with a limited number of values
(e.g., gender (male/female), college class
(freshman/sophomore/junior/senior).
o Continuous Variable - a variable that can take on many different
values, in theory, any value between the lowest and highest points on
the measurement scale.
o Independent Variable - a variable that is manipulated, measured,
or selected by the researcher as an antecedent condition to an observed
behavior. In a hypothesized cause-and-effect relationship, the
independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the
outcome or effect.
o Dependent Variable - a variable that is not under the
experimenter's control -- the data. It is the variable that is observed
and measured in response to the independent variable.
o Qualitative Variable - a variable based on categorical data.
o Quantitative Variable - a variable based on quantitative data.
Graphs - visual display of data used to present frequency distributions so
that the shape of the distribution can easily be seen.
o Bar graph - a form of graph that uses bars separated by an
arbitrary amount of space to represent how often elements within a
category occur. The higher the bar, the higher the frequency of
occurrence. The underlying measurement scale is discrete (nominal or
ordinal-scale data), not continuous.
o Histogram - a form of a bar graph used with interval or ratio-
scaled data. Unlike the bar graph, bars in a histogram touch with the
width of the bars defined by the upper and lower limits of the interval.
The measurement scale is continuous, so the lower limit of any one
interval is also the upper limit of the previous interval.
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o Boxplot - a graphical representation of dispersions and extreme
scores. Represented in this graphic are minimum, maximum, and
quartile scores in the form of a box with "whiskers." The box includes
the range of scores falling into the middle 50% of the distribution
(Inter Quartile Range = 75
th
percentile - 25
th
percentile)and the
whiskers are lines extended to the minimum and maximum scores in
the distribution or to mathematically defined (+/-1.5*IQR) upper and
lower fences.
o Scatterplot - a form of graph that presents information from a
bivariate distribution. In a scatterplot, each subject in an experimental
study is represented by a single point in two-dimensional space. The
underlying scale of measurement for both variables is continuous
(measurement data). This is one of the most useful techniques for
gaining insight into the relationship between tw variables.
Measures of Center - Plotting data in a frequency distribution shows the
general shape of the distribution and gives a general sense of how the numbers
are bunched. Several statistics can be used to represent the "center" of the
distribution. These statistics are commonly referred to as measures of central
tendency.
o Mode - The mode of a distribution is simply defined as the most
frequent or common score in the distribution. The mode is the point or
value of X that corresponds to the highest point on the distribution. If
the highest frequency is shared by more than one value, the
distribution is said to be multimodal. It is not uncommon to see
distributions that are bimodal reflecting peaks in scoring at two
different points in the distribution.
o Median - The median is the score that divides the distribution into
halves; half of the scores are above the median and half are below it
when the data are arranged in numerical order. The median is also
referred to as the score at the 50
th
percentile in the distribution. The
median location of N numbers can be found by the formula (N + 1) / 2.
When N is an odd number, the formula yields a integer that represents
the value in a numerically ordered distribution corresponding to the
median location. (For example, in the distribution of numbers (3 1 5 4
9 9 8) the median location is (7 + 1) / 2 = 4. When applied to the
ordered distribution (1 3 4 5 8 9 9), the value 5 is the median, three
scores are above 5 and three are below 5. If there were only 6 values (1
3 4 5 8 9), the median location is (6 + 1) / 2 = 3.5. In this case the
median is half-way between the 3
rd
and 4
th
scores (4 and 5) or 4.5.
o Mean - The mean is the most common measure of central
tendency and the one that can be mathematically manipulated. It is
defined as the average of a distribution is equal to the X / N. Simply,
the mean is computed by summing all the scores in the distribution
(X) and dividing that sum by the total number of scores (N). The
mean is the balance point in a distribution such that if you subtract
each value in the distribution from the mean and sum all of these
deviation scores, the result will be zero.
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Measures of Spread - Although the average value in a distribution is
informative about how scores are centered in the distribution, the mean,
median, and mode lack context for interpreting those statistics. Measures of
variability provide information about the degree to which individual scores
are clustered about or deviate from the average value in a distribution.
o Range - The simplest measure of variability to compute and
understand is the range. The range is the difference between the
highest and lowest score in a distribution. Although it is easy to
compute, it is not often used as the sole measure of variability due to its
instability. Because it is based solely on the most extreme scores in the
distribution and does not fully reflect the pattern of variation within a
distribution, the range is a very limited measure of variability.
o Interquartile Range (IQR) - Provides a measure of the spread of
the middle 50% of the scores. The IQR is defined as the 75
th
percentile
- the 25
th
percentile. The interquartile range plays an important role in
the graphical method known as the boxplot. The advantage of using
the IQR is that it is easy to compute and extreme scores in the
distribution have much less impact but its strength is also a weakness
in that it suffers as a measure of variability because it discards too
much data. Researchers want to study variability while eliminating
scores that are likely to be accidents. The boxplot allows for this for
this distinction and is an important tool for exploring data.
o Variance - The variance is a measure based on the deviations of
individual scores from the mean. As noted in the definition of the
mean, however, simply summing the deviations will result in a value of
0. To get around this problem the variance is based on squared
deviations of scores about the mean. When the deviations are squared,
the rank order and relative distance of scores in the distribution is
preserved while negative values are eliminated. Then to control for the
number of subjects in the distribution, the sum of the squared
deviations, (X - X), is divided by N (population) or by N - 1
(sample). The result is the average of the sum of the squared deviations
and it is called the variance.
o Standard deviation - The standard deviation (s or ) is defined as
the positive square root of the variance. The variance is a measure in
squared units and has little meaning with respect to the data. Thus, the
standard deviation is a measure of variability expressed in the same
units as the data. The standard deviation is very much like a mean or
an "average" of these deviations. In a normal (symmetric and mound-
shaped) distribution, about two-thirds of the scores fall between +1 and
-1 standard deviations from the mean and the standard deviation is
approximately 1/4 of the range in small samples (N < 30) and 1/5 to 1/6
of the range in large samples (N > 100).
Measures of Shape - For distributions summarizing data from
continuous measurement scales, statistics can be used to describe how the
distribution rises and drops.
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o Symmetric - Distributions that have the same shape on both sides
of the center are called symmetric. A symmetric distribution with only
one peak is referred to as a normal distribution.
o Skewness - Refers to the degree of asymmetry in a distribution.
Asymmetry often reflects extreme scores in a distribution.
Positively skewed - A distribution is positively skewed
when is has a tail extending out to the right (larger
numbers) When a distribution is positively skewed, the mean is
greater than the median reflecting the fact that the mean is
sensitive to each score in the distribution and is subject to large
shifts when the sample is small and contains extreme scores.
Negatively skewed - A negatively skewed distribution has
an extended tail pointing to the left (smaller numbers) and
reflects bunching of numbers in the upper part of the
distribution with fewer scores at the lower end of the
measurement scale.
o Kurtosis - Like skewness, kurtosis has a specific mathematical
definition, but generally it refers to how scores are concentrated in the
center of the distribution, the upper and lower tails (ends), and the
shoulders (between the center and tails) of a distribution.
Mesokurtic - A normal distribution is called mesokurtic.
The tails of a mesokurtic distribution are neither too thin or too
thick, and there are neither too many or too few scores in the
center of the distribution.
Platykurtic - Starting with a mesokurtic distribution and
moving scores from both the center and tails into the shoulders,
the distribution flattens out and is referred to as platykurtic.
Leptokurtic - If you move scores from shoulders of a
mesokurtic distribution into the center and tails of a
distribution, the result is a peaked distribution with thick tails.
This shape is referred to as leptokurtic.
Discrete Data
A set of data is said to be discrete if the values / observations belonging to it are distinct
and separate, i.e. they can be counted (1,2,3,....). Examples might include the number of
kittens in a litter; the number of patients in a doctors surgery; the number of flaws in
one metre of cloth; gender (male, female); blood group (O, A, B, AB).
Compare continuous data.
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Categorical Data
A set of data is said to be categorical if the values or observations belonging to it can be
sorted according to category. Each value is chosen from a set of non-overlapping
categories. For example, shoes in a cupboard can be sorted according to colour: the
characteristic 'colour' can have non-overlapping categories 'black', 'brown', 'red' and
'other'. People have the characteristic of 'gender' with categories 'male' and 'female'.
Categories should be chosen carefully since a bad choice can prejudice the outcome of
an investigation. Every value should belong to one and only one category, and there
should be no doubt as to which one.
Nominal Data
A set of data is said to be nominal if the values / observations belonging to it can be
assigned a code in the form of a number where the numbers are simply labels. You can
count but not order or measure nominal data. For example, in a data set males could be
coded as 0, females as 1; marital status of an individual could be coded as Y if married,
N if single.
Ordinal Data
A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging to it can be
ranked (put in order) or have a rating scale attached. You can count and order, but not
measure, ordinal data.
The categories for an ordinal set of data have a natural order, for example, suppose a
group of people were asked to taste varieties of biscuit and classify each biscuit on a
rating scale of 1 to 5, representing strongly dislike, dislike, neutral, like, strongly like. A
rating of 5 indicates more enjoyment than a rating of 4, for example, so such data are
ordinal.
However, the distinction between neighbouring points on the scale is not necessarily
always the same. For instance, the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating
of 2 rather than 1 might be much less than the difference in enjoyment expressed by
giving a rating of 4 rather than 3.
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Interval Scale
An interval scale is a scale of measurement where the distance between any two
adjacents units of measurement (or 'intervals') is the same but the zero point is
arbitrary. Scores on an interval scale can be added and subtracted but can not be
meaningfully multiplied or divided. For example, the time interval between the starts of
years 1981 and 1982 is the same as that between 1983 and 1984, namely 365 days. The
zero point, year 1 AD, is arbitrary; time did not begin then. Other examples of interval
scales include the heights of tides, and the measurement of longitude.
Continuous Data
A set of data is said to be continuous if the values / observations belonging to it may
take on any value within a finite or infinite interval. You can count, order and measure
continuous data. For example height, weight, temperature, the amount of sugar in an
orange, the time required to run a mile.
Compare discrete data.
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a way of summarising a set of data. It is a record of how often each
value (or set of values) of the variable in question occurs. It may be enhanced by the
addition of percentages that fall into each category.
A frequency table is used to summarise categorical, nominal, and ordinal data. It may
also be used to summarise continuous data once the data set has been divided up into
sensible groups.
When we have more than one categorical variable in our data set, a frequency table is
sometimes called a contingency table because the figures found in the rows are
contingent upon (dependent upon) those found in the columns.
Example
Suppose that in thirty shots at a target, a marksman makes the following scores:
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5 2 2 3
4
4 3 2
0 3
0 3 2
1 5
1 3 1 5
5
2 4 0
0 4
5 4 4
5 5
The frequencies of the different scores can be summarised as:
Scor
e
Frequ
ency
Frequenc
y (%)
0 4 13%
1 3 10%
2 5 17%
3 5 17%
4 6 20%
5 7 23%
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a way of summarising a set of categorical data. It is a circle which is
divided into segments. Each segment represents a particular category. The area of each
segment is proportional to the number of cases in that category.
Example
Suppose that, in the last year a sports wear manufacturers has spent 6 million pounds
on advertising their products; 3 million has been spent on television adverts, 2 million
on sponsorship, 1 million on newspaper adverts, and a half million on posters. This
spending can be summarised using a pie chart:
Bar Chart
A bar chart is a way of summarising a set of categorical data. It is often used in
exploratory data analysis to illustrate the major features of the distribution of the data
in a convenient form. It displays the data using a number of rectangles, of the same
width, each of which represents a particular category. The length (and hence area) of
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each rectangle is proportional to the number of cases in the category it represents, for
example, age group, religious affiliation.
Bar charts are used to summarise nominal or ordinal data.
Bar charts can be displayed horizontally or vertically and they are usually drawn with a
gap between the bars (rectangles), whereas the bars of a histogram are drawn
immediately next to each other.
Dot Plot
A dot plot is a way of summarising data, often used in exploratory data analysis to
illustrate the major features of the distribution of the data in a convenient form.
For nominal or ordinal data, a dot plot is similar to a bar chart, with the bars replaced
by a series of dots. Each dot represents a fixed number of individuals. For continuous
data, the dot plot is similar to a histogram, with the rectangles replaced by dots.
A dot plot can also help detect any unusual observations (outliers), or any gaps in the
data set.
Histogram
A histogram is a way of summarising data that are measured on an interval scale
(either discrete or continuous). It is often used in exploratory data analysis to illustrate
the major features of the distribution of the data in a convenient form. It divides up the
range of possible values in a data set into classes or groups. For each group, a rectangle
is constructed with a base length equal to the range of values in that specific group, and
447
an area proportional to the number of observations falling into that group. This means
that the rectangles might be drawn of non-uniform height.
The histogram is only appropriate for variables whose values are numerical and
measured on an interval scale. It is generally used when dealing with large data sets
(>100 observations), when stem and leaf plots become tedious to construct. A histogram
can also help detect any unusual observations (outliers), or any gaps in the data set.
Compare bar chart.
Stem and Leaf Plot
A stem and leaf plot is a way of summarising a set of data measured on an interval
scale. It is often used in exploratory data analysis to illustrate the major features of the
distribution of the data in a convenient and easily drawn form.
A stem and leaf plot is similar to a histogram but is usually a more informative display
for relatively small data sets (<100 data points). It provides a table as well as a picture
of the data and from it we can
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readily write down the data in order of magnitude, which is useful for many statistical
procedures, e.g.
in the skinfold thickness example below:
We can compare more than one data set by the use of multiple stem and leaf plots. By
using a back-to-back stem and leaf plot, we are able to compare the same characteristic
in two different groups, for example, pulse rate after exercise of smokers and non-
smokers.
Box and Whisker Plot (or Boxplot)
A box and whisker plot is a way of summarising a set of data measured on an interval
scale. It is often used in exploratory data analysis. It is a type of graph which is used to
show the shape of the distribution, its central value, and variability. The picture
produced consists of the most extreme values in the data set (maximum and minimum
values), the lower and upper quartiles, and the median.
A box plot (as it is often called) is especially helpful for indicating whether a
distribution is skewed and whether there are any unusual observations (outliers) in the
data set.
Box and whisker plots are also very useful when large numbers of observations are
involved and when two or more data sets are being compared.
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See also 5-Number Summary.
5-Number Summary
A 5-number summary is especially useful when we have so many data that it is
sufficient to present a summary of the data rather than the whole data set. It consists of
5 values: the most extreme values in the data set (maximum and minimum values), the
lower and upper quartiles, and the median.
A 5-number summary can be represented in a diagram known as a box and whisker
plot. In cases where we have more than one data set to analyse, a 5-number summary is
constructed for each, with corresponding multiple box and whisker plots.
Outlier
An outlier is an observation in a data set which is far removed in value from the others
in the data set. It is an unusually large or an unusually small value compared to the
others.
An outlier might be the result of an error in measurement, in which case it will distort
the interpretation of the data, having undue influence on many summary statistics, for
example, the mean.
If an outlier is a genuine result, it is important because it might indicate an extreme of
behaviour of the process under study. For this reason, all outliers must be examined
carefully before embarking on any formal analysis. Outliers should not routinely be
removed without further justification.
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Symmetry
Symmetry is implied when data values are distributed in the same way above and below
the middle of the sample.
Symmetrical data sets:
a. are easily interpreted;
b. allow a balanced attitude to outliers, that is, those above and below the
middle value ( median) can be considered by the same criteria;
c. allow comparisons of spread or dispersion with similar data sets.
Many standard statistical techniques are appropriate only for a symmetric
distributional form. For this reason, attempts are often made to transform skew-
symmetric data so that they become roughly symmetric.
Skewness
Skewness is defined as asymmetry in the distribution of the sample data values. Values
on one side of the distribution tend to be further from the 'middle' than values on the
other side.
For skewed data, the usual measures of location will give different values, for example,
mode<median<mean would indicate positive (or right) skewness.
Positive (or right) skewness is more common than negative (or left) skewness.
If there is evidence of skewness in the data, we can apply transformations, for example,
taking logarithms of positive skew data.
Compare symmetry.
Transformation to Normality
If there is evidence of marked non-normality then we may be able to remedy this by
applying suitable transformations.
451
The more commonly used transformations which are appropriate for data which are
skewed to the right with increasing strength (positive skew) are 1/x, log(x) and sqrt(x),
where the x's are the data values.
The more commonly used transformations which are appropriate for data which are
skewed to the left with increasing strength (negative skew) are squaring, cubing, and
exp(x).
Scatter Plot
A scatterplot is a useful summary of a set of bivariate data (two variables), usually
drawn before working out a linear correlation coefficient or fitting a regression line. It
gives a good visual picture of the relationship between the two variables, and aids the
interpretation of the correlation coefficient or regression model.
Each unit contributes one point to the scatterplot, on which points are plotted but not
joined. The resulting pattern indicates the type and strength of the relationship between
the two variables.
Illustrations
a. The more the points tend to cluster around a straight line, the stronger the
linear relationship between the two variables (the higher the correlation).
b. If the line around which the points tends to cluster runs from lower left to
upper right, the relationship between the two variables is positive (direct).
c. If the line around which the points tends to cluster runs from upper left to
lower right, the relationship between the two variables is negative (inverse).
d. If there exists a random scatter of points, there is no relationship between
the two variables (very low or zero correlation).
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e. Very low or zero correlation could result from a non-linear relationship
between the variables. If the relationship is in fact non-linear (points
clustering around a curve, not a straight line), the correlation coefficient will
not be a good measure of the strength.
A scatterplot will also show up a non-linear relationship between the two variables and
whether or not there exist any outliers in the data.
More information can be added to a two-dimensional scatterplot - for example, we
might label points with a code to indicate the level of a third variable.
If we are dealing with many variables in a data set, a way of presenting all possible
scatter plots of two variables at a time is in a scatterplot matrix.
Sample Mean
The sample mean is an estimator available for estimating the population mean . It is a
measure of location, commonly called the average, often symbolised .
Its value depends equally on all of the data which may include outliers. It may not
appear representative of the central region for skewed data sets.
It is especially useful as being representative of the whole sample for use in subsequent
calculations.
Example
Lets say our data set is: 5 3 54 93 83 22 17 19.
The sample mean is calculated by taking the sum of all the data values and dividing by
the total number of data values:
See also expected value.
Median
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The median is the value halfway through the ordered data set, below and above which
there lies an equal number of data values.
It is generally a good descriptive measure of the location which works well for skewed
data, or data with outliers.
The median is the 0.5 quantile.
Example
With an odd number of data values, for example 21, we have:
Data
96 48 27 72 39 70 7 68 99 36 95 4 6 13 34 74
65 42 28 54 69
Ordered
Data
4 6 7 13 27 28 34 36 39 42 48 54 65 68 69 70
72 74 95 96 99
Median
48, leaving ten values below and ten values
above
With an even number of data values, for example 20, we have:
Data 57 55 85 24 33 49 94 2 8 51 71 30 91 6 47 50 65 43 41 7
Ordered
Data
2 6 7 8 24 30 33 41 43 47 49 50 51 55 57 65 71 85 91 94
Median Halfway between the two 'middle' data points - in this case halfway
between 47 and 49, and so the median is 48
Mode
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of discrete data. There can be
more than one mode if two or more values are equally common.
Example
Suppose the results of an end of term Statistics exam were distributed as follows:
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Studen
t:
Score:</I.
< td>
1 94
2 81
3 56
4 90
5 70
6 65
7 90
8 90
9 30
Then the mode (most common score) is 90, and the median (middle score) is 81.
Dispersion
The data values in a sample are not all the same. This variation between values is called
dispersion.
When the dispersion is large, the values are widely scattered; when it is small they are
tightly clustered. The width of diagrams such as dot plots, box plots, stem and leaf plots
is greater for samples with more dispersion and vice versa.
There are several measures of dispersion, the most common being the standard
deviation. These measures indicate to what degree the individual observations of a
data set are dispersed or 'spread out' around their mean.
In manufacturing or measurement, high precision is associated with low dispersion.
Range
The range of a sample (or a data set) is a measure of the spread or the dispersion of the
observations. It is the difference between the largest and the smallest observed value of
some quantitative characteristic and is very easy to calculate.
455
A great deal of information is ignored when computing the range since only the largest
and the smallest data values are considered; the remaining data are ignored.
The range value of a data set is greatly influenced by the presence of just one unusually
large or small value in the sample (outlier).
Examples
1. The range of 65,73,89,56,73,52,47 is 89-47 = 42.
2. If the highest score in a 1st year statistics exam was 98 and the lowest 48,
then the range would be 98-48 = 50.
Inter-Quartile Range (IQR)
The inter-quartile range is a measure of the spread of or dispersion within a data set.
It is calculated by taking the difference between the upper and the lower quartiles. For
example:
Data
2 3 4 5 6 6 6 7
7 8 9
Upper
quartile
7
Lower
quartile
4
IQR 7 - 4 = 3
The IQR is the width of an interval which contains the middle 50% of the sample, so it
is smaller than the range and its value is less affected by outliers.
Quantile
Quantiles are a set of 'cut points' that divide a sample of data into groups containing (as
far as possible) equal numbers of observations.
Examples of quantiles include quartile, quintile, percentile.
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Percentile
Percentiles are values that divide a sample of data into one hundred groups containing
(as far as possible) equal numbers of observations. For example, 30% of the data values
lie below the 30th percentile.
See quantile.
Compare quintile, quartile.
Quartile
Quartiles are values that divide a sample of data into four groups containing (as far as
possible) equal numbers of observations.
A data set has three quartiles. References to quartiles often relate to just the outer two,
the upper and the lower quartiles; the second quartile being equal to the median. The
lower quartile is the data value a quarter way up through the ordered data set; the
upper quartile is the data value a quarter way down through the ordered data set.
Example
Data
6 47 49 15 43 41 7 39
43 41 36
Ordered
Data
6 7 15 36 39 41 41 43
43 47 49
Median 41
Upper
quartile
43
Lower
quartile
15
See quantile.
Compare percentile, quintile.
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Quintile
Quintiles are values that divide a sample of data into five groups containing (as far as
possible) equal numbers of observations.
See quantile.
Compare quartile, percentile.
Sample Variance
Sample variance is a measure of the spread of or dispersion within a set of sample data.
The sample variance is the sum of the squared deviations from their average divided by
one less than the number of observations in the data set. For example, for n
observations x1, x2, x3, ... , xn with sample mean
the sample variance is given by
See also variance.
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is a measure of the spread or dispersion of a set of data.
It is calculated by taking the square root of the variance and is symbolised by s.d, or s.
In other words
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The more widely the values are spread out, the larger the standard deviation. For
example, say we have two separate lists of exam results from a class of 30 students; one
ranges from 31% to 98%, the other from 82% to 93%, then the standard deviation
would be larger for the results of the first exam.
Coefficient of Variation
The coefficient of variation measures the spread of a set of data as a proportion of its
mean. It is often expressed as a percentage.
It is the ratio of the sample standard deviation to the sample mean:
There is an equivalent definition for the coefficient of variation of a population, which is
based on the expected value and the standard deviation of a random variable.
Total Marks: 1
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
Total Marks: 1
If f(x) is a continuous probability function, then
P(X = 2) is:
1
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0
1/2
2
Total Marks: 1
Dependent variable
Regressor
Total Marks: 1
If A and B are mutually exclusive events with P (A)
=0.25 and P (B) = 0.50, Then P (A or B) =
0.25
0.75
0.50
1
Muhammad Rashid Chishti 3336721100
Total Marks: 1
P(AB)
P(A/B)
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P(A)
P(AUB)
Total Marks: 1
In a 52 well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards, the
probability of drawing any one diamond card is
1/52
4/52
13/52
52/52
Total Marks: 1
8
1
0
0.5
Total Marks: 1
9 s.d(x)
3 s.d(x)
461
s.d(x)+5
3s.d(x)+5
Total Marks: 1
The probability of drawing a red queen card from
well-shuffled pack of 52 playing cards is
4/52
2/52
13/52
26/52
10.Question # 10 of 10 ( Start time: 08:34:40 PM )
Total Marks: 1
If P (B|A) = 0.25 and P (A and B) =0.20, then P (A)
is
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
Total Marks: 1
When a coin is tossed 3 times, the probability of
getting 3 tails is
1/8
3/8
462
3/6
2/8
Total Marks: 1
In how many ways can a team of 11 players be
chosen from a total of 16 players?
4368(not confirmed)
2426
5400
2680
Total Marks: 1
c
c square
0
does not exist
Total Marks: 1
If P (E) is the probability that an event will occur,
which of the following must be false:
P(E)= - 1
463
P(E)=1
P(E)=1/2
P(E)=1/3
Total Marks: 1
Let E and F be events associated with the same
experiment. Suppose the E and F are independent
and that P(E) = 1/4 and P(F) = 1/2 Then P(E U F) is:
1/8
3/4
7/8
5/8
Total Marks: 1
A student solved 25 questions from first 50
questions of a book to be solved. The probability
that he will solve the remaining all questions is:
0.25
0.5
1
0
Total Marks: 1
464
b*2 var(x)
var(x)
b var(x)
Total Marks: 1
Exhaustive events
Independent evens
Total Marks: 1
In scatter diagram, the variable plotted along Y-
axis is:
Dependent variable
Continuous variable
Discrete variable
20.Which of the following measures of dispersion are
based on deviations from the mean?
465
Variance

Standard deviation
Mean deviation
All of the these
21.What does it mean when a data set has a standard
deviation equal to zero?
All values of the data appear with the same
frequency.
22.A set of possible values that a random variable
can assume and their associated probabilities of
occurrence are referred to as ________.
The expected return
23.Which of the following can never be probability of
an event?
466
0
1
0.5
-0.5
24.The standard deviation of -1, -1, -1, -1 will be
1
-1
0
Does not exist
25.Which formula represents the probability of the
complement of event A:
1 + P (A)
1 - P (A)
P (A)
P (A) -1
26.The Special Rule of Addition is used to combine:
Independent Events
467
27.set which is the sub-set of every set is
Empty Set
Power Set
Universal Set
Super Set
28.E(4X + 5) =________
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5
16 E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
29.When two dice are rolled the number of possible
sample points is :
6
12
24
36
Total Marks: 1
If two events A and B are not mutually exclusive
then
468
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B)
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
31.
Question # 2 of 10 ( Start time: 09:43:59 PM )
Total Marks: 1
Evaluate (10-4)!
1000
720
480
32
Total Marks: 1
0
1
2
0.5
Total Marks: 1
469
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome
34.
Total Marks: 1
P(A)
P(S)
P(A) * P(B)* P(C)
P(B)
Total Marks: 1
A student solved 25 questions from first 50
questions of a book to be solved. The probability
that he will solve the remaining all questions is:
0.25
0.5
1
0
470
36.A set of possible values that a random variable
can assume and their associated probabilities of
occurrence are referred to as ________.
The expected return
37.
Total Marks: 1
If we roll a die then probability of getting a 6 will
be
2/6
1/6
4/6
1
Total Marks: 1
If P(A) = 0.45, P(B) = 0.35, and P(A and B) = 0.25,
then P(A | B) is:
1.4
471
1.8
0.714
0.556
Total Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a measure of central
tendency?
Percentile
Quartile
Standard deviation
Mode
Random experiment can be repeated any no. of times under the
conditions.
Different
Similar
0
1
472
0.5
2
Joint probability
Prior probability
Dependent variable
None of these
44. The probability of continuous random variable x on any particular point is
always zero..
Yes
No
45. P(an event) =no of favorable outcome/total no. of outcomes is the definition of
Subjective approach
473
Objective approach
46. If C is a constant ,then E(c)=
0
1
C
-c
47. Question # 6 of 10
When we toss a fair coin 4 times, the sample space consists of.points.
4
8
12
16
48. When a coin is tossed 3 times, the probability of getting 3 tails is
1/8
3/8
3/6
2/8
6
36
216
474
1296
greater than 0
less than 1
between o and 1
greater than 1
51. For exhaustive events, the P(AUBUC) is equal to:
P(A)
P(S)
P * P(B)* P(C)
52. In a multiplication theorem P (A and B) equals:
P(A)
P (B) P(A) + P (B)
P(A) * P (B|A)
P(B\A)*P(B)
53. If a die is rolled, what is the probability of getting an even number greater than
2?
1/2
1/3
2/3
5/6
475
54. In a Discrete probability distribution, P (x > 23) is read as:
P (there are more than 23 successes)
P (there are less than 23 successes)
P (there are at least 23 successes)
P (there are at most 23 successes)
55. When E is an impossible event, then P(E) is:
0
1
2
0.5
56. A dormitory on campus houses 200 students. 120 are male, 50 are upper division
students, and 40 are upper division male students.A student is selected at
random. The probability of selecting a lower division student, given the student
is a female, is:
7/8
7/20
7/15

Zero
One
Negative
476
Non-negative
58. The function F(x) gives the probability of the event that X takes a value ......
Less than x
Greater or equal to x
Less or equal x
Equal to x
59. Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency?
Percentile
Quartile
Standard deviation
Mode
60. When we toss a coin, we get only
1 outcome
2 outcome
3 outcome
4 outcome
61. In a simple regression line model ,it is assume that the intercept parameter is
equal to zero,
The regression line will pass through the origin.
The regression line will pass through the point (0,10)
477
The regression line will pass through the point (0,-10)
The slope of the line will also be zero.
62. If p(AnB)=p(A/B).p(B),then A and B are
Independent
Dependant
Equally likely
Mutually exclusively
63. A fair coin is tossed three times, the probability that at least one head appears,
1/8
7/8
3/8
5/8
64. In probability distribution, the sum of probabilities is equals to
0
0.1
0.5
1
Afradi90@gmail.com
www.pakfree.webs.com
478
http://www.vustudents.net
Mean
The mean of the sampling distribution (of the mean) is the
mean of the population from which the scores were
sampled.
Therefore, if a population has a mean, , then the sampling
distribution of the mean is also .
The symbol
X
is used to refer to the mean of the sampling

distribution of the mean.
Therefore, the formula for the mean of the sampling
distribution of the mean can be written as:
X

Variance
The variance of the sampling distribution of the mean is
computed as follows:
2
2
X
N

That is, the variance of the sampling distribution of the
mean is the population variance divided by N.
Thus, the larger the sample size, the smaller the variance of
the sampling distribution of the mean.
Population mean
Population mean is calculated from the population information (data). let we have a
population 2, 4, 6, 10. We have to find the mean of this population we proceed as
2 4 6 10 22
5.5
4 4
X
N
+ + +

Second query, in this example all events have equal probability of occurrence 1/5.
479
No. of
Faulty Items
(X)
Probability
f(x)
x.f(x)
0 1/5 0
1 1/5 1/5
2 1/5 2/5
3 1/5 3/5
4 1/5 4/5
Total 1 10/5
( ) ( )
10
2
5
E X xf x
We have drawn all possible samples of size 2 without replacement from population 0, 1,
2, 3, 4.
All possible sample with replacement =
2
5 25
n
N
After drawing sample (not given in the example), we have make the sampling
distribution of means that is given in the example. Then we have fine the mean of this
distribution which is 2.
It is property that sample mean is always equal to population mean i.e.
x
u
The formulas for standard deviation:
480
( )
2
2
2
2
2
( )
,
,
X X
S
n
or
X X
S
n n
or
X
S X
n

_

,

The value of constant e:
The e is a constant and its value is 2.7183.
Putting this value, you can find out the expression using calculator.
OR
( )
1 1
2.7183
e
e

Uniform Distribution:
The Uniform distribution is defined by the function ( )
1
, f x a x b
b a

The above function is a proper probability density function because of the fact that:
i) Since a < b, therefore f(x) > 0.
ii)
481
( )
[ ]
1
1
lim
1
[ ]
1
b
a
b
a
f x dx
dx
b a
x
b a
Putting the its
b a
b a

( )
[ ]
1
1
lim
1
[ ]
1
b
a
b
a
f x dx
dx
b a
x
b a
Putting the its
b a
b a
Hence its a proper probability density function.

Binomial Distribution (Lesson 28)
Definition:
The Binomial Distribution is one of the discrete probability distribution. It is used
when there are exactly two mutually exclusive outcomes of a trial. These outcomes are
appropriately labeled Success and Failure. The Binomial Distribution is used to obtain
the probability of observing r successes in n trials, with the probability of success on a
single trial denoted by p.
Formula
482
( ) ( )
x n x n
x
q p x X P

Where
n = the total no. of trials
p = probability of success in each trial
q = probability of failure in each trial (i.e. q = 1 - p)
x = no. of successes in n trials.
x = 0, 1, 2, n
( )
!
!( )!
n n
x r
n
C
r n r

Example 1
Suppose a die is tossed 5 times. What is the probability of getting exactly 2 fours?
Solution: This is a binomial experiment in which the number of trials is equal to 5, the
number of successes is equal to 2, and the probability of success on a single trial is 1/6
or about 0.167. Therefore, the binomial probability is:
b(2; 5, 0.167) =
5
C
2
* (0.167)
2
* (0.833)
3

b(2; 5, 0.167) = 0.161
10! =.
362880
3628800
362280
362800
1
52
13
52
483
4
52
26
52


1
52
4
52
13
52
26
52

C.V.
Q.D.
484
M.D.
S.D.
If all the values fall on the same straight line and the line has a positive
slope then what will be the value of the correlation coefficient r:
0 r 1
r 0
r = +1
r=-1
Intercept a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0
1/4
3/4
2/4
4/4
Which one of the following measurement does not divide a set of
observations into equal parts?
Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
Standard deviations
Predictor variable
485
which interval?

X t S

X t 2 S

X t 3S

X t 4S
Source note
Foot note
Prefatory note
Title
Positively skewed
Negatively skewed
J-shaped
Symmetric
f ()x
If X is a discrete random variable, then the function is
A density function
486
Histogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
If you connect the mid-points of rectangles in a histogram by a series of lines
that also touches the x-axis from both ends, what will you get?
Ogive
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
7.5
8.5
9.5
10.5
x
m
x
0
x
0
x
m
x
0
x
m
2
x
0
+ x
m
2
Quartile deviation
Harmonic mean
Geometric mean
Arithmetic mean
Negative
487
Positive
Zero
Undefined
each other?
Answer:
heads, then the random variable X consists of the value 0, 1, 2, and 3. the X
in this example is a discrete random variable.
Answer:
It has a disadvantage that two or more persons faced with the same evidence may arrive
Example:
evidence that is presented; two of them arrive at the conclusion that the accused is guilty
Answer:
Answer:
488
Example:
exclusive as we can get either an even number or an odd number in one
throw, not both at the same time.
Exhaustive Events: Events are said to be collectively exhaustive, when
the union of mutually exclusive events is equal to the entire sample space
S.
Examples:
X= 34, 70, 42, 54, 40, 68, 56, 38, 36, 72
489
Sta 301 solved quiz
plz make sure all the answers are correct
Which of the following statements about confidence intervals is
inaccurate?
If we keep the sample size ?xed, the con?dence inte
A con?dence interval for a mean always contains the
If we keep the con?dence coe?cient ?xed, the con?d
If the population standard deviation increases, the c
Quiz Start Time: 11:13 AM
Time Left 80
sec(s)
Probability of type II error is
a
B
1-a
1-B
Time Left 79
sec(s)
A random sample of n=25 values gives sample mean 83. Can this
sample be regarded as drawn from a normal
490
population with = 80 and s= 7? In this question the alternative
hypothesis will be: http://www.vustudents.net
H1: = 80
H1: ? 80
H1: > 80
H1: <80
Time Left 72
sec(s)
With increase in sample size, distribution tends to be a.......
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
Time Left 88
sec(s)
You have measured the systolic blood pressure of a random sample of
22 employees of a company. A 95% con?dence
interval for the mean systolic blood pressure for the employees is
computed to be (120,138). Which of the following
statements gives a valid interpretation of this interval?
491
Time Left 82
sec(s)
Assume that a population consists of 7 similar containers having the
following weights (km): 9.8, 10.2, 10.4, 9.8, 10.0,
10.2, 9.6 What is the second moment about mean?
Select correct option: http://www.vustudents.net
0.262 kg
0.069kg
0.521 kg
0.313kg
Time Left 86
sec(s)
How many numbers of parameter(s) are in t-distribution?
0
1
2
3
Time Left 88
sec(s)
With increase in sample size, distribution tends to be a.......
9
Meso kurtic
Normal
Bell shaped
Above all
Time Left 87
sec(s)
F-distribution is a.. distribution.
Unimodel
Bimodal
Discrete
Negatively skewed
Time Left 86
sec(s)
Which one of the following sampling methods would give unbiased
results, if you need to find out the number of
people in your town liking vanilla or chocolate ice creams?
Ask my neighbors
Randoml y sel ect a few i ce cream shops i n town, and
Ask my friends
Ask my classmates
10
A standard deviation obtained from sampling distribution of
sample statistics is known as
Sampling Error
Standard error
F- distribution tends to normality, if
V1~8
V2~8
V1 and V2 ~8
Sampl e si ze i s l arge
plz tell the logic or link you have watched it
Time Left 88
sec(s)
Consistency of an estimator can be checked by comparing
Mean MSE
Vari ance
Standard deviation
11
Time Left 88
sec(s)
A standardized estimate has mean and variance
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(, s2)
(, s)
plz tell the logic or link you watched it
Time Left 89
sec(s)
A composite hypothesis comprises of
Equality
Not equal to
Less than/greater
(b) and (c)
Time Left 89
sec(s)
For a particular hypothesis test, a=0.05and B=0.05. The power of
12
test is equal to:
0.14
0.90
0.95
0.25
Time Left 86
sec(s)
In a t-distribution
Mean=medi an=mode
Mean>Median<Mode
Median >Mean>Mode
Media<Mode<Mean
Time Left 69
sec(s)
If we reject the null hypothesis, we might be making
Type I error
Type II error
A correct decision
Unpredictable
13
sec(s)
The Central Limit Theorem is important in Statistics because it
allows us to use the normal distribution to make
inferences concerning the population mean:
Provi ded that the sampl e si ze i s reasonabl y l arge
(fo Provided that the population is normally distributed a
Herbicide A has been used for years in order to kill a particular
type of weed, but an experiment is to be conducted in
order to see whether a new herbicide, Herbicide B, is more
effective than Herbicide A. Herbicide A will continue to
be used unless there is sufficient evidence that Herbicide B is
more effective. The alternative hypothesis in this
problem is that
(1)Herbicide A is more effective than Herbicide B
(2)Herbicide B is more effective than Herbicide A
(3)Herbicide A is not more effective than Herbicide B
(4)Herbicide B is not more effective than Herbicide A
STA301 Qezz no 1
Time Left 81
sec(s)
14
Tw o Ty pes
sec(s)
a s a m ple s p a ce
joint probability
population
sec(s)
Which of the graph is used for a time series data:
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Historigram
His tog ra m ( no t s ure)
sec(s)
A histogram is consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are
15
marked off by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class frequency
Class marks
sec(s)
The value that has half of the observations above it and half the
observations below it is known as:
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
sec(s)
Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data
16
sec(s)
0
-9
8
9
sec(s)
If the both tails of the distribution are equal, then distribution is called:
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively Skewed
Negatively Skewed
sec(s)
Ranking scale also include the properties of which scale?
Nominal scale
17
Interval scale
Ratio scale
All of these
sec(s)
Range of the values -2.50,-3.70,-4.80,-3.10,-9.70,-2.20,-8.90,-1.60, 0.60
is
10.03
10 .3 0
9.10
9.00
The following data shows the number of hours worked by 200 statistics
students. Number of Hours Frequency 0 - 9 40 10 - 19 50 20 - 29 70 30 -
39 40 What is its class interval?
9
10
11
5
18
19
3
will be:
Positive
Negative
Zero
1
Ordinal
Interval
Nominal
Ratio
Y

2
X
Suppose the estimated equation is
is slop of the line:
0
2
-2
5
has been calculated for a set of data. What
If P(B|A) = 0.25 and
P()A0.20
B
, then P(A) is:
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
Which branch of statistics deals with the techniques that are used to
organize, summarize, and present the data:
Advance statistics
20
A sample
A population
Finite Set
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these
Var ()X() Var Y
Var ()X() + Var Y
Var ()X + Y
Zero
Ungrouped data
Secondary data
Primary data
Arrayed data
-12
8
-8
2
Maximum
Minimum
Zero
Undefined
Undefined
Zero
Maximum
Minimum
Population
Sample
Data
Observations
Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic mean
Mode
We can say that the degree of scatter of data, usually about an
average value, can be the median.
Define population.
We can define population is the collection of individuals or objects
having some common measurable characteristics.
We can define independence of two events are statistically independent if
the probability of their occurring jointly equals the product of their respective
probabilities. Independence of two events also know as stochastic
independence.
0.012, 0.0235, 0.0135
Math=2/3
English=4/9
=1.11
4/5+1.11
=1.911
find
A hit first
B Hit first
B hit Second
A Hit Second
Both Hit Equally
Both didn't Hit
P (A) P (B)
P (A) + P (B) P
(A) * P (B|A)
P(B\A)*P(B)
1
1/2
1
-1/2
1/6
2/36
1/36
1/12
If A and B are independent events with P(A) = 0.05 and P(B) = 0.65, then P(A|B) = :
0.65
0.05
0.03
0.07
Twenty percent of the students in a class of 100 are planning to go to graduate school. The standard deviation of this binomi al
distribution is:
20
2
4
16
1
0
1/2
2
Less than one
Greater than one
Zero
E(4X + 5) =
12 E (X)
4 E (X) + 5 16
E (X) + 5
16 E (X)
Mean
Variance
Mean & variance
Binomial experiment
Poisson experiment
MIDTERM EXAMINATION
Spring 2009
Time: 60 min
Marks: 38
3
will be:
Positive
Negative
Zero
1
When data is labeled to identify an attribute of element, the measurement scale
is:
Ordinal
Interval
Nominal
Ratio
Suppose the estimated equation is has been calculated for a set of
data. What is slop of the line:
0
2
-2
5
0.05
0.80
0.95
0.75
Advance statistics
In a sample of 800 students in a university, 160, or 20%, are Business majors.
Based on the above information, the school's paper reported that "20% of all the
students at the university are Business majors." This report is an example of :
A sample
A population
Finite Set
Infinite Set
Universal Set
No of these
Zero
Ungrouped data
Secondary data
Primary data
Arrayed data
-12
8
-8
2
Maximum
Minimum
Zero
Undefined
Undefined
Zero
Maximum
Minimum
Population
Sample
Data
Observations
Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic mean
Mode
We can say that the degree of scatter of data, usually about an average value, can
be the median.
Define population.
probabilities. Independence of two events also know as stochastic independence.
0.012, 0.0235, 0.0135
The probability that a student passes mathematics is 2/3 and the probability that
he passes English is 4/9. If the probability of passing at least one course is 4/5,
what is the probability that he will pass both courses?
Math=2/3
English=4/9
=1.11
4/5+1.11
=1.911
Suppose if A and B is the pair of dice then lets try to find out how many result we
can find
A hit first
B Hit first
B hit Second A
Hit Second Both
Hit Equally Both
didn't Hit
MIDTERM FALL 2010
M NAD E E N204@G M A IL .C OM
Dated 08-12-2010 (1
st
session)
S T A 301
If a player well shuffles the pack of 52 playing cards, then the probability of a black card
from 52 playing cards is:
1
52
13
52
4
52
26
52


1
52
4
52

13
52
26
52

I n terce p t a = 0
Intercept a 0
Slope b = 0
Slope b 0
parts?
Quartiles
Deciles
Percentiles
S ta nd ard d ev i at i o n s
Hi stogram
Historigram
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Ogive
F re qu e n cy p o l ygon
Frequency curve
Historigram
Which one is equal to explained variation divided by total variation?
Sum of square due to regression
Coefficient of determinant
Standard error estimate
Coefficient of correlation (not confirmed)
in the given series 1,2,1,1,2,2,2,3,4,5,3,2,3,1,4,2,3 mode of given is
4
3
3
1
2
3
2
1
1
3 (n ot con f i rmed )
2
*
True for the population,
it must be large number of values
It is collection of individual objects or measurement not confirmed)
It is the small part of whole
Data arrangement in ascending or descending order
Array d ata
Group data
Ungroup data
Raw data
What is the main objective of Descriptive statistics?
To test population properties
To describe the data we collected
To infer something about the population
Makin g esti mate
Which measure of central tendency?
Variation of distribution
Average of di stribu ti on
Scattering of distribution
Dispersion of distribution
If a=4 b=2 estimate line (i.e y=a+bx) and independent veriable has value 3 the the value
of dependent veriable
6
9
10
11
The number of ways in which 4 books can be arranged
4
6
12
24
If we plot paired observed (x,y)=1.n on graph is called,
Polygon
Freasito diagram
Scatter diagram
Cumulative frequency diagram
The simultaneous occurrence of two events is called
Descriptive probability
Subjective probability not confirmed
Joint probability
Which one is the not measure of dispersion.
The range
50
th
percentile
Inter quartile range
Variance not confirmed
In positively skew cure which relation is
The mean, median and mode are equal
Mean is greater then median not confirmed
Median is greater then mean
Standard deviation must be greater then mean or median
When coin tossed we get only
1 o u tc o m e
2 outcomes
3 outcomes
4 outcomes
When mean is 25 and S.D is 5 then CV is
100%
25%
20% not confirmed
10%
Define rule for permutation
If mean x=0.645 and S
2
=0.215
Then calculate coefficient of variation
Find the probability of drawing white ball from bag out of 4 red, 8 blue and 3 white
balls.
If the equation of the least square regression line are
y=2.64+0.648 and
X=-1.91+0.917x
Find coefficient of r.
A and B are two independent events, if
P(A)=0.40, P(B)=0.30
Find Probabilities i) P (AB)
ii) P(AB
If S={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
And
A={1,2,3,4} , B= {3,4,5,6}
Prove that
( A B) = ( A B)
STA301 Qezz no 1
Time Left 81
sec(s)
Two Types
sec(s)
a sample space
joint probability
population
sec(s)
Which of the graph is used for a time series data: http://www.vustudents.net
Frequency curve
Frequency polygon
Historigram
Histogram ( not sure)
sec(s)
A histogram is consists of a set of adjacent rectangles whose bases are marked off by:
Class boundaries
Class limits
Class frequency
Class marks
sec(s)
The value that has half of the observations above it and half the observations below it is
known as: http://www.vustudents.net
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
sec(s)
Continuous data
Qualitative data
Categorical data
Discrete data
sec(s)
0
-9
8
9
sec(s)
If the both tails of the distribution are equal, then distribution is
called: Select correct option: http://www.vustudents.net
J-shaped
Symmetrical
Positively Skewed
Negatively Skewed
Quiz Start Time: 05:01 PM Time Left
41 sec(s)
Ranking scale also include the properties of which
scale? Select correct option:
Nominal
scale Interval
scale Ratio
scale
All of these
Quiz Start Time: 05:01 PM Time Left
31 sec(s)
Range of the values -2.50,-3.70,-4.80,-3.10,-9.70,-2.20,-8.90,-1.60, 0.60 is
10.03
10.30
9.10
9.00

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Some Questions Answers

EXPECTION OF STATISTIC IS EQUAL TO PARAMETER THAT IS

IF IT IS DI VIDED BY N-1 THEN IT IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE

Question No: 10 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

Question No: 11 ( Marks: 1 ) - Please choose one

a) Verify that f(x,y) is a joint

Which estimator should be preferred?

Which estimator should be preferred?

EXPECTION OF STATISTIC IS EQUAL TO PARAMETER THAT IS

IF IT IS DI VIDED BY N-1 THEN IT IS CALLED UNBIASED OTHER WISE

Question No: 2 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Question No: 3 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Centre of the distribution

-0.5 and +0.5

None of the these

None of the these

a) Verify that f(x,y) is a joint

For some more basic formulas, you can click here

Now integrate this w.r.t dx

where ( ) u g x and ( ) ' du g x dx

For some more basic formulas, you can click here

Now integrate this w.r.t dx

where ( ) u g x and ( ) ' du g x dx

57. A discrete probability function f(x) is always:

is used to refer to the mean of the sampling

Hence its a proper probability density function.

Question No: 3 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Question No: 4 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

Var ()X() + Var Y

Question No: 3 (Marks: 1) - Please choose one

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