CHAPTER NO.

-1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Power generation through speed breaker:

This project harvests energy from speed breaker by making gear arrangement and using electronics gadgets. Large amounts amount of electricity can be generated saving lot of money. And if implemented will be very beneficial for Government. When vehicle is in motion it produces various forms of energy like, due to friction between vehicle wheel and road i.e. rough surface HEAT ENERGY is produced, also when vehicle traveling at high speed strikes the wind.

The principle involved is POTENTIAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONVERSION. There is a system to generate power by converting the potential energy generated by a vehicle going up on a speed breaker into kinetic energy. When the vehicle moves over the inclined plates, it gains height resulting in increase in potential energy, which is wasted in a conventional rumble strip. When the breaker comes down, they crank a lever fitted to a ratchet-wheel type mechanism (a angular motion converter) which in turn rotates a geared shaft loaded with recoil springs. The output of this shaft is coupled to a dynamo to convert kinetic energy into electricity. POWER GENERATION USING SPEED BREAKERSsays it is a 'very viable proposition' to harness thousands of mega watts of electricity untapped across the country every day."A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on such a rumble stripproduces approximately 0.98 kilowatt power. So one such speed-breaker on a busyhighway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of electricitycan be produced every single minute. The figure will be huge at the end of the day," hesaid.The Assam power ministry is expected to back the iit pilot project.Das says a storage module like an inverter will have to be fitted to each suchrumble strip to store this electricity. The cost of electricity generation and storage permega watt. BASIC PRINCIPLES: simple energy conversion from mechanical to electrical.to generate electricity using the vehicle kinetic energy as inputwe can develope electricity from speed breakers.they are using 3 different mechanisms: I. Roller mechanism II. Rack- Pinion mechanism III.

Crank-shaft mechanism POWER GENERATION USING SPEED BREAKERS ROLLER MECHANISM: ake use of.OR directly we can say that A roller blind mechanism for winding and unwinding a rollable blind, themechanism comprising a support element, a drive sprocket which is rotatably mounted onthe support element for transmitting rotational movement to a blind supporting member,and a manually-movable elongate flexible drive element which includes a plurality of interlinked tooth-engaging elements, the drive sprocket including a plurality of flexibleteeth engagable with the tooth-engaging elements of the flexible drive element.A roller blind mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein a radial extent of the teeth of the

POWER GENERATION USING SPEED BREAKERS 76 drive sprocket is equal to or greater than a maximum dimension of the tooth-engagingelements of the flexible drive element.A roller blind mechanism as claimed in claim 2, wherein the radial extent is equalto or greater than twice the maximum dimension of the tooth-engaging elements of theflexible drive element.A roller blind mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein the teeth of the drivesprocket flex in a circumferential direction of the sprocket. Rack and Pinion mechanism: GY that is abundantly available around us. In this project we are just trying to make use of such energy inorder to generat

Rack and pinion gears normally change rotary motion into linear motion, butsometimes we use them to change linear motion into rotary motion.They transform a rotary movement (that of the pinion) into a linear movement

POWER GENERATION USING SPEED BREAKERS (that of the rack) or vice versa.We use them for sliding doors moved by an electric motor.The rack is attachedto the door and the pinion is attached to the motor. The motor moves the pinion whichmoves the rack and the door moves. CRANKSHAFT MECHANISM: The crankshaft is a mechanism that transforms rotarymovement into linear movement, or vice versa.For example, the motion of the pistons in the engineof a car is linear (they go up and down).But the motion of the wheels has to be rotary.So, engineers put a crankshaft between the engineand the transmission to the wheels.The pistons of the engine move the crankshaft andthe movement becomes rotary.Then the rotary movement goes past the clutch andthe gear box all the way to the wheels.

POWER GENERATION USING SPEED BREAKERS 78 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM OF ROLLER MECHANISM: oil production peak occurred in December Before starting I have one question to you all who is really very happywith the current situation of the electricity in India? I suppose no one . so this is my stepto improve the situation of electricity with a innovative and useful concept ie GeneratingElectricity from a Speed breaker First of all what is electricity means to us? Electricity isthe form of energy. It is the flow of electrical Power . Electricity is a basic part of natureand it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. We get electricity, which is asecondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal,natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primarysources. Many cities and towns were built alongside water falls that turned water wheelsto perform work. Before electricity generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houseswere lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed bywood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arclights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation,transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be transmittedover much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used electricity tobring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines. How is electricitygenerated?Electricity generation was first developed in the 1800's using Faradays dynamogenerator. Almost 200 years later we are still using the same basic principles to generateelectricity, only on a much larger scale.The rotor(rotating shaft) is directly connected to the prime mover and rotates asthe prime mover turns. The rotor contains a magnet that, when turned, produces a movingor

rotating magnetic field. The rotor is surrounded by a stationary casing called the stator,which contains the wound copper coils or windings. When the moving magnetic fieldpasses by these windings, electricity is produced in them. By controlling the speed atwhich the rotor is turned, a steady flow of electricity is produced in the windings. Thesewindings are connected to the electricity network via transmission lines.

1.2 Calculations:
A vehicle weighing 1,000 kg going up a height of 10 cm on a rumble strip produces approximately 0.98KW power by placing one such speed-breaker on a busy highway, where about 100 vehicles pass every minute, about one kilo watt of electricity can be produced every minute.

CHAPTER-2
OVERVIEW 2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE: 2.1.1 MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
One rod with the dynamo is placed like a speed breaker. Dynamo MEANS a generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct

electric current through Faraday's law. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. Movement of vehicle just rotates the dynamo shaft and electricity is generated. This voltage is to be stored in the chargeable battery. In the night lights are automatic on with the help of photovoltaic switch logic. But all lights are not on, only half light are on. Other half lights switch on automatically when any vehicle move on the bridge, when there is no vehicle on the bridge then lights are off automatically. We use two infrared sensors to check the movement of vehicle. When first infra red sensor is on then lights are on and when second sensor is interrupting then lights are off. A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. Here we used some electronics for that purpose. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles. MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF STREET LIGHTING INCLUDES: PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS AND INCREASE IN SAFETY. STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT DARKNESS RESULTS IN A LARGE NUMBER OF CRASHES AND FATALITIES, ESPECIALLY THOSE INVOLVING PEDESTRIANS; PEDESTRIAN FATALITIES ARE 3 TO 6.75 TIMES MORE VULNERABLE IN THE DARK THAN IN DAYLIGHT. STREET LIGHTING HAS BEEN FOUND TO REDUCE PEDESTRIAN CRASHES BY APPROXIMATELY HALF PERCENT.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION:

FIG IN WE HOW

2.1

THIS MODEL SHOW THAT WE GENERATE A VOLTAGE FROM THE BUSY ROAD TRAFFIC. IN ALL THE CITYS TRAFFIC IS VERY MUCH HIGH AND ON SOME ROAD, TRAFFIC MOVE LIKE A TORTOISE. IF WE EMPLOY A SPEED BREAKER TYPE GENERATOR ON THE ROAD THEN WE UTILIZE THE FRICTION OF VEHICLE INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY AND THEN THIS MECHANICAL ENERGY IS FURTHER CONVERTED INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY WITH THE HELP OF THE POWERFUL DYNAMO. SO WE INSTALL A ONE POWERFUL DYNAMO ON THE ROAD. OUTPUT OF THE DYNAMO IS CONNECTED TO THE L.E.D. IN THIS PROJECT. WHEN WE MOVE THE SHAFT OF THE DYNAMO THEN DYNAMO GENERATE A VOLTAGE AND THIS VOLTAGE IS SUFFICIENT TO DRIVE THE L.E.D. IN ACTUAL PRACTICE WE USE THIS DYNAMO TO GENERATE A VOLTAGE AND AFTER GENERATING A VOLTAGE WE CHARGE THE BATTERY. WHEN BATTERY IS FULLY CHARGED THEN WE USE THIS BATTERY AS A STORAGE DEVICE. WE USE THIS STORAGE DEVICE TO RUN THE LIGHTS OF THE ROAD. A RECHARGEABLE BATTERY (ALSO KNOWN AS A STORAGE BATTERY) IS A GROUP OF ONE OR MORE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS. THEY ARE KNOWN AS SECONDARY CELLS BECAUSE THEIR ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE ELECTRICALLY REVERSIBLE. RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES COME IN MANY DIFFERENT SIZES AND USE DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF CHEMICALS; COMMON TYPES INCLUDE: LEAD ACID, NICKEL CADMIUM (NICD), NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE (NIMH), LITHIUM ION (LI-ION), AND LITHIUM ION POLYMER (LI-ION POLYMER).

Fig 2.2

Rechargeable battery

Fig 2.3

In this project we show that how we use IC 555 as a automatic street light function. Here in this project IC 555 work as a monostable timer. Pin no 4 and 8 of the IC is connected to the positive supply. Pin no 1 of the IC is connected to the ground pin. Pin no 3 is the output pin. On this pin we connect a output L.E.D. LDR is connected to the pin no 2 of the IC via 100 k

ohm resistor. When light fall on the LDR then LDR offers a low resistance. When LDR is in dark then LDR offers a high resistance. When we convert the LDR by hand then LDR resistance become high and so pin no 2 become more negative. When pin no 2 become negative then IC 555 triggers itself and output is on. This is the function of the monostable timer.

2.3 MATERIAL REQUIRED:

After the general layout of the speed breaker system has been made of successful working it is necessary to select proper material for the system of refrigeration. This involves the consideration of many facts about available material such as dynamo weight, size shape of the component material cost, fabrication cost, overhead charges and many other properties peculiar to the use of which to member is to be fitted. The following four types of principle properties of material effect their selection. 1. 2. 3. 4. Mechanical Physical Chemical Form manufacturing point of view. It is important that the material to be used in such a way as to take full advantage of their natural characteristics following material is selected for the fabrication of speed breaker by road. The roller which is extensively used in speed breaker to generate a electricity are made from a materials like synthetic rubber, rumble strips etc for a low weight vehicles and medium weight vehicles like bikes, scooters, bicycles, auto rickshaw, cabs etc.

CHAPTER NO.-3 ABOUT OUR PROJECT

In our project we are using one round plastic pipe and fix that pipe on the board with help of iron shaft and bearing as shown below. Now we attach one dynamo with hat pipe with help of gear arrangements as shown below.

When vechile pass over that round pipe, pipe rotate to the dynamo with help of gear assembly. Dynamo generate current and that current glow street lamp.

CHAPTER NO.-4 4. COMPONENT USED:

1. 2. 3. 4. Plastic pipe Dynamo Led Gear

5. Bearing 6. Bearing stand 7. Iron rode 8. Wire 9. Iron stand 10.Wooden frame

4.1 DYNAMO:

4.1.1 Introduction
A dynamo, originally another name for an electrical generator, now means a generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternatingcurrent alternator, and the rotary converter. They are rarely used for power generation now because of the dominance of alternating current, the disadvantages of the commutator, and the ease of converting alternating to direct current using solid state methods. The word still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. A small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power lights is called a Hub dynamo.

4.1.2 Description
The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils. The commutator was needed to produce direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a magnetic field, the potential induced in it reverses with each half turn, generating an alternating current. However, in the early days of electric experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries. Dynamos were invented as a replacement for batteries. The commutator is a set of contacts mounted on the machine's shaft, which reverses the connection of the windings to the external circuit when the potential reverses, so instead of alternating current, a pulsing direct current is produced.

4.1.3 Historical milestones

The first electric generator was invented by Michael Faraday in 1831, a copper disk that rotated between the poles of a magnet. This was not a dynamo because it did not use a commutator. However, Faraday's disk generated very low voltage because of its single current path through the magnetic field. Faraday and others found that higher, more useful voltages could be produced by winding multiple turns of wire into a coil. Wire windings can conveniently produce any voltage desired by changing the number of turns, so they have been a feature of all subsequent generator designs, requiring the invention of the commutator to produce direct current.

4.1.4 Jedlik's dynamo

In 1827, Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter,

both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo about six years before Siemens and Wheatstone but did not patent it as he thought he was not the first to realize this. His dynamo used, instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets opposite to each other to induce the magnetic field around the rotor.

4.1.5 Pixii's dynamo

The first dynamo based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with wire. Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a pole passed the coil. However, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents in

opposite directions. To convert the alternating current to DC, Pixii invented a commutator, a split metal cylinder on the shaft, with two springy metal contacts that pressed against it.

4.1.6 Pacinotti dynamo

These early designs had a problem: the electric current they produced consisted of a series of "spikes" or pulses of current separated by none at all, resulting in a low average power output. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian physics professor, solved this problem around 1860 by replacing the spinning two-pole axial coil with a multi-pole toroidal one, which he created by wrapping an iron ring with a continuous winding, connected to the commutator at many equally spaced points around the ring; the commutator being divided into many segments. This meant that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the current.

4.1.7 Siemens and Wheatstone dynamo (1867)

The first practical designs for a dynamo were announced independently and simultaneously by Dr. Werner Siemens and Charles Wheatstone. On January 17, 1867, Siemens announced to the Berlin academy a "dynamo-electric machine" (first use of the term) which employed a selfpowering electromagnetic armature.On the same day that this invention was announced to the Royal Society Charles Wheatstone read a paper describing a similar design with the difference that in the Siemens design the armature was in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design it was in parallel. The use of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets greatly increases the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.

4.1.8 Gramme ring dynamo

Znobe Gramme reinvented Pacinotti's design in 1871 when designing the first commercial power plants, which operated in Paris in the 1870s. Another advantage of Gramme's design was a better path for the magnetic flux, by filling the space occupied by the magnetic field with heavy iron cores and minimizing the air gaps between the stationary and rotating parts. The Gramme dynamo was the first machine to generate commercial quantities of power for industry. Further improvements were made on the Gramme ring, but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop of wire remains at the heart of all modern dynamos.

4.1.9 Discovery of electric motor principles

While not originally designed for the purpose, it was discovered that a dynamo can act as an electric motor when supplied with direct current from a battery or another dynamo. At an industrial exhibition in Vienna in 1873, Gramme noticed that the shaft of his dynamo began to spin when its terminals were accidentally connected to another dynamo producing electricity. Although this wasn't the first demonstration of an electric motor, it was the first practical one. It was found that the same design features which make a dynamo efficient also make a motor efficient. The efficient Gramme design, with small magnetic air gaps and many coils of wire attached to a many-segmented commutator, also became the basis for the design of all practical DC motors. Large dynamos producing direct current were problematic in situations where two or more dynamos are working together and one has an engine running at a lower power than the other. The dynamo with the stronger engine will tend to drive the weaker as if it were a motor, against the rotation of the weaker engine. Such reverse-driving could feed back into the driving engine of a dynamo and cause a dangerous out of control reverse-spinning condition in the lower-power dynamo. It was eventually determined that when several dynamos all feed the same power source all the dynamos must be locked into synchrony using a jackshaft interconnecting all engines and rotors to counter these imbalances.

4.1.10 Dynamo as Commutated DC Generator

After the discovery of the AC Generator and that alternating current can in fact be useful for something, the word dynamo became associated exclusively with the commutated DC electric generator, while an AC electrical generator using either slip rings or rotor magnets would become known as an alternator.

An AC electric motor using either slip rings or rotor magnets was referred to as a synchronous motor, and a commutated DC electric motor could be called either an electric motor though with the understanding that it could in principle operate as a generator.

4.1.11 Rotary Converter Development

After dynamos were found to allow easy conversion back and forth between mechanical or electrical power, the new discovery was used to develop complex multi-field single-rotor devices with two or more commutators. These were known as a rotary converters. These devices were usually not burdened by mechanical loads, but watched just spinning on their own. The rotary converter can directly convert, internally, any power source into any other. This includes direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC), 25 cycle AC into 60 cycle AC, or many different output currents at the same time. The size and mass of these was very large so that the rotor would act as a flywheel to help smooth out any sudden surges or dropouts. The technology of rotary converters ruled until the development of vacuum tubes allowed for electronic oscillators. This eliminated the need for physically spinning rotors and commutators.

4.2 BEARING 4.2.1 Introduction

A bearing is any of various machine elements that constrain the relative motion between two or more parts to only the desired type of motion. This is typically to allow and promote free rotation around a fixed axis or free linear movement; it may also be to prevent any motion, such as by controlling the vectors of normal forces. Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they allow and according to their principle of operation, as well as by the directions of applied loads they can handle. The term "bearing" comes ultimately from the verb "to bear", and a bearing is thus a machine element that allows one part to bear another, usually allowing (and controlling) relative motion between them. The simplest bearings are nothing more than bearing surfaces, which are surfaces cut or formed into a part, with some degree of control over the quality of the surface's form, size, surface, and location (from a little control to a lot, depending on the application).

4.2.2 How Bearings Work

Have you ever wondered how things like inline skate wheels and electric motors spin so smoothly and quietly? The answer can be found in a neat little machine called a bearing.

A tapered roller bearing from a manual transmission

The bearing makes many of the machines we use every day possible. Without bearings, we would be constantly replacing parts that wore out from friction. In this article, we'll learn how bearings work, look at some different kinds of bearings and explain their common uses, and explore some other interesting uses of bearings.

4.2.3The Basics
The concept behind a bearing is very simple: Things roll better than they slide. The wheels on your car are like big bearings. If you had something like skis instead of wheels, your car would be a lot more difficult to push down the road. That is because when things slide, the friction between them causes a force that tends to slow them down. But if the two surfaces can roll over each other, the friction is greatly reduced.

Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth metal balls or rollers, and a smooth inner and outer metal surface for the balls to roll against. These balls or rollers "bear" the load, allowing the device to spin smoothly.

4.2.4 Bearing Loads

Bearings typically have to deal with two kinds of loading, radial and thrust. Depending on where the bearing is being used, it may see all radial loading, all thrust loading or a combination of both.

The bearings that support the shafts of motors and pulleys are subject to a radial load.
The bearings in the electric motor and the pulley pictured above face only a radial load. In this case, most of the load comes from the tension in the belt connecting the two pulleys.

The bearings in this stool are subject to a thrust load.

The bearing above is like the one in a barstool. It is loaded purely in thrust, and the entire load comes from the weight of the person sitting on the stool.

The bearings in a car wheel are subject to both thrust and radial loads.

The bearing above is like the one in the hub of your car wheel. This bearing has to support both a radial load and a thrust load. The radial load comes from the weight of the car, the thrust load comes from the cornering forces when you go around a turn. Types of Bearings There are many types of bearings, each used for different purposes. These include ball bearings, roller bearings, ball thrust bearings, roller thrust bearings and tapered roller thrust bearings.

4.2.5 Ball Bearings

Ball bearings, as shown below, are probably the most common type of bearing. They are found in everything from inline skates to hard drives. These bearings can handle both radial and thrust loads, and is usually found in applications where the load is relatively small.

Cutaway view of a ball bearing In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball, and from the ball to the inner race. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer race at a very small point, which helps it spin very smoothly. But it also means that there is not very much contact area holding that load, so if the bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform or squish, ruining the bearing.

4.3 GEAR 4.3.1 Introduction

A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple relationship.

4.3.2 Gear Types

A gear train consists of one or more gear sets intended to give a specific velocity ratio, or change direction of motion. Gear and gear train types can be grouped based on their application and tooth geometry.

Table I: Gear Types Grouped According to Shaft Arrangement Non-Intersecting Intersecting Rotary to Parallel Axes (Non-parallel) Axes Translation Axes
Spur Gears Helical Gears Herringbone or double helical gears Bevel gears: Straight bevel Zerol bevel Spiral bevel Hypoid gears Crossed helical gears Worm gears Rack and Pinion

4.3.3 Spur gears (Fig. ):

Spur gears connect parallel shafts, have involute teeth that are parallel to the shafts, and can have either internal or external teeth. Notes:

1. Spur gears are inexpensive to manufacture. 2. They cause no axial thrust between gears. 3. They give lower performance, but may be satisfactory in low speed or simple applications

4.3.4 Helical Gear

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed in a parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration are sometimes known as "skew gears". The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth causing them to run more smoothly and quietly. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds. Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is considered to be high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s. A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.

4.3.5 Skew Gears

For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal pitch, however the helix angle and handedness can be different. The relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as defined: For gears of the same handedness for gears of opposite handedness Where is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact. Quite commonly helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a right-handed helix and a left-handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle between shafts is zero that is, the shafts are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as described in the equations above) is not zero the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles the helix angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90 degrees.

4.3.6 Double Helical

4.3.7 Bevel Gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.

4.3.8 Spiral Bevels

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth are curved along the tooth's length and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth. Zero bevel gears have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.

4.3.9 Hypoid Gear

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gears. This style of gear is most commonly found driving mechanical differentials; which are normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.

4.3.10 Crown Gear

Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.

4.3.11 Worm Gear

4-start worm and wheel Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel. Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while wormand-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1.A disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given. In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments. If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact will be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a conedrive. or "Double enveloping" Worm gears can be right or left-handed following the long established practice for screw threads.

4.3.12 Rack and pinion Gear

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway.

4.3.13 Sun And Planet Gear

Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion in steam engines. It was famously used by James Watt on his early steam engines in order to get around the patent on the crank.

The Sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey.

4.3.14 Magnetic Gear

All cogs of each gear component of such gear are performed as a constant magnet with periodic alternation of opposite magnetic poles on mating surfaces and nearest poles of cogs of different gear components are similar. And gear components are mounted with a backlash with capability of mechanical gearing. At not too big load such gear works without touch of motive details and has a raised reliability without noise.

LED
"LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).

Light-emitting diode

Red, pure green and blue LEDs of the 5mm diffused type Type Working principle Invented First production Passive, optoelectronic Electroluminescence Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)[1] 1968[2] Electronic symbol

Pin configuration

anode and cathode

Parts of an LED. Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from mechanical strain or vibration.

LED retrofit "bulb" with aluminium heatsink, a diffusing dome and E27 base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[3] LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[4] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances. Practical use

LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[21] first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal uses). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors grew widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while maintaining efficiency and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high-power white-light LED led to use for illumination, which is fast replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting[22][23] (see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability,[24] so more complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-art high-power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs. Physics The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development. Refractive index

Idealized example of light emission cones in a semiconductor, for a single point-source emission zone. The left illustration is for a fully translucent wafer, while the right illustration shows the half-cones formed when the bottom layer is fully opaque. The light is actually emitted equally in all directions from the point-source, so the areas between the cones shows the large amount of trapped light energy that is wasted as heat.[34] Advantages

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs.[93] Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[94]) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond.[95] LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.[96] Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.[97] Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer.[98] Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours. Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.

Disadvantages

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2010, the cost per thousand lumens (kilolumen) was about $18. The price is expected to reach $2/kilolumen by 2015.[99] The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and need low failure rates. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.[100] Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED

illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[101] red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs. Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[102] Electrical Polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.[103][104] Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperature emit proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as highpressure sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky Association discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.[105][not in citation given] Droop: The efficiency of LEDs tends to decrease as one increases current.[106][42][107][108]

Applications
In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major parts, the public lighting and indoor lighting. LED uses fall into four major categories:

Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects. Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.[109] Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.

For more than 70 years, until the LED, practically all lighting was incandescent and fluorescent with the first fluorescent light only being commercially available after the 1939 World's Fair.

The light emission cones of a real LED wafer are far more complex than a single point-source light emission. The light emission zone is typically a two-dimensional plane between the wafers. Every atom across this plane has an individual set of emission cones. Drawing the billions of overlapping cones is impossible, so this is a simplified diagram showing the extents of all the emission cones combined. The larger side cones are clipped to show the interior features and reduce image complexity; they would extend to the opposite edges of the two-dimensional emission plane. Bare uncoated semiconductors such as silicon exhibit a very high refractive index relative to open air, which prevents passage of photons at sharp angles relative to the air-contacting surface of the semiconductor. This property affects both the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the light-absorption efficiency of photovoltaic cells. The refractive index of silicon is 4.24, while air is 1.0002926.[35] In general, a flat-surface uncoated LED semiconductor chip will emit light only perpendicular to the semiconductor's surface, and a few degrees to the side, in a cone shape referred to as the light cone, cone of light,[36] or the escape cone.[37] The maximum angle of incidence is referred to as the critical angle. When this angle is exceeded, photons no longer penetrate the semiconductor but are instead reflected both internally inside the semiconductor crystal and externally off the surface of the crystal as if it were a mirror.[37] Internal reflections can escape through other crystalline faces, if the incidence angle is low enough and the crystal is sufficiently transparent to not re-absorb the photon emission. But for a simple square LED with 90-degree angled surfaces on all sides, the faces all act as equal angle mirrors. In this case the light can not escape and is lost as waste heat in the crystal.[37] A convoluted chip surface with angled facets similar to a jewel or fresnel lens can increase light output by allowing light to be emitted perpendicular to the chip surface while far to the sides of the photon emission point.[38]

The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be a microsphere with the photon emission occurring at the exact center, with electrodes penetrating to the center to contact at the emission point. All light rays emanating from the center would be perpendicular to the entire surface of the sphere, resulting in no internal reflections. A hemispherical semiconductor would also work, with the flat back-surface serving as a mirror to back-scattered photons.[39] Transition coatings Many LED semiconductor chips are potted in clear or colored molded plastic shells. The plastic shell has three purposes: Indicators and signs Lighting Smart lighting ustainable lighting Energy consumption Economically sustainable Leadacid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plant, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-tovolume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. Leadacid batteries (under 5 kg) account for 1.5% of all portable secondary battery sales in Japan by number of units sold (25% by price).[1] Sealed leadacid batteries accounted for 10% by weight of all portable battery sales in the EU in 2000. [2]

Electrochemistry
Discharge

Fully Discharged: Two identical lead sulfate plates In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The

discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the positive plate back into the cell at the negative plate. Negative plate reaction: Pb(s) + HSO + 4(aq) PbSO4(s) + H (aq) + 2e

Positive plate reaction: PbO2(s) + HSO + 4(aq) + 3H (aq) + 2e PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Charging

Fully Charged: Lead and Lead Oxide plates In the charged state, each cell contains negative plates of elemental lead (Pb) and positive plates of lead(IV) oxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of approximately 33.5% v/v (4.2 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The charging process is driven by the forcible removal of electrons from the negative plate and the forcible introduction of them to the positive plate. Negative plate reaction: PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e Pb(s) + HSO 4(aq) Positive plate reaction: PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) PbO2(s) + HSO + 4(aq) + 3H (aq) + 2e

Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which is lost to the cell. Periodic maintenance of lead acid batteries requires inspection of the electrolyte level and replacement of any water that has been lost. Due to the freezing-point depression of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather.

Voltages for common usages

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. These are general voltage ranges for six-cell lead-acid batteries:

Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 12.6 V (2.1V per cell) Open-circuit at full discharge: 11.7 V Loaded at full discharge: 10.5 V. Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 13.4 V for gelled electrolyte; 13.5 V for AGM (absorbed glass mat) and 13.9 V for flooded cells

1. All voltages are at 20 C (68 F), and must be adjusted 0.0235V/C for temperature changes. 2. Float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's recommendation. 3. Precise float voltage (0.05 V) is critical to longevity; insufficient voltage (causes sulfation) is almost as detrimental as excessive voltage (causing corrosion and electrolyte loss)

Typical (daily) charging: 14.2 V to 14.4 V (depending on temperature and manufacturer's recommendation!) Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 15 V for no more than 2.205 hours. Battery temperature must be absolutely monitored. Gassing threshold: 14.4 V

Portable batteries, such as for miners' cap lamps headlamps typically have two or three cells. [3]

Measuring the charge level

A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge.

A battery's open-circuit voltage can be used to estimate the state of charge, in this case for a 12volt battery. Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity (S.G.) of the electrolyte, the S.G. falling as the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the S.G. was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.[4] The battery's open circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge.[5] If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of the each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole.

Construction
Plates The leadacid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However such a construction produces only around one ampere for roughly postcard sized plates, and for only a few minutes. Gaston Plant found a way to provide a much larger effective surface area. In Plant's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was required to corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughening them to increase surface area. Initially this process used electricity from primary batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of production of batteries greatly declined.[6] Plant plates are still used in some stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to increase their surface area. Faure pasted-plate construction is typical of automotive batteries. Each plate consists of a rectangular lead grid alloyed with antimony or calcium to improve the mechanical characteristics. The holes of the grid are filled with a paste of red lead and 33% dilute sulfuric acid. (Different manufacturers vary the mixture). The paste is pressed into the holes in the grid which are slightly tapered on both sides to better retain the paste. This porous paste allows the

acid to react with the lead inside the plate, increasing the surface area many fold. Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in the battery container. An odd number of plates is usually used, with one more negative plate than positive. Each alternate plate is connected. The positive plates are the chocolate brown color of lead dioxide, and the negative are the slate gray of "spongy" lead at the time of manufacture. In this charged state the plates are called 'formed'. One of the problems with the plates is that the plates increase in size as the active material absorbs sulfate from the acid during discharge, and decrease as they give up the sulfate during charging. This causes the plates to gradually shed the paste. It is important that there is room underneath the plates to catch this shed material. If it reaches the plates, the cell short-circuits. The paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the leadtolead sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the formation of long needle like crystals. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing endofcharge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to onehalf the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.[7] Practical cells are usually not made with pure lead but have small amounts of antimony, tin, calcium or selenium alloyed in the plate material to add strength and simplify manufacture. The alloying element has a great effect on the life of the batteries, with calcium-alloyed plates preferred over antimony for longer life and less water consumption on each charge/discharge cycle. About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type leadacid battery rated around 60 Ah (8.7 kg of a 14.5 kg battery) is lead or internal parts made of lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case.[6] Separators Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short-circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell. Wood, rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators were stable in the battery acid.

An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the battery's operating temperature range.

Applications
Most of the world's leadacid batteries are automobile starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) batteries, with an estimated 320 million units shipped in 1999.[6] In 1992 about 3 million tons of lead were used in the manufacture of batteries. Wet cell stand-by (stationary) batteries designed for deep discharge are commonly used in large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centers, grid energy storage, and off-grid household electric power systems.[8] Leadacid batteries are used in emergency lighting in case of power failure. Traction (propulsion) batteries are used for in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles. Large leadacid batteries are also used to power the electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines and are used on nuclear submarines as well. Valve-regulated lead acid batteries cannot spill their electrolyte. They are used in back-up power supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies) and for electric scooters, electric wheelchairs, electrified bicycles, marine applications, battery electric vehicles or micro hybrid vehicles, and motorcycles. Leadacid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage, with 2 V common in early vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers.

Cycles

CHAPTER NO.-5 5 Ratchet Mechanism

5.1 Introduction
A toothed mechanism for the conversion of reciprocating rotary motion into intermittent rotary motion in one direction. A ratchet mechanism is based on a wheel that has teeth cut out of it and a pawl that follows as the wheel turns. In this the ratchet wheel turns and the pawl falls into the 'dip' between the teeth. The ratchet wheel can only turn in one direction - in this case anticlockwise. As shown in Figure , a ratchet mechanism consists of a ratchet wheel (1), a driving pawl (2), an arm (3), a locking pawl (4), and a support (0). The driving pawl engages the teeth of the ratchet wheel under the action of a spring or of its own weight. When the arm moves counterclockwise, the driving pawl turns the ratchet wheel through a certain angle. When the arm moves clockwise, the catch slips past one or more teeth, but the locking pawl prevents the clockwise rotation of the ratchet wheel.

Figure Diagram of a ratchet mechanism

Ratchet mechanisms are used in, for example, bicycles and machine tools. In load-lifting machines, ratchet mechanisms prevent the drum of the winch from moving backward under the weight of the load.

5.2 Rachet-Wheel Type Mechanism For Two Rachet Gears 5.2.1 Introduction

A ratchet-type lever mechanism including two ratchet gear wheels and a bifurcated ratchet pawl member for selective meshed engagement with one of the two ratchet gear wheels. The bifurcated ratchet pawl member is simply bent from a plate material into such an offset configuration having a first toothed pawl portion and a second toothed pawl portion bent from that first one in an offset manner so that the two pawl portions are in correspondence with the respective two ratchet gear wheels. This ratchet-type lever mechanism has a simplified connection structure allowing both of the bifurcated ratchet member and an operating lever to be securely connected on an input shaft, whereby the input shaft is made short in length, thereby making thin a whole size of the lever mechanism. A restriction element for rotation of the bifurcated ratchet pawl member may also be mounted on that input shaft for that purpose.

5.2.2 Claim
1. A ratchet-type lever mechanism comprising: an output shaft element rotatably provided in said ratchet-type lever mechanism; a ratchet gear wheel means rotatably providedin said ratchet-type lever mechanism; said ratchet gear wheel means including a first ratchet gear wheel and a second ratchet gear wheel, wherein each of said first and second ratchet gear wheels has one-way clutch means built therein, with such anarrangement that said first ratchet gear wheel is to be locked to said output shaft element in a normal direction for rotation therewith, while being allowed to rotate in a reverse direction, and that said second ratchet gear wheel is to be locked tosaid output shaft element in said reverse direction, while being allowed to rotate in said normal direction; an input shaft element rotatably supported in said ratchet-type lever mechanism; a ratchet pawl member so formed from a plate material to have:a flat body portion; a first toothed pawl portion; and a second toothed pawl portion, wherein said first and second toothed pawl portions extend from said flat body portion in a spaced-apart manner, such that said second toothed pawl portion is bentfrom said first toothed pawl portion in an offset relation with respect to said body portion; said first and second toothed pawl portions being disposed in correspondence with the respective said first and second ratchet gear wheels; and a connectingmeans for connecting said ratchet pawl member to said input shaft element, said connecting means being defined in said input shaft and ratchet pawl elements. 2. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein an operating lever is firmly attached to said input shaft element. 3. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein an operating lever is firmly attached to said input shaft element, and wherein a biasing means is provided to normally bias both said ratchet pawl member and said operating leverin a direction to a neutral point where said first and second toothed pawl portions are both out of engagement with the respective said first and second ratchet. 4. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein said connecting means comprises: an uneven portion defined in said input shaft; and an unevenly shaped hole

formed in said ratchet pawl member, and wherein said ratchet pawlmember is connected to said input shaft by engaging said unevenly shaped hole of the ratchet pawl member about said uneven portion of the input shaft element. 5. The ratchet-type lever mechanism according to claim 4, wherein said uneven portion and said unevenly shaped hole are formed in a splined. 6. The ratchet-type lever mechanism according to claim 4, wherein said uneven portion and said unevenly shaped hole are formed in a non-circularmanner. 7. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 1, wherein an operating lever is firmly attached to said input shaft element, and wherein said connecting means includes a two-point connecting means for not only connecting said operatinglever to said input shaft element at one point, but also connecting said operating lever to said ratchet pawl member at another point. 8. A ratchet-type lever mechanism comprising: a housing means; an output shaft element rotatably provided in said housing means; a ratchet gear wheel means rotatably provided in said housing means; said ratchet gear wheel means including afirst ratchet gear wheel and a second ratchet gear wheel, wherein each of said first and second ratchet gear wheels has one-way clutch means built therein, with such an arrangement that said first ratchet gear wheel is to be locked to said output shaftelement in a normal direction for rotation therewith, while being allowed to rotate in a reverse direction, and that said second ratchet gear wheel is to be locked to said output shaft element in said reverse direction, while being allowed to rotate insaid normal direction; an input shaft element rotatably supported in said housing means; a ratchet pawl member so formed from a plate material to have: a flat body portion; a first toothed pawl portion; and a second toothed pawl portion, wherein saidfirst and second toothed pawl portions extend from said flat body portion in a spacedapart manner, such that said second toothed pawl portion is bent from said first toothed pawl portion in an offset relation with respect to said flat body portion; said first and second toothed pawl portions being disposed in correspondence with the respective said first and second ratchet gear wheels; and a connecting means for connecting said ratchet pawl member to said input shaft element, said connecting meansbeing defined in said input shaft element and said flat body portion of said ratchet pawl member. 9. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 8, wherein said connecting means comprises: an uneven portion defined in said input shaft element; and an unevenly shaped hole formed in said ratchet pawl member, and wherein said ratchetpawl member is connected to said input shaft element by engaging said unevenly shaped hole of the ratchet pawl member about said uneven portion of the input shaft element. 10. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 8, which further comprises: a restriction means for restricting rotation of said ratchet pawl member, said restricting means including: a restriction element so formed from a plate material as to have a flat body portion and at least one lug extending from said flat body portion and a pair of stopper pieces formed in said housing means, with such an arrangement that rotation of

said input shaft element brings one of said at leastone lug of said restriction element to contact with a selected one of said pair of stopper pieces associated with said restriction means, thereby restricting rotation range of said first and second toothed pawl portions with respect to said first and second. 11. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 8, wherein an operating lever is firmly attached to said input shaft element, wherein a biasing means is provided to normally bias both said ratchet pawl member and said operating lever in a direction to a neutral point where said first and second toothed pawl portions are both out of engagement with the respective said first and second ratchet gear wheels, wherein said biasing means comprises a circular spring having a pair of ends, said circular spring being attached about said connecting means, wherein a restriction means is provided for restricting rotation of said rachet pawl member, said restricting means including: a restriction element so formed from a plate material as to have aflat body portion and at least three lugs extending from said flat body portion and a pair of stopper pieces formed in said housing means, with such an arrangement that rotation of said input shaft element brings one of said at least three lugs of saidrestriction element to contact with one of said pair of stopper pieces associated with said restriction means, thereby restricting rotation range of said first and second toothed pawl portions with respect to said first and second toothed ratchet gearwheels, and wherein said two ends of said circular spring are respectively contacted with another two of said at least three lugs of said restriction elements. 12. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 8, wherein the ratchet-type lever mechanism includes an operating lever disposed outside said housing means, wherein said connecting means includes a two-point connecting means for notonly connecting said operating lever to said input shaft element at one point, but also connecting said operating lever to said ratchet pawl member at another point, wherein said two-point connecting means comprises: a first connecting means forconnecting said operating lever to said input shaft element, said first connecting means comprising: a threaded hole portion formed in said input shaft element; a first hole formed in said operating lever; and a securing screw which is inserted throughsaid first hole and further threadedly engaged in said threaded hole, thereby securely connecting said operating lever with said input shaft element; and a second connecting means for connecting said operating lever to said ratchet pawl member, saidsecond connecting means comprising: a connecting piece having a threaded hole portion formed in one end thereof; a projection portion formed in another end there of a body portion defined between said threaded hole portion and said projection portion; a second hole formed in said operating lever; a hole formed in said ratchet pawl member, and a securing screw, wherein said securing screw is inserted through said second hole and threadedly engaged in said threaded portion, while said projectionportion is rotatably inserted in said hole of the ratchet pawl member, so that said operating lever is connected, via said connecting piece, with said ratchet pawl member. 13. The ratchet-type lever mechanism as claimed in claim 12, wherein said housing means has: a hole in which said threaded hole portion of said input shaft element is rotatably supported; and an actuate hole extending along a circumference ofcircle whose center is at said input shaft element, and wherein said body portion of said connecting piece is

slidably inserted in said arcuate hole.

CHAPTER-6
FUTURE SCOPE
In a present scenario such kind of speed breaker are being used for a light vehicles in various countries. Now in a future that technology can be used for heavy vehicles, thus increasing input torque to various mechanism and ultimately output of the generator or dynamo. To enhance the efficiency of that system, engineers have to find out more compact, reliable and suitable mechanism to produce electricity. Future goal of that system to enhance the efficiency, so there should be rapid rotation of the dynamo shaft, to do the same we can employ a flywheel to the system in such a way that it would be increase the rotation per minute of dynamo or a generator. Generally a flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when supply energy more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy more than the supply. Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted from the system, the flywheel's rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy; adding energy to the system correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel i.e. increasing the rotational energy of the shaft. Advanced FES systems have rotors made of high strength carbon filaments, suspended by magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Stepper motor can be replaced by the dynamo in single way traffic system to produce electricity from speed breakers.Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically

attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step." In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle. 4.1 STEPPER MOTOR: Stepper motors are constant-power devices (power = angular velocity x torque). As motor speed increases, torque decreases. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speed range, physically damping the system, or using a micro-stepping driver. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with fewer phases. 4.2 OPEN LOOP VERSUS CLOSED LOOP COMMUTATION: Steppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where

the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive servomechanism system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper. A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback, so that the commutation can be made optimal for torque generation according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large -- this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.

4.3 TYPES:
There are three main types of stepper motors.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Variable Reluctance Stepper

4.4 TWO PHASE STEPPER MOTOR:

There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.

4.4.1 UNIPOLAR MOTORS:

A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase, one for each direction of current. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple (e.g. a single transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION
It is an non conventional type of producing the energy. The existing source of energy such as coal, oil etc may not be adequate to meet the ever increasing energy demands. These conventional sources of energy are also depleting and may be exhausted at the end of the century or beginning of the next century. Consequently sincere and untiring efforts shall have to be made by engineers in exploring the possibilities of harnessing energy from several non-conventional energy sources. This project is a one step to path of that way. The overall goal was to design the speed breaker System while keeping the engineering, producer and customer models in check. The reason why this feature was used more than all of the other features are because the other features would not have as much effect on the

complete system. By changing the size and desirable price, weight and capacity can be realized. We used a survey to find out how the price, weight and capacity were scaled. Much was learned on how to and not to conduct a survey. A preliminary survey should have been conducted to determine a realistic value of variables. Also many of choices were not close enough together to get a reasonable cut off value. Therefore the data that was produced using conjoint analysis was most likely not as accurate as it could have been. Future work would consist of a redesign of this model to see exactly how much data we may be missing with the assumption that we made with low price, weight and capacity. Despite all the assumptions, we still have realized that this product can be very marketable and that the demand is extremely large which means this is a viable design that will yield a high return on an investment.

CHAPTER NO.-8

6. REFERENCES:
To get info on this topic we have visited various sites and gathered information needed. Some of the lists of sites are mentioned below: I. www.google.com II. www.projectideas.blogspot.in III. www.physicsforum.co.in IV. HTTP://SHUBHAMPAREY.BLOGSPOT.IN/2008.07/GENERATION-OFELECTRICITY-BY-SPEED.HTML V. HTTP://SEMINARPROJECTS.COM/THREAD-POWER-GENERATION-USINGSPEED-BREAKER VI. HTTP://WWW.PATENTGENIOUS.COM/PATENT/6732842.HTML

Heartily thanks to all my colleagues and faculty members for helping us on this project.