[Biology Form 4] Animal Cell & Plant Cell The cell is the basic unit of all organism.

It is made up of a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm.

Contained within the cytoplasm are not only the nucleus but also organelles, whose specific functions help the cell perform a range of activities. While plant and animal cells are similar, the plant cell has, in addition to the cell membrane, another boundary that separates it from its external environment. This is called the cell wall. As most plant cells carry out photosynthesis - the synthesis of organic substances - they contain chloroplasts. In plant cells, vacuoles also tend to be larger in size and smaller in number than those found in animal cells. Onion Skin Cell

Cheek Squamous Epithelial Cells

Typical Plant Cell

Typical Animal Cell

In the laboratory, you have learned how to prepare a microscope slide of human cheek cells as well as the epidermal cells of onions.

a) The differences you can observe between the two types of cells in term of the following:

Shape Onion cells have a regular shape while cheek cells have an irregular shape. Presence or absence of cell wall Onion cells have a cell wall while cheek cells do not. Presence or absence of vacuoles Onion cells have a large vacuole while vacuoles in cheek cells, if present, are small.

b) Can you observe chloroplasts in the epidermal cells of onions? Explain your answer. No chloroplasts can be observed in the epidermal cells of onions because epidermal cells do not carry out photosynthesis.

[Biology Form 4] Being Multicellular A multicellular organism is made up of millions of cells, all of which carry out specific and different functions depending on their shapes and structures, and the organelles contained in them. In multicellular organisms, cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs and organs make up systems. In an entity, they cooperate with one another and ensure the organism carry out its seven main living processes. The kind of organisation is extremely necessary to allow different systems to carry out specific functions and to enable the organism to be a complete and functional individual. Cell organisation 1. To gauge whether you know how multicellular organisms from the plant and animal kingdoms are organised, as the following table. Plant kingdom Hibiscus plant Shoot system Level of organisation Organism System Animal kingdom Man Circulatory system

Leaf Vascular tissue Mesophyll palisade cell 2.

Organ Tissue Cell

Skin Connective tissue Epithelial cell

3. Another example of how two other multicellular organisms are organised. Plant kingdom Maze Root system Root Ground tissue Parenchyma Level of organisation Organism System Organ Tissue Cell Animal kingdom Rat Circulatory system Lungs Connective tissue Red blood cell

[Biology Form 4] Breathing Under Water The gills in fish help them to breathe while they get their supply of oxygen from the water that surrounds them. Gills have structures called filaments, which are made up of many thin-walled structures called lamellae. Blood capillaries are found close to the surface of these lamellae, and this is where gaseous exchange occurs. 1. It is this type of blood vessel that is found in a dense network on the gill filaments of a fish.
o

Capillary.

2. In each body cell of the fish, this aerobic process is what helps synthesise the ATP.
o

Respiration.

3. The thin-walled structures found in filaments (plural).

Lamellae.

4. The name given to the respiratory structures of a fish (plural).

o

Gills.

5. The structure that covers and protects the gills.

o

Operculum.

6. This is one of the characteristics of any respiratory surface where gaseous exchange takes place.
o

Thin.

7. Each gill is composed of this (singular).

o

Filament.

8. The all-important gas without which no fish can survive.

o

Oxygen.

[Biology Form 4] Cell Division Have you ever wondered how it is possible for our human body to go through growth and development? What happens when cells in our body are damaged? The answer lies in cell division. New cells replace old and damaged ones, and increase in number and size that lead to our growth. The cell division that contributes to the replacement of cells as well as tissue growth and repair is known as mitosis.

Mitosis involves the division of one cell into two new cells that are genetically identical to their parent cell. How is this likeness formed? The DNA existing within the chromosomes of a cell's nucleus can make an exact copy of itself. This means that all chromosomes within the nucleus duplicate (or replicate) themselves. That is why when the cytoplasm divides later, each of the two daughter cells has exact copies of the original chromosomes and DNA! Note: During the division, the cell splits the copied chromosomes equally to make sure that each daughter cell has a full set. Refer to the following diagram, which depicts the series of stages, known as the cell cycle, undergone by a cell that is about to divide. Basically, the cell grows, copies (or duplicate) its chromosomes, and then divides to form two new and identical cells.

[Biology Form 4] Cell Structure & Organisation

1. Study the diagrams below. Identify the structures or organelles (A J) and complete the following table.

Name of organelle / structure

Function

Consequence if absent No transportation of proteins Energy cannot be produced Have irregular shape (eg. Animal cell) Lipid and glycerol cannot be transport No cell division, all cell activities stop. Cannot store nutrients No site for metabolic reaction No selective barrier

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Transporting proteins

Mitochondrion

Site for energy production

Cell wall

Give fixed shape to the cell

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus

Transport lipid and glyserol

Control cell activities, contains genetic material. Storing nutrients (sugar and amino acid) in its sap. Food storage, medium for metabolic reaction Controlling entry and exit of substances Releases enzymes outside the

Vacuole

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane

Lysosomes

No enzymes being

cell. J Chloroplast Carries out photosynthesis

released Photosynthesis cannot occur

Golgi apparatus

Storing and transporting lipids. Produces glycoprotein, polysaccharide and secretory enzyme.

2. Give two differences between animal and plant cell Any two differences: Cell wall, Vacuole, Centriole, Storage granule, Chloroplast 3. a) What is cell specialization? Cell changes in structure or function in order to carry out a specific function. b) How are cells organised into a multicellular organism? Cell --> Tissue --> Organ --> System --> Organism c) Give an example of each type of cell organization in human. Epithelium Cell --> Epithelium Tissue --> Stomach --> Digestive System --> Human

[Biology Form 4] Class Of Chemicals Cells need various types of organic and inorganic compounds to enable them to carry out their functions, as well as build their cellular components. While organic compounds contain the element carbon, inorganic compounds do not. Below is the classified descriptions of chemical compound. Carbohydrate

Starch made up of long chain of glucose The ratio of C:H:O in it is 1:2:1

Cellulose that strengthens the cell walls of plants Maltose can be converted into glucose by hydrolysis Its glucose molecules can be converted into glycogen

Lipid

Cholesterol is an example of it Fats have the triglyceride molecules in them Fatty acids can be saturated and unsaturated The hormone testosterone is an example of it

Nucleic Acid

An example is the DNA found in the nucleus of a cell Genetic material that directs protein synthesis Contain pentose sugars and phosphate groups

Protein

Amino acids are its building blocks Nearly all enzymes are examples of it The haemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells Builds muscles and aids growth

Water

An inorganic compound with no carbon in it A polar molecule with two H atoms and one O atom A universal solvent Acts as a medium for reactions in one's body

[Biology Form 4] Diffusion Various substances pass through the plasma membrane of a cell. The simplest mode of transport for these substances is by diffusion.

Diffusion is defined as the movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. When substances move in this manner, we say that they are moving along the concentration gradient. This movement process is simple and passive, which means that the substances move easily from the region of high concentration to the one whose concentration is lower without requiring any energy. When water moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a semipermeable membrane, its movement called osmosis. Therefore, when a cell absorbs water by diffusion through its semi-permeable cell membrane, we say that water has entered the cell through osmosis. Eg: Roots absorb water through osmosis because the soil solution around the roots has a higher water concentration than the root cells. Certain substances need help in the diffusion process. These substances move into a cell by diffusion through the membrane but they are brought in by special carrier proteins. Such a diffusion process is known as facilitated diffusion. An active diffusion takes place when a substance moves from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, with the use of energy. This movement goes against the concentration gradient. An active diffusion process usually involves transporting important ions into and out of a cell, whose plasma membrane may have special protein pumps to engage in it.

Schematic representation of mixing of two substances by diffusion

Self diffusion, exemplified with an isotopic tracer of radioactive isotope 22Na

Example of chemical (classical, Fick's, or Fickian) diffusion of sodium chloride in water

Illustration of low (top) and high (bottom) entropy.

[Biology Form 4] Enzyme Extraordinaire Many reactions take place within the cells of living organisms. If these reactions were to happen at a normal pace, they would take forever! So, cells depend on specific protein molecules to speed up or catalyse the rate of the biochemical reactions in them. These catalysts are called enzymes. Since enzymes are proteins in nature, they are easily affected by factors such as temperature and pH. Hence, conditions within the cell must be optimal for enzymes to function effectively. The best way to master the topic on enzymes is to use the comprehensive S.M.A.R.T. guide. S.M.A.R.T. guide to learning biology Structure function relationship - knowing the function of every structure. 1. Structure: What chemical compound is an enzyme made up of? Proteins. 2. Function: What is the role played by enzymes in living organisms? Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living organisms. Mastery of facts - by asking the right questions and learning from the answer. A simple way to accomplish this is by using the alphabetical ABCDEFG sub-guide. ABCDEFG means "Always (A) Begin (B) with CDEFG". C is for characteristics 3. State the characteristics of enzymes: a) Enzymes are made up of proteins. b) They are catalysts that speed up the rate of a reaction. c) They are not destroyed / altered by the reactions they catalyse. d) Enzymes have specific active sites where they bind with substrates. e) Enzymes show substrate specificity - they can only bind with specific substrates. f) Enzymes are needed only in small amounts.

g) Enzyme-catalysed reactions are reversible - they catalyse reactions in either direction. h) The activity of enzymes can be slowed down by inhibitors. i) Enzymes work more effectively with the help of co-factors. j) Enzymes are affected by factors such as temperature, pH, substrate concentration and enzyme concentration.

[Biology Form 4] Gaseous Transfer What happens to the composition of atmospheric air when it reaches the alveoli?

Some of the oxygen dissolves in the film of moisture covering the epithelium of the alveoli. From here, it diffuses into the blood in a nearby capillary, and enters a red blood cell before combining with the haemoglobin therein. The diagram below shows the blood vessels involved in the transport of gases in the lungs.

Information: Organ/structure and its description 1. Bronchioles - The branched structures found at the end of each bronchus. 2. Trachea - A tube supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage. 3. Diaphragm - A dome-shaped sheet of muscle found at the bottom of the thorax. 4. Alveoli - If spread out, these structures would cover the size of a tennis court. 5. Ribs - The intercostal muscles are found between them. 6. Epiglottis - This is a special flap that covers the tracheal opening when we eat and prevents food from entering the trachea. 7. Bronchi - The two tubes found at the lower end of the trachea. 8. Nose - Air enters our body through this organ. 9. Pharynx - The passageway for air between the nose and the trachea. 10. Blood capillaries - The structures found on the outside of the alveoli.

[Biology Form 4] Human Respiratory System - The Network Within Our lungs are the organs that bring in oxygen into our body. In them are thousands of branch-like, tiny tubules, called bronchioles, which are connected to millions of air sacs known as alveoli.

A dense network of blood capillaries is found on the surface of each alveolus. When oxygen from the air that we breathe in enters the air sacs, it diffuses into these blood capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses out into the alveoli before we breathe it out.

The pathway of air: nasal cavities (or oral cavity) -> pharynx -> trachea -> right and left bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli (site for gaseous exchange in which oxygen enters and crbon dioxide leaves our lungs).

Notes:

The are some 300 million alveoli in our two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160m2 (almost 80 times the area of our skin). Only a fraction of the oxygen we inhale is taken up by the lungs.

[Biology Form 4] How to Synthesis Extracellular Protein? 1. Extracellular protein is the protein that is destined for export from a cell such as digestive enzyme that is made by pancreas cell. 2. The organelles that involved in the process are nucleus, ribosome, RER, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria. 3. Flow chart shows how the internal membrane system of a cell packages a protein for export.

1. Instructions for making protein are transcribed from DNA by RNA in the nucleus. | v 2. RNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pore and proceeds to a ribosome located on the RER. | v 3. Ribosome synthesis the correct sequence of amino acids for synthesizing that particular protein as instructed. | v

4. When protein synthesis is complete, the protein travels through the RER and is then encapsulated in a transport vesicle. | v 5. The transport vesicle fuses with a Golgi apparatus, releasing the protein. | v 6. In the Golgi apparatus, the protein is further modified and is then shunted to the ends of Golgi apparatus or cisternae. There, the protein waits for a secretory vesicle. | v 7. The secretory vesicle will carry the protein to the plasma membrane of the cell and fuses with it. Then, the protein is released outside the cell.

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis In biology, meiosis (mass) is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is halved. In animals, meiosis always results in the formation of gametes, while in other organisms it can give rise to spores. As with mitosis, before meiosis begins, the DNA in the original cell is replicated during S-phase of the cell cycle. Two cell divisions separate the replicated chromosomes into four haploid gametes or spores.

Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction and therefore occurs in all eukaryotes (including singlecelled organisms) that reproduce sexually. A few eukaryotes, notably the Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis. Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as binary fission. During meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell, which is composed of long segments of DNA packaged into chromosomes, undergoes DNA replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in four haploid cells. Each of these cells contain one complete set of chromosomes, or half of the genetic content of the original cell. If meiosis produces gametes, these cells must fuse during fertilization to create a new diploid cell, or zygote before any new growth can occur. Thus, the division mechanism of meiosis is a reciprocal process to the joining of two genomes that occurs at fertilization. Because the chromosomes of each parent undergo genetic recombination during meiosis, each gamete, and thus each zygote, will have a unique genetic blueprint encoded in its DNA. Together, meiosis and fertilization constitute sexuality in the eukaryotes, and generate genetically distinct individuals in populations. In all plants, and in many protists, meiosis results in the formation of haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization, referred to as spores. In these groups, gametes are produced by mitosis. Meiosis uses many of the same biochemical mechanisms employed during mitosis to accomplish the redistribution of chromosomes. There are several features unique to meiosis, most importantly the pairing and genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes. Meiosis comes from the root meio, meaning less.

Events involving meiosis, showing chromosomal crossover

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis - Process Because meiosis is a "one-way" process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle as mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases:

Growth 1 (G1) phase: This is a very active period, where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes consists of a single (very long) molecule of DNA. In humans, at this point cells are 46 chromosomes, 2N, identical to somatic cells. Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated: each of its chromosomes duplicates, producing 46 chromosomes each made up of two sister chromatids. The cell is still considered diploid because it still contains the same number of centromeres. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis. Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase is absent in Meiosis

Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosome, each made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of 2. Meiosis II consists of decoupling each chromosome's sister strands (chromatids), and segregating the individual chromatids into haploid daughter cells. The two cells resulting from meiosis I divide during meiosis II, creating 4 haploid daughter cells. Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I), and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II). Meiosis generates genetic diversity in two ways: (1) independent alignment and subsequent separation of homologous chromosome pairs during the first meiotic division allows a random and independent selection of each chromosome segregates into each gamete; and (2) physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by recombination during prophase I results in new genetic combinations within chromosomes.

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis - Process Because meiosis is a "one-way" process, it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle as mitosis does. However, the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases:

Growth 1 (G1) phase: This is a very active period, where the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1 stage each of the chromosomes consists of a single (very long) molecule of DNA. In humans, at this point cells are 46 chromosomes, 2N, identical to somatic cells. Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated: each of its chromosomes duplicates, producing 46 chromosomes each made up of two sister chromatids. The cell is still considered diploid because it still contains the same number of centromeres. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis. Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase is absent in Meiosis

Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I consists of separating the pairs of homologous chromosome, each made up of two sister chromatids, into two cells. One entire haploid content of chromosomes is contained in each of the resulting daughter cells; the first meiotic division therefore reduces the ploidy of the original cell by a factor of 2. Meiosis II consists of decoupling each chromosome's sister strands (chromatids), and segregating the individual chromatids into haploid daughter cells. The two cells resulting from meiosis I divide during meiosis II, creating 4 haploid daughter cells. Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I), and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II). Meiosis generates genetic diversity in two ways: (1) independent alignment and subsequent separation of homologous chromosome pairs during the first meiotic division allows a random and independent selection of each chromosome segregates into each gamete; and (2) physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by recombination during prophase I results in new genetic combinations within chromosomes.

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis - Phases

A diagram of the meiotic phases. Meiosis I Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, producing two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N in humans), so meiosis I is referred to as a reductional division. A regular diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes and is considered 2N because it contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, after meiosis I, although the cell contains 46 chromatids it is only considered as being N, with 23 chromosomes, because later in anaphase I the sister chromatids will remain together as the spindle pulls the pair toward the pole of the new cell. In meiosis II, an equational division similar to mitosis will occur whereby the sister chromatids are finally split, creating a total of 4 haploid cells (23 chromosomes, N) per daughter cell from the first division. Prophase I Homologous chromosomes pair (or synapse) and crossing over (or recombination) occurs - a step unique to meiosis. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. At this stage, nonsister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma). Leptotene The first stage of prophase I is the leptotene stage, also known as leptonema, from Greek words meaning "thin threads". During this stage, individual chromosomes begin to condense into long strands within the nucleus. However the two sister chromatids are still so tightly bound that they are indistinguishable from one another. Zygotene

The zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning "paired threads", occurs as the chromosomes approximately line up with each other into homologous chromosomes. This is called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus. Pachytene The pachytene stage, also known as pachynema, from Greek words meaning "thick threads", contains the following chromosomal crossover. Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes randomly exchange segments of genetic information over regions of homology. (Sex chromosomes, however, are not wholly identical, and only exchange information over a small region of homology.) Exchange takes place at sites where recombination nodules (the aforementioned chiasmata) have formed. The exchange of information between the non-sister chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope. Diplotene During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning "two threads", the synaptonemal complex degrades and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed in Anaphase I. In human fetal oogenesis all developing oocytes develop to this stage and stop before birth. This suspended state is referred to as the dictyotene stage and remains so until puberty. In males, only spermatogonia(Spermatogenesis) exist until meiosis begins at puberty. Diakinesis Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through". This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form. Synchronous processes During these stages, two centrosomes, containing a pair of centrioles in animal cells, migrate to the two poles of the cell. These centrosomes, which were duplicated during S-phase, function as microtubule organizing centers nucleating microtubules, which are essentially cellular ropes and poles. The microtubules invade the nuclear region after the nuclear envelope disintegrates, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore. The kinetochore functions as a motor, pulling the chromosome along the attached microtubule toward the originating centriole, like a train on a track. There are four

kinetochores on each tetrad, but the pair of kinetochores on each sister chromatid fuses and functions as a unit during meiosis I. Microtubules that attach to the kinetochores are known as kinetochore microtubules. Other microtubules will interact with microtubules from the opposite centriole: these are called nonkinetochore microtubules or polar microtubules. A third type of microtubules, the aster microtubules, radiates from the centrosome into the cytoplasm or contacts components of the membrane skeleton. Metaphase I Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As kinetochore microtubules from both centrioles attach to their respective kinetochores, the homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line. Anaphase I Kinetochore microtubules shorten, severing the recombination nodules and pulling homologous chromosomes apart. Since each chromosome has only one functional unit of a pair of kinetochores, whole chromosomes are pulled toward opposing poles, forming two haploid sets. Each chromosome still contains a pair of sister chromatids. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrioles farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center. Telophase I The last meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I. Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage. Meiosis II Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic process. Much of the process is similar to mitosis. The end result is production of four haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N in humans) from the two haploid cells (23 chromosomes, 1N * each of the chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of Meiosis II are: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II.

Prophase II takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase I. In this prophase we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrioles move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division. In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes (centrioles) at each pole. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate. This is followed by anaphase II, where the centromeres are cleaved, allowing microtubules attached to the kinetochores to pull the sister chromatids apart. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles. The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by uncoiling and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disappearance of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.

[Biology Form 4] Meiosis - The Significance & Nondisjunction Meiosis facilitates stable sexual reproduction. Without the halving of ploidy, or chromosome count, fertilization would result in zygotes that have twice the number of chromosomes as the zygotes from the previous generation. Successive generations would have an exponential increase in chromosome count. In organisms that are normally diploid, polyploidy, the state of having three or more sets of chromosomes, results in extreme developmental abnormalities or lethality. Polyploidy is poorly tolerated in most animal species. Plants, however, regularly produce fertile, viable polyploids. Polyploidy has been implicated as an important mechanism in plant speciation. Most importantly, recombination and independent assortment of homologous chromosomes allow for a greater diversity of genotypes in the population. This produces genetic variation in gametes that promote genetic and phenotypic variation in a population of offspring. The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed disjunction. When the separation is not normal, it is called nondisjunction. This results in the production

of gametes which have either too many of too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during mitosis. This is a cause of several medical conditions in humans (such as):

Down Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 21 Patau Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 13 Edward Syndrome - trisomy of chromosome 18 Klinefelter Syndrome - extra X chromosomes in males - ie XXY, XXXY, XXXXY Turner Syndrome - lacking of one X chromosome in females - ie XO Triple X syndrome - an extra X chromosome in females XYY Syndrome - an extra Y chromosome in males