ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES

BURIAL MOUNDS IN THE COPPER AND BRONZE AGES

(Central and Eastern Europe - Balkans - Adriatic - Aegean, 4th-2nd millennium B.C.)
Edited by
Elisabetta Boicxa and Sylvie Muiiii Ciixa
rnavaux nr ia xaisox nr ionirxr rr nr ia xfnirrnnaxfr
x 58
ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES
BURIAL MOUNDS IN THE COPPER AND BRONZE AGES
(Central and Eastern Europe - Balkans - Adriatic - Aegean, 4th-2nd millennium B.C.)
MAISON DE L`ORIENT ET DE LA MDITERRANE ~ JEAN POUILLOUX
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Publications diriges par Jean-Baptiste YON
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Ancestral Landscapes. Burial mounds in the Copper and Bronze Ages (Central and Eastern
Europe - Balkans - Adriatic - Aegean, 4th-2nd millennium B.C.). Proceedings of the International
Conference held in Udine, May 15th-18th 2008, E. BORGNA, S. MLLER CELKA (eds), Lyon, Maison de
l`Orient et de la Mditerrane - Jean Pouilloux, 2011.- 608 p., 320 illustrations N/B; 30 cm.- (Travaux de
la Maison de l`Orient ; 58).
Mots-cls / Keywords : Aegean, Adriatic, Balkans, Central Europe, Bronze Age, Chalcolithic, Eneolithic,
biological anthropology, burial customs, burial mound, cultural interaction, funerary rituals, grave,
landscape archaeology, metal, monument, tumulus.
ISSN 1955-4982
ISBN 978-2-35668-022-8
Edited by
Elisabetta BORGNA and Sylvie MLLER CELKA
This volume has been published with the support of Archorient (Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique - University of Lyon 2), the University of Lyon 2, the Dipartimento di Storia e Tutela
dei Beni Culturali - Universit di Udine and the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP)
TRAVAUX DE LA MAISON DE L`ORIENT ET DE LA MDITERRANE
N 58
ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES
BURIAL MOUNDS IN THE COPPER AND BRONZE AGES
(Central and Eastern Europe ~ Balkans ~ Adriatic ~ Aegean, 4th-2nd millennium B.C.)
Proceedings of the International Conference held in Udine, May 15th-18th 2008
Advisory Board
P. Cssola Guida, University of Udine
B. Govedarica, Freie Universitt Berlin
A. Harding, University of Exeter
G.S. Korres, University of Athens
J. Maran, University of Heidelberg
L. Smejda, University of West Bohemia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. 11
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 15
I ~ KEYNOTE LECTURE
Anthony HARDING
The Tumulus in European Prehistory: Covering the Body, Housing the Soul ........................... 21
II ~ BURIAL MOUNDS: SYMBOLICS AND MYTH
Blagoje GOVEDARICA
Die sakrale Symbolik des Kreises: Gedanken zum verborgenen Sinnbild der
Hgelbestattungen ...................................................................................................................... 33
Giulio PALUMBI
The Arslantepe Royal Tomb and the Manipulation' of the Kurgan Ideology
in Eastern Anatolia at the Beginning of the Third Millennium .................................................. 47
Philippe DELLA CASA
Mythical Voyages and Ancestral Monuments: Tales on Knowledge
and Leadership in Prehistoric Europe ....................................................................................... 61
III ~ LANDSCAPES, LANDMARKS AND CULTURAL IDENTITY
Julio BENDEZU-SARMIENTO
Rexion sur l'espace funraire et la notion de territoire en Asie centrale steppique
aux priodes protohistoriques (II
e
-I
er
millnaires av. J.-C.) ....................................................... 75
Jozef BTORA
Bestattungen unter Hgeln im Gebiet der mittleren Donau seit dem Ende
des neolithikums bis zum Beginn der mittleren Bronzezeit ...................................................... 87
Mateusz JAEGER, Lukasz POSPIESZNY
Tumulus Culture Barrows in the Polish Lowlands. The Case of the Cemetery in Smoszew ............. 97
Jan TUREK, Jaroslav PESKA, Andrea MATJCKOV
Visible and Invisible Monuments. Late Eneolithic Burial Mounds in Forested Areas
of Central Moravia ..................................................................................................................... 107
Ladislav SMEJDA
Burial Mounds in West Bohemia: the Current State of Research ............................................... 119
Claudia SACHSSE
Burial Mounds in the Baden Culture: Aspects of Local Developments and Outer Impacts ............. 127
8 ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES
Marko PORCIC
Interpreting the Vertical Distribution of Bronze Age Tumuli in the Central Balkans ................ 135
Vedran BARBARIC
Tumulus or Cairn? The Case of the Central Dalmatian Islands ................................................ 145
Giulia CODACCI-TERLEVIC
La scoperta della sepoltura a tumulo di Barbariga (Istria, Croazia). Novit e riscontri
in relazione ai tumuli dell'et del bronzo rinvenuti nella penisola istriana e nell'Italia
nord-orientale ............................................................................................................................. 153
Biba TERZAN, Bernhard HNSEL
A Specifc Type of Tholos in the Northern Adriatic .................................................................... 163
Hrvoje POTREBICA
Burial Mounds in Croatia: Landscapes of Continuity and Transformation .............................. 171
Stavros OIKONOMIDIS, Aristeides PAPAYIANNIS, Akis TSONOS
The Emergence and the Architectural Development of the Tumulus Burial Custom
in NW Greece (Epirus and the Ionian Islands) and Albania and its Connections to
Settlement Organization ............................................................................................................. 185
Christina MERKOURI, Maria KOULI
The Spatial Distribution and Location of Bronze Age Tumuli in Greece ................................... 203
Yannis GALANAKIS
Mnemonic Landscapes and Monuments of the Past: Tumuli, Tholos Tombs and Landscape
Associations in Late Middle Bronze Age and Early Late Bronze Age Messenia (Greece) ............... 219
Lucia SARTI, Pino FENU, Valentina LEONINI, Fabio MARTINI, Sara PERUSIN
The Bell Beaker Tumulus of Via Bruschi in Sesto Fiorentino (Florence, Italy):
New Research ............................................................................................................................. 231
Serena VITRI, Alberto BALASSO, Giulio SIMEONI
Tumuli e strutture abitative presso Flaibano nell'alta pianura friulana (Italia,
Friuli-Venezia Giulia): vecchi e nuovi dati ................................................................................ 239
Armando D`AGNOLO, Silvia PETTARIN, Giovanni TASCA
I tumuli del Friuli occidentale: un aggiornamento delle conoscenze ........................................ 253
Paola CSSOLA GUIDA
The Early Bronze Age in North Eastern Italy: the Making of a Monumental Landscape ................ 269
Elisabetta BORGNA
Individual Burial and Communal Rites: the Manifold Uses of Monumental Architecture
in the North Adriatic Bronze Age ............................................................................................... 279
IV ~ BURIAL PRACTICES, RITUALS AND PEOPLE
Yuri Yakovlevi RASSAMAKIN
Eneolithic Burial Mounds in the Black Sea Steppe: from the First Burial Symbols
to Monumental Ritual Architecture ............................................................................................ 293
Stefan ALEXANDROV
Prehistoric Barrow Graves between the Danube and the Balkan Range: Stratigraphy
and Relative Chronology ............................................................................................................ 307
Janusz CZEBRESZUK, Marzena SZMYT
Tumuli with Circular Ditch and the Ritual Scenario among Corded Ware Culture Societies
on the North European Plain ...................................................................................................... 321
TABLE OF CONTENTS 9
Frank FALKENSTEIN
The Development of Burial Rites from the Tumulus to the Urnfeld Culture in Southern
Central Europe ........................................................................................................................... 329
Carol KACS, Carola METZNER-NEBELSICK, Louis D. NEBELSICK
New Work at the Late Bronze Age Tumulus Cemetery of Lpu in Romania ............................. 341
Martin HRISTOV
The Early Bronze Age Ritual Structures and Necropolis from near the Village
of Dubene, Karlovo Region ........................................................................................................ 355
Kristina MIHOVILIC, Bernhard HNSEL, Damir MATOSEVIC, Biba TERZAN
Burial Mounds of the Bronze Age at Musego near Monkodonja. Results of
the Excavations 2006-2007 ........................................................................................................ 367
Mile BAKOVIC
The Princely Tumulus Gruda Boljevica Podgorica, Montenegro .............................................. 375
Sofa ASOUHIDOU
The Early Bronze Age Burial Mound at Kriaritsi - Sykia (Central Macedonia, Greece) ................ 383
Maria-Photini PAPAKONSTANTINOU
Bronze Age Tumuli and Grave Circles in Central Greece: the Current State of Research ............... 391
Vassilis ARAVANTINOS, Kyriaki PSARAKI
Mounds over Dwellings: The Transformation of Domestic Spaces into Community
Monuments in EH II Thebes, Greece .......................................................................................... 401
Sylvie MLLER CELKA
Burial Mounds and Ritual Tumuli' of the Aegean Early Bronze Age ..................................... 415
Oliver DICKINSON
Why Grave Circles A and B at Mycenae are Very Unlikely to be Burial Tumuli ....................... 429
Kalliope SARRI, Sofa VOUTSAKI
The Argos Tumuli': a Re-examination .................................................................................... 433
Sofa VOUTSAKI, Anne INGVARSSON-SUNDSTRM, Sren DIETZ
Tumuli and Social Status: a Re-examination of the Asine Tumulus ........................................... 445
Jrg RAMBACH
Die Ausgrabung von zwei mittelhelladisch I-zeitlichen Grabtumuli in der Flur Kastroulia
bei Ellinika (Alt-Thouria) in Messenien ..................................................................................... 463
Giulia RECCHIA
Burial Mounds and specchie' in Apulia during the Bronze Age: Local Developments
and Transadriatic Connections .................................................................................................. 475
Francesca RADINA
Un impianto dell'et del bronzo nell'Alta Murgia pugliese: il recinto e il tumulo del sito
di Le Chianche (Minervino Murge, Bari) ................................................................................... 485
Elisabetta ONNIS
The Torre S. Sabina Tumulus (Brindisi, Italy) in the Context of Transmarine Relations
during the 14th c. B.C. ............................................................................................................... 493
Elodia BIANCHIN CITTON, Claudio BALISTA
I tumuli funerari dell'et del Rame di Sovizzo-localit S. Daniele (Vicenza): aspetti costruttivi,
cronologici e cultuali ................................................................................................................... 503
10 ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES
Lorenza ENDRIZZI, Elisabetta MOTTES, Franco NICOLIS, Nicola DEGASPERI
New Evidence of Ancestral Landscape in Trentino in the Copper and Bronze Ages: the Ritual
Sites of Cles-Campi Neri and La Vela di Trento ............................................................................ 511
Elisabetta MOTTES, Michele BASSETTI, Elena SILVESTRI
The Bronze Age Tumuli of Gardolo di Mezzo (Trento, Italy) in the Adige Valley ...................... 523
V ~ DIFFUSIONISM UNDER EXAMINATION
Volker HEYD
Yamnaya Groups and Tumuli West of the Black Sea .................................................................. 535
Janusz CZEBRESZUK, Lukasz POSPIESZNY
The Oldest Round Barrows of the European Lowlands ............................................................. 557
Krassimir LESHTAKOV
Bronze Age Mortuary Practices in Thrace: A Prelude to Studying the Long-term
Tradition ..................................................................................................................................... 567
Fanouria DAKORONIA
The Marmara Tumuli: their Contribution to Greek Protohistory .............................................. 579
Georgios Styl. KORRES
Middle Helladic Tumuli in Messenia. Ethnological Conclusions .............................................. 585
Alberto CAZZELLA
The (Possible) Tursi Tumulus Burial near Matera and the Relationships between Southern
Italy and the Aegean-Balkan Area in the First Half of the 3rd Millennium B.C. ....................... 597
ABBREVIATIONS
Chronology
Br. = Bronze
EBA = Early Bronze Age
EG = Early Geometric
EH = Early Helladic
EIA = Early Iron Age
G = Geometric
LBA = Late Bronze Age
LH = Late Helladic
MBA = Middle Bronze Age
MH = Middle Helladic
English and general abbreviations
A.D. = Anno Domini
a.s.l. = above sea level
BAC = Battle Axe Culture
B.C. = before Christ
B.C.E. = before Christian era
B.P. = before present
c. = century
ca. = circa
CWC = Corded Ware Culture
e.g. = exempli gratia
fasc. = fascicule
FBC = Funnel Beaker Culture
GAC = Globular Amphora Culture
i.a. = inter alia
ibid. = ibidem
i.e. = id est
int. = international
n. = note
n.d. = no date
no. = number
nos. = numbers
N.S. = new series
p. = page
PGC = Pit Grave Culture
pl. = plate
SGC = Single Grave Culture
sq. = sequentes
sq. m = square meter(s)
s.v. = sub verbo
vol. = volume
Italian abbreviations
AA.VV. = autori vari
a.C. = ante Cristo
col. = colonna
c.s. = corso di stampa
d.C. = dopo Cristo
loc. = localit
n. = numero
N.S. = nuova seria
tav. = tavola
v. = vedere
German abbreviations
Abb. = Abbildung
Anm. = Anmerkung
Bd. = Band
bes. = besonders
bzw. = beziehungsweise
d.h. = das heisst
ebd. = ebenda
ff. = folgende
Hrsg. = Herausgeber
Jt. = Jahrhundert
Nr. = Nummer
S. = Seite
Taf. = Tafel
u.a. = und anderen
v. Chr. = vor Christus
vgl. = vergleichen
z.B. = zum Beispiel
16 E. BORGNA, S. MLLER CELKA
Periodicals, series and other abbreviations
AD / Archaiologikon Deltion / v v
Archaiologika Analekta Athenon / A Av / Athens Annals
of Archaeologv
Acta Ath. Acta Atheniensia
Archaiologike Ephemeris /
AEMTH / AEM To Archaiologiko Ergo ste Makedonia kai Thrake / To
kai
AJA American Journal of Archaeologv
AM Athenische Mitteilungen des Deutschen archologischen Instituts
AMSIAS Atti e Memorie della Societa Istriana di Archeologia e Storia patria
AP Archeologia Polski
AquilN Aquileia Nostra
AR Archaeological Reports of the Annual of the British School at Athens
Arch. Korr. Archologisches Korresponden:blatt
Arch. Polona Archaeologia Polona
Arheol. Jest. Arheoloski Jestnik
ASAtene Annuario della Scuola Archeologica di Atene e delle Missioni Italiane in Oriente
AttiSocPPFJG Atti della Societa per la Preistoria e Protostoria del Friuli-Jene:ia Giulia
BA Buletin arkeologfik, Tirana
BAM Beitrge :ur ur- und frhgeschichtlichen Archologie des Mittelmeer-Kulturraumes
BAR Int. Ser. British Archaeological Reports, International Series
BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique
Ber. RGK Bericht der Rmisch-Germanischen Kommission
BIA Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeologv, Universitv of London
BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, London
BPI Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana
BSA Annual of the British School at Athens
BPS Baltic-Pontic Studies
SHSH Buletin pr Shkencat Shoqerore, Tiran
CCDJ Revista Centrului Cultural Dunrea De Jos
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
CMS Corpus der Minoischen und Mvkenischen Siegel
CTHS Comite des travaux historiques et scientihques
EA Ephemeris Archaiologiki /
EAZ Ethnographisch-Archologische Zeitschrift
EJA European Journal of Archaeologv
HA Histria Archaeologica
IAI I:vestia na Arheologiceskia Institut, Soha
ABBREVIATIONS 17
IIPP Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria
IMSZB I:vestifa na Mu:eite v Severo:apadna Blgarifa
JAK Jahresberichte aus Augst und Kaiseraugst
JAS Journal of Archaeological Science
JEA Journal of European Archaeologv
JFA Journal of Field Archaeologv
JIES Journal of Indo-European Studies
JRGZM Jahrbuch des Rmisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Main:
JZ Jadranski Zbornik
Materifali SADJ Materifali Save: arheoloskih drustava Jugoslavife
Mat. i Cerc. Arh. Materiale i Cercetari Arhelogice
OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeologv
OA Opuscula Archaeologica
OpAth Opuscula Atheniensia
/ PAE Praktika tes en Athenais Archaiologikes Etaireia /

Pam. arch. Pamatkv archeologicke
PBF Prhistorische Bron:efunde
PJZ Praistorifa Jugoslavenskih Zemalfa
PMMAEL Prace i Materialv Mu:eum Archeologic:nego i Etnograhc:nego w Lod:i, Seria
Archeologic:na
Por. ra:isk. neol.
eneol. Slov.
Porocilo o Ra:iskovanfu Neolita in Eneolita v Slovenifi, Lfublfana
PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Societv
Pr:egl. Arch. Pr:egld Archeologic:nv
PZ Prhistorische Zeitschrift
Rev. Arh. Revista Arheologic (Chiinu)
RGZM Rmisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Main:
RP Ra:kopki i Proucvanifa
RSP Rivista di Scien:e Preistoriche
SA Sprawo:dania Archeologic:ne
SCIJ Studii i Cercetri de Istorie Jeche
SIMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeologv
SkrAth Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen
Studia Arch. Studia Archeologic:ne
U.I.S.P.P. Union internationale des sciences prehistoriques et protohistoriques
JAHD Jfesnik :a Arheologifu i Historifu Dalmatinsku
JAMZ Jfesnik Arheoloskog Mu:efa u Zagrebu
WA World Archaeologv
Zbornik SNM Zbornik Slovenskeho narodneho mu:ea
ZSAK Zeitschrift fr Schwei:erische Archologie und Kunstgeschichte

MOUNDS OVER DWELLINGS
THE TRANSFORMATION OF DOMESTIC SPACES INTO
COMMUNITY MONUMENTS IN EH II THEBES, GREECE
Vassilis ARAVANTINOS *, Kyriaki PSARAKI **
ABSTRACT
Recent excavations by the Greek Archaeological Service carried out in the town of Thebes, Boeotia,
clarifed matters concerning the building features, the chronology and the function of the Early Helladic
mudbrick tumuli. To date, two tumuli have been excavated. The tumulus on 'Ampheion hill, frst excavated
at the beginnings of the 70s, is associated with an underlying EH II cemetery. A second one, excavated in
the plot adjacent to the Thebes Archaeological Museum, covered an apsidal building and a mass burial.
The existence of two EH tumuli on the same site and in close proximity offers the possibility of extending
our inquiry into the various functions of these constructions and the social structures responsible for the
erection of such conspicuous earthworks. In particular, the interment of an EH building under a mound is an
additional example of a practice attested at some Peloponnesian sites. In these cases the domestic space was
transformed into a community monument.
INTRODUCTION
For the prehistoric societies of the Aegean world, the interval between the end of EH II and the
beginning of EH III is one of gradual changes in social and economic organization.
1
One of the features
of particular interest in the discussion as to whether external or internal factors were responsible for
the cultural changes in this period is the appearance of mounds and/or tumuli.
2
So far, four mounds and
two clusters of tumuli have been revealed in Greece. Three of the mounds are dated to the end of EH II,
and/or at the very beginning of EH III, and one is dated some time earlier, probably in the middle of
the EH II period. The earliest mound, which is presented in this paper, is a funerary mudbrick cone
erected on the top of the so-called 'Ampheion hill at Thebes, in the region of Boeotia, central Greece.
3

At Lerna, in the Argolid, in the northeast Peloponnese, a round mound constructed of the debris of
* Greek Archaeological Service, Director of the 9th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Thebes.
** Greek Archaeological Service, 26th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Piraeus.
1. Renfrew 1972; Wiencke 1989; Forsn 1992; Alram-Stern 2004.
2. Mller 1989; Forsn 1992, p. 232.
3. 1917, p. 384-386; 1972a; 1972b; 1973; 1981.
Ancestral Landscapes.
TMO 58, Maison de l`Orient et de la Mditerrane, Lyon, 2011
402 V. ARAVANTINOS, K. PSARAKI
the 'House of the Tiles covered the central part of the building.
4
At Olympia, part of a mound of similar
type, dated to the end of EH II or the beginning of EH III, has been excavated, probably lying over
architectural remnants.
5
A fourth mound was found at Thebes. Of irregular shape and constructed of
mud-bricks, this covered a complex of settlement and mortuary remains.
6
Finally, a cluster of thirty-three
tumuli of earth and stones, which contained burials, was excavated at Steno near Nidri, on the island of
Leukas in the Ionian Sea.
7
The earliest tumuli at Steno, Leukas are dated to the end of EH II and the latest
in the EH III period. One more cluster of thirty tumuli of earth and stones, which contained burials, was
excavated at Kriaritsi near Sykia on the peninsula of Chalkidiki, northern Greece, dated to the transitional
period EH II/EH III.
8
THE MOUND ON THE PLOT OF THE THEBES ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM
On the plot where the new wing of the Thebes Archaeological Museum was built, excavations
have revealed settlement and funerary remains covered by a mudbrick mound, all dated to the end of
the Early Bronze II period.
9
The settlement remains consist of a three-room apsidal building protected
by a defensive wall to north and east (fg. 1).
10
The building, 12m long and 7m wide, is freestanding and
orientated east-west. The walls comprise a stone base and a mudbrick upper structure, with the inner surface
coated with off-white plaster. The artefacts found inside the apsidal building point to typical household
activities, such as storage, preparation and consumption of food, textile production and other domestic
tasks. Both the apsidal room and the middle room yielded a small amount of pottery, mainly vessels for food
consumption, a few obsidian blades and clay loom-weights. Inside the east room, where two successive
beaten-earth foors and two successive hearths were uncovered, one small pithos near the entrance of the
house and one pit dug in the solid bedrock, to accommodate a large pithos, were found. Abundant sherds
of pots for cooking, serving and consuming food, as well as a few whole vases, some bone and stone tools
and one 'meerschaum seal with rectilinear incisions were collected, too.
11
Outside the apsidal building, to the east, an open-air hearth was revealed, in association with copious
sherds of clay baking trays (approx. diam. 0.50m), as well as a storage facility,
12
perhaps semi-outdoor,
which was furnished with eight large pithoi, four of them in situ, and some tableware. Two bronze spear
points, one oblong and quadrilateral, and one of Branigan`s type III,
13
a few metal needles and some stone
tools were retrieved from this area. To the north of the apsidal building and the storage facility runs a narrow
path of compacted earth and gravel, which ends to the west behind the apse. The whole residential unit is
surrounded by a defensive wall, 3 to 5m wide and 2m high. This wall, part of which survives to the north
and east of the plot, has a stone base with mudbrick upper structure.
4. Caskey 1955, p. 35; Caskey 1956, p. 165; Caskey 1968, p. 314-315; Forsn 1992, p. 36-37, 232-337; Wiencke 2000,
p. 284-285, 297-298.
5. Drpfeld 1935, p. 76-77, 118-121, pl. 5; Kyrieleis 1990, p. 184, 186, fg. 10.
6. 1996, p. 259-261; 1997, p. 354-359; 1998, p. 323-327; Aravantinos 2004,
p. 1255-1259; , forthcoming a.
7. Drpfeld 1927; Forsn 1992, p. 92-93, 235; Mller 1989, p. 15.
8. et al. 1998; Asouhidou, this volume.
9. See footnote 6.
10. Parts of another fortifcation wall have been found adjacent to the rectangular building with corridors, known as the
'Fortifed Building of Thebes, see Aravantinos 1986.
11. Pini 2004, p. 556, no. 374.
12. forthcoming b; Psaraki et al. forthcoming.
13. Branigan 1974, p. 162 (no. 433a), pl. 27. A similar spear point was found on Amorgos.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF DOMESTIC SPACES INTO COMMUNITY MONUMENTS IN EH II THEBES, GREECE 403
The pottery collected inside and outside the apsidal building dates from the end of the EH II period.
14
The
building seems to have been abandoned for some unknown reason. There is no evidence of destruction caused by
fre. Parts of the mudbrick walls collapsed, creating a fll of disintegrated mud bricks covering the foors.
Soon after, a mass burial of at least twelve individuals was made inside the apsidal house, over the aforesaid
fll.
15
The individuals, adults and children, were inhumed in the southeast corner of the central room and the
southwest corner of the east room. It is deduced from the different orientations and positions of the skeletons, and
the fact that some of them were overlapping parts of others, that the dead were thrown without care. Even so, the
burial was furnished with rather rich offerings, especially cups, bowls and jars, dated to the end of the EH II period.
Directly after the abandonment of the house and the mass burial, solid layers of mud bricks were laid
carefully, flling the space between the upper structure of the defensive wall and the surviving walls of both the
apsidal building and the other outdoor constructions (fg. 2-4). The mud bricks are of assorted sizes and colours.
The approximate dimensions of the smallest bricks are h. 0.08m, l. 0.15m, w. 0.10m, and of the biggest h. 0.08m,
l. 0.50m., w. 0.15m. Their colour varies from dark grey, brown and red to white. The thickness of the mudbrick
fll that forms the mound and the number of mudbrick layers vary too, depending on the point in the mound
(perimeter or centre). In the middle room of the apsidal building, the thickness of the fll ranges from about
0.15m in the southwest corner to 0.65m near the southeast corner and 0.80m in the northeast corner. In the east
room, it ranges from 0.90m in the northeast to 0.40m in the south. To the north, in front of the threshold of the
east room, the fll begins just above the pavement and is 0.80m thick, whereas to the northwest, in front of the
apse, the thickness of the fll is reduced to 0.20-0.10m. East of the apsidal house, in the area of trench D6, the
thickness of the fll reaches almost 2m. In the west part of the plot, the mudbrick fll of the mound reaches the top
of the standing mudbrick upper structure of the apsidal building. Together with the mudbrick upper structure of
the defensive wall to the north, the upper surface of the mudbrick mound was revealed more or less as a compact
colourful 'carpet (fg. 7). In the east part of the plot, parts of the mound have been damaged, due to use of the
space in the MH and LH periods.
14. Psaraki 2004; Psaraki 2007; forthcoming a; Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming b; Hilditch et al. 2008.
15. Vika 2007.
Fig. 1 Plan of the excavation on the plot of the Thebes Archaeological Museum.
404 V. ARAVANTINOS, K. PSARAKI
As a result, a mudbrick plateau was uncovered in the north half of the plot. The surviving shape of
the mound gives the impression of a terrace of approximately 800 sq. m, which slopes to the northwest
and to the north. The south edge of the mudbrick terrace abutted the rock in the south part of the plot. The
original form of the mound has been damaged by subsequent use of the area. Although there is no evidence
of human activity in the ensuing EH III period,
16
there was a cemetery here during the Middle Bronze Age.
17

The twenty-fve graves (cists, cists of brick, pits) have been dug in the upper level of the EH brick-built
mound. During the Late Bronze Age, the area was fattened and above that level the excavation revealed
scant ruins of Mycenaean buildings and part of the Mycenaean city wall, dated to the LH IIIA-B period.
Finally, in Byzantine times, a street of east-west orientation bisected the plot, demolishing the south edge
of the mudbrick construction.
The mudbrick mound is dated to the end of EH II, that is to say, it was constructed soon after the
abandonment of the apsidal building and after the mass burial, at the very end of the same cultural phase.
16. Totally absent are sherds or whole vases of Konsola`s group C ( 1981, p. 124-126), as well as light on dark
painted pottery of 'Ayia Marina style.
17. Aravantinos, Psaraki 2010.
Fig. 4 East side of the trial trench XV. Fig. 3 North side of the trial trench ^6 - ^7.
Fig. 2 West side of the trial trench 7 7.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF DOMESTIC SPACES INTO COMMUNITY MONUMENTS IN EH II THEBES, GREECE 405
THE MOUND ON THE 'AMPHEION HILL
About 150m to the north of the Kadmeia, another mudbrick tumulus has been uncovered. Although
known from the beginning of 20th c.,
18
the mound on the 'Ampheion hill was frst excavated in the early
1970s, when a monumental cist grave was uncovered almost in the core of the mudbrick cone. This grave
had been looted and the only fnds that may be related with it are some pieces of gold jewellery, with parallels
in the northeast Aegean area, dated within the EH period.
19
Recent investigations by the 9th Ephorate of
Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, occasioned by a landscape project by the Municipality of Thebes,
revealed new fnds that contribute to the better understanding of the function of the mound.
20
As it survives today, this mound is in the form of a cone rising above the bedrock (fg. 8-9). Its
maximum preserved height is 2m. Its maximum diameter on the north-south axis is 20m and on the
east-west axis 21m (fg. 5). After the quite recent archaeological investigation and the examination of the
stratigraphy, it is clear that the preserved upper level of the tumulus consists of mud bricks of various shapes
and sizes, sometimes touching and sometimes apart from each other. This level slopes downwards from
the centre to the periphery of the cone and its thickness decreases gradually from 0.75 to 0.10m. Beneath
it, is a layer of very hard light-brown earth, again sloping downwards and decreasing in thickness from
0.70 to 0.15m. A third thin layer of reddish earth (0.10-0.15m thick) covers the bedrock. Continuation
of the excavation under the tumulus levels resulted in the discovery of a cemetery of rock-cut tombs.
21

18. Keramopoullos 1917, p. 384.
19. For the date, see 1972a; 1972b; 1981; Konsola 1981. Spyropoulos interpreted
the construction of the tumulus in correlation with the existence of the cist grave. Also, he argued that the mudbrick
tumulus lay on the top of the hill, the slopes of which had been carved in stepped arrangement, like an Egyptian pyramid
of the 'mastaba type. For criticism and relevant references see Forsn 1992, p. 133-134.
20. Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming a; Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming b.
21. Although Spyropoulos ( 1973, p. 248-252) mentions the existence of rock-cut tombs beneath the tumulus,
noting that he found only their entrances, he did not proceed to their investigation and did not link them with the reason
for constructing the tumulus.
Fig. 5 Plan of the tumulus on the Ampheion' hill.
Fig. 6 Plan of the rock cut tombs below the tumulus
on the Ampheion' hill.
406 V. ARAVANTINOS, K. PSARAKI
Fig. 8 The tumulus on
the Ampheion' hill and
the central cist grave.
Fig. 9 The tumulus on
the Ampheion' hill and
the rock cut tombs.
Fig. 7 Upper saved level of the
mound on the plot of the Thebes
Archaeological Museum and half
part of a MH mudbrick cist grave.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF DOMESTIC SPACES INTO COMMUNITY MONUMENTS IN EH II THEBES, GREECE 407
To date, three tombs and the beginning of a
fourth have been found, while the existence of
others, inside or outside the limits of the tumulus,
is considered certain.
22
The tombs consist of a
round chamber and a dromos (fg. 6; 9), a type
characteristic in the regions of Boeotia and
Euboea during the EH II period.
23
Inside the
chamber of one tomb there was one skeleton
and an incised amphoriskos of Cycladic type
(fg. 10), probably imported, dated to the end of
the EH I period.
24
In the chamber of one other
tomb there were two skeletons of adults and a
bone palette of Cycladic type (fg. 11), dated to
the same period.
25
The typology of the pottery found in
the tumulus layers suggests a date between
the end of EH I and an advanced phase of the
EH II period.
26
Consequently, this tumulus
seems to be earlier than the one found on the
plot adjacent to the Thebes Archaeological
Museum.
22. A geophysical diascopy is in progress at the 'Ampheion hill. The investigation conducted by N. Tsokas, professor of
Geophysics in the Dept. of Geophysics, School of Geology, University of Thessaloniki, is taking place in order to receive
as much information as possible about the subsoil of the 'Ampheion hill.
23. For Thebes, see 1910, p. 250-252, fg. 28; 1969a, p. 97; Lithares, see
1969. For the northeast creek of Paralimni, where some one hundred rock-cut tombs with dromos were found, see
1969a; 1969b. For the cemetery on the northeast shore of Paralimni, see
1969a, p. 96. For the rock-cut tombs at Likeri (Elike), see 1931, p. 274-276, fg. 3.
1969a, p. 97. For the cemetery at Hypaton, see 1970; For Manika, Chalkida, see 1910;
1985, 1988.
24. This type of amphoriskos is known from cemeteries in the Cyclades and more rarely from settlements, see Doumas 1977,
p. 16, fg. 3h; Karantzali 1996, p. 101-102; Renfrew 1972, p. 155, fg. 10.2 (1, 7), pl. 3(3, 4); Rambach 2000, p. 104. This
vessel type is known from the cemetery of Tsepi at Marathon, see - 2005, p. 300-303.
25. The type of oblong marble palette with rounded corners is known from graves in the Cyclades, dated to the end of EC I
(Plastiras phase) (Rambach 2000, p. 110, 118, 232-233; Doumas 1977, p. 17, fg. 5b), Crete (Karantzali 1996, p. 152)
and the Greek Mainland (Mylonas 1959, p. 142, fg. 165; Blegen 1928, p. 195, fg. 165). Similar bone palettes were
found in the cemetery of Tsepi at Marathon, dated by the excavator to EC I (Pelos culture), see - 2005,
p. 320-321.
26. Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming b. The pottery is similar to pottery group A, according to Konsola ( 1981,
p. 118-119) and similar to the pottery from Lithares (-Evjen 1984, -Evjen 1985).
Fig. 10 Incised amphoriskos of Cycladic type.
Fig. 11 Bone palette of Cycladic type.
408 V. ARAVANTINOS, K. PSARAKI
CONCLUSIONS
On present evidence, Thebes is the only EH site where two mudbrick mounds have been found: the frst,
on the 'Ampheion hill, almost 150m north of the Kadmeia, is dated to some time during the frst half of the
EH II period, while an intervention caused by the construction of the cist grave is not excluded as a possibility
some time later during the EH period or potentially even up to the beginning of MBA.
27
The second, at the north
edge of the Kadmeia, is dated to the end of the EH II period. Consequently, it seems that at Thebes the practice
of tumulus construction was of long duration and it is important that this practice emerged, apparently for the
frst time in mainland Greece, not at the end of EH II, a period of important cultural changes and East Aegean
infuences, but earlier. Parallels for this practice should probably be sought in the Balkan Peninsula or even
further north, where the practice of constructing tumuli was both old and common.
28
In comparing the two mounds of Thebes, although we can recognize as a common function for both
constructions the erection of a 'marker (sema) for subjacent material, they are noted to display morphological
and technical differences, and to differ also in their social meaning. The mudbrick mound over the rock cut
tombs on the 'Ampheion hill is a funeral tumulus, the 'marker (sema) of a cemetery, whereas the mound
on the Museum plot may be characterized as the 'marker (sema) of both a dwelling and a mass burial; in its
metaphorical meaning, it is a 'funerary tumulus in that it is an earthwork monument inside which a domestic
unit has been buried, and, in its literal meaning, it is a funerary tumulus because it covered a mass burial.
Focusing on the mound found on the Thebes Museum plot and trying to elucidate the reasons for its
erection, it is obvious that this is a construction whose scale presupposes the collaboration of many people.
The erection of such a mound presupposes an investment in time, human effort and expense, which exceeds
the capabilities of the members of a household unit. The frst questions raised are, who erected the tumulus
and why, and what were the social relations between the individuals who joined forces in order to construct a
communal earthwork of such size and type?
Probably the answer should be sought in the social characteristics of the buried building and the social
status of its inhabitants. We may argue that the way in which a building is abandoned and the way in which the
area is treated after the end of the building`s life, by the following generations, are indicative of the social role
the building played during the period of its use. Moreover, if we consider that the intentionally and meticulously
built mudbrick mound that covered this domestic unit became a conspicuous construction, which the following
generations respected, we can speculate as to the social importance of the household. Consequently, the erection
of the mudbrick mound/tumulus must be related to the social role played by this particular domestic unit.
So, what was the function of this apsidal building and what was the social role of its residents? The apsidal
building on the Museum plot is not the only one that has been excavated at Thebes. Two other apsidal buildings,
also dated to the end of the EH II period, have been found in the area of the Kadmeia.
29
The fnds recovered from
all three apsidal buildings indicate that they were private houses. However, the apsidal building on the Museum
plot confates features of private and public character, both in function and mode of construction. Adjacent to
the private space of the apsidal house, there is a street, a courtyard and a large open-air-hearth, which might
have been used by other households for food preparation. The apsidal building is surrounded by a defensive
wall, which in terms of construction and use is a community project. Also, close to the apsidal building there is a
semi-outdoor storage area whose total capacity of about 1500 litres would secure the household self-suffciency
in food supplies for more than a year.
30
It is probable that the surplus food supplies were exchanged or bartered
in trade networks and in networks of social obligations and social promotion.
31
The food surplus, in particular,
27. Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming b.
28. For discussion and references see Forsn 1992, p. 232; Mller 1989, p. 1-5.
29. 1975, p. 192-198; 1976, p. 123-124; 1964, p. 195; ,
1965, p. 230-232; 1966, p. 180; 1981, p. 106-109.
30. forthcoming b; Aravantinos, Psaraki forthcoming b. According to ethnoarchaeological studies a quantity of 1500
litres would secure the household in food supplies for 12 to 18 months (Christakis 1999).
31. Wesson 1999, p. 156-157, Psaraki et al. forthcoming.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF DOMESTIC SPACES INTO COMMUNITY MONUMENTS IN EH II THEBES, GREECE 409
could have been allocated to individuals or other households with insuffcient supplies, in exchange for artefacts
or labour, that is, it may have been used in social networks of obligation and interaction, so playing a role in
establishing power relations between the individuals of this household and the individuals of other households of
the settlement.
32
This last phenomenon, of economic and social character, based on the control and distribution
of the stockpiles of food, may refect the political power and the regulatory role of this particular household in
one population group. The confation of private and public features of this domestic unit refects the complexity
of the social relations within it, involving a signifcant number of individuals linked not necessarily by kinship
ties but also by relations created by a mesh of social and economic obligations. Moreover, the possession by the
residents of the apsidal building of objects such as the sealstone, the bronze weapons and the vases of Anatolian
provenance refects their ability to manage symbolic capital that would invest them potentially with political and
social power. Thus, it is probable that the residents of this apsidal house had a high social status and that a number
of other individuals or households depended on them, through power relations. According to Wright,
33
during
the EH period, societies which he calls 'transegalitarian operated as multi-centric economies, that is, their
economy was based on small groups of lineages economically tied into a 'household system of redistribution.
The existence of such power relations in EH II Thebes may explain the mobilization of such a large labour force
in order to build the fortifcation wall and to erect the massive mudbrick mound over a household that probably
played a leading role in relation to other households at the site.
Finally, regarding the mass burial, the circumstances in which these persons died and their connection with
the specifc household are certainly puzzling. According to Vika,
34
who studied the skeletons, the individuals
did not suffer from disease and had a varied diet. The latter observation led her to argue that at least some of
the persons were not relatives. Nonetheless, we contend that there must have been some kind of correlation
between these individuals and the specifc household unit.
The construction of a tumulus over the ruins of a domestic unit is known also from Lerna, where, after the
end of Lerna III, a low circular mound formed of debris from the destruction of the 'House of the Tiles covered
almost the entire area of the building. It formed a circle approximately 18.75m in diameter and 1m high. Another
tumulus, dated to the end of EH II, was excavated at Olympia. At the moment its use is unknown but it is rather
similar to the tumulus at Lerna. The rarity and the variability of the phenomenon make its interpretation diffcult,
not only in relation to the provenance of this practice but also in relation to its social meaning. The construction
of these monumental earthworks must signify some kind of respect for the domestic units they cover. In the case
of Thebes and Lerna, this respect continued during the years immediately following, when the area was free of
houses. According to Wiencke, the burying of the 'House of the Tiles may represent not only the end of the
social life of this specifc unit but also the end of the specifc social reality of the EH II period.
35
These mounds
were constructed in memory of and out of respect for the residents of the buildings they cover, and also in
memory of the specifc social context that raised them and had run its course.
36
In this case, we are dealing with
the practice of burying a space of particular importance for the community, with the aim of transforming it into
a kind of community monument.
The erection of earthworks designates a particular place or a particular building as a locus that coincides
with social values, particular events and collective identity. The fact that such constructions transmit the
memory of an event and/or social meanings makes them monuments.
37
Consequently, monuments are usually
erected in memory of a particular event or as the 'distillate of a particular social experience, and they integrate
the essence of a social reality. So, it is not fortuitous that monuments are some of the most powerful means
by which a society registers its history on the landscape and invigorates social memory.
38
Earthwork
32. Hayden 1995, p. 59; Psaraki et al. forthcoming.
33. Wright 2004, p. 68-70.
34. Vika 2007.
35. Wiencke 2000, p. 297-298.
36. Bradley 1998, p. 46; Bradley 2005, p. 58.
37. 1990, p. 115-118.
38. Bourdieu 1990; Bradley 1998; Giddens 1984; Tilley 1994.
410 V. ARAVANTINOS, K. PSARAKI
monuments, like all the physical objects of the material space of a community, are often more durable than
other forms of material culture and this allows their symbolic meaning to be interpreted and reinterpreted over
a considerable period of time. It is through their engagement with that material space in the course of daily life
that individuals build up their social memory and learn how to become members of a society.
39
As Lefebvre
observes, 'monumental space offers each member of a society an image of that membership. An image of his
or her social visage is thus constituted by a collective mirror more faithful than any personal one.
40
Monuments
constitute historical landscapes whereby the community aims to reinforce its social cohesion and, as such,
tumuli are monuments of high symbolic meanings.
The formation and coherence of societies involves the manipulation of symbols,
41
which are often
archaeologically visible. Symbolic expressions of this process are especially evident in the built environment.
The transformation of a dwelling into a community monument may be seen as a constituent element of such
a process. The recognition of a physical object as a symbol does not mean that all people share the same
meaning of it.
42
Different meanings are mediated by the idiosyncratic experience of the individuals, their age,
sex, social status, family and clan. With respect to community monuments, we may expect that such variability
in symbolic meanings can be glossed over. Instead, the differentiation of the meaning of a monument may be
more evident between the members of different communities. In such a case, a mound becomes a monument
that may be used by the community as a symbolic boundary and a symbolic marker, which distinguish it from
other communities.
The emergence of communal monuments in some settlements of continental Greece, at the end of the
EH II period or some time later, should be viewed as the result of social practices and social interactions,
which, as Wright argues, 'fostered the emergence of elites and elite groups.
43
For Lerna and Thebes, at least,
monumentality seems to be a crucial point for the structuring of social complexity and hierarchical relations.
More than the exploitation of resources, the conduct of trade and the emergence of multi-centric economies,
the erection of monuments by or in honour of elite groups manifests their ability to promote and maintain their
status, and to legitimize a particular cosmic order. Furthermore, monumentality reinforced and maintained the
historical and memorial structures of the societies, and it might also have been used as a 'vehicle for their
promotion against other social groups and settlements in adjacent or distant regions.
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ANCESTRAL LANDSCAPES
BURIAL MOUNDS IN THE COPPER AND BRONZE AGES
(TMO 58)
2011 Maison de lOrient et de la Mditerrane Jean Pouilloux, 7 rue Raulin, F-69365 Lyon CEDEX 07
ISSN 1955-4982
ISBN 978-2-35668-022-8
P : 68
is volume provides a comprehensive study of the burial mound phenomenon which
emerged in large parts of Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages, with a major focus on the
Mediterranean and eastern European regions.
Fifty-one papers are grouped into broad sections dealing with the symbolism of burial
mounds, the relationship between landscapes, landmarks and cultural identity, burial customs as
rituals and a new look at theories on diusionism. ey dene the natural and cultural contexts in
which tumulus burial architecture rst appeared in these parts of the world and attempt to explain
the ideological, social and ritual meaning of burial mounds as community monuments. Most
contributions include new evidence from excavations and surface surveys, some provide a welcome
re-examination of old data, including skeletal remains.
e subjects discussed concern not only funerary practices and beliefs but also further
archaeological issues such as landscapes and land use, early exploitation of metal resources, the
organization of long-distance exchange, interaction networks, and the emergence of complexity in
human societies.