ELECTORAL SYSTEMS FOCUS: First past-the-post Proportional Representation Second Ballot Mixed Systems Elections are one of the

most important ways citizens can participate in decisions that affect their lives and hold their representatives accountable for results. Elections are the paradigm of enforceable accountability. Elections have three main functions in a democracy: - They are the means for people to choose their representatives. - It is a means of choosing governments. - Confer legitimacy on the political system. Electoral systems are mechanisms that translate votes into seats in elections. There is a great diversity of electoral systems to be found in the functioning democracies of the world. The rules that govern how votes are cast and seats allocated differ markedly from one country to another. Applying two different formulae to the same distribution of votes with the same voter intent will produce quite different outcomes in terms of members elected for each party. Typologies of Electoral Systems Electoral formula which determines how votes are to be counted in order to allocates seats. District magnitude which refers to the number of seats per district. Ballot structure which defines how voters express their choices. Electoral Formulae There are three basic electoral formulae: Plurality - when a candidate gets more votes individually than each individual opponent and can win with less than 50% of the votes cast. Majority - a winner can only be declared when a candidate gets more than 50% of the votes cast. Proportionality - political parties should be represented in the Legislature in exact (or nearly exact) proportion to the vote they polled. Plurality Systems Plurality systems are commonly known as first past-the-post systems. It is the most common voting system for electing a single representative for a single geographical area.

It is a system in which the winner takes all and usually gives a clear majority both at constituency and national level. The plurality rule is often applied in single-member constituencies, but it is also used in presidential contests as well as in multi-member constituencies, if so designed. Plurality/First Past the Post Systems: Advantages & Disadvantages Advantages: It creates political stability. Strong geographic representation. Makes accountability easier to enforce. Is simple to understand. Generally, the results of the elections can be calculated quickly. Voters have a local representation, they feel closer connections with and they can influence their specific elected representative. Offers voters a clear choice. Encourages a coherent/rational opposition. Excludes extremist parties. Allows voters to choose between candidates. More likely in parliamentary system Disadvantages: Excludes minority parties. E.g. 2007 Elections (Trinidad & Tobago) COP - 148,041 Votes - 22.64% = no seats. UNC - 194, 425 votes 29.73% = 15 seats PNM - 299, 813 votes 45.85% = 26 seats Excludes minorities. Many wasted votes. where voters vote for small parties. Often the need for by-elections. Requires boundary delimitations. Majority Systems Requiring a majority without further specification opens the possibility of having no winner at all if there is a single-round election or a succession of indecisive elections if no candidate is eliminated. That problem is solved through the holding of a second ballot where all other candidates besides the top two are eliminated and the contest is confined to two candidates only. If no candidate obtains more than 50% on the first ballot, a second and final ballot is held between the two candidates who got the highest number of votes in the first round. The winner will emerge with a majority. Proportional Representation There are two major types of proportional representation, namely 1. The party list system and 2. The single transferable vote.

The major concern with the party list system is that parties are allocated seats in the Legislature in proportion to the votes cast for those parties. There are no geographical constituencies. Voters vote for the political parties, not the local representative. Each party puts up a list of persons from which names will be extracted by parties in proportion to their entitlement , e.g. 45% of the votes cast for the party = an entitlement to extract 45% of the names from their list. This system is widely used in Europe in countries such as Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Holland. More conducive to multi-party systems. Proportional Representation: Advantages & Disadvantages Advantages: The system usually gives a fairer share of seats to votes than FPTP. There is often a wider range of views represented in Parliament because governments are often made up of more than just one party (coalition governments). Inclusiveness. Minority representation Few wasted votes. No need to hold by-elections. Restricts the growth of single-party regions. Higher voter turnout is likely. Increase in political diversity Disadvantages: Weak or no geographic representation. Because of so many parties representation, it becomes difficult for Parliament to function. The PR system can cause a hung parliament in which a small party holds the balance of power between the two biggest parties. PR systems are more likely to create a coalition government. - While this can be an advantage sometimes, in some circumstances it can be difficult. - Coalition governments can be slow to act. - They may have weak policies because the different parties in the coalition must agree before a decision or a policy can be made. - Coalition governments can fall out and break up resulting in frequent elections. Accountability issues . Coalition or minority governments more likely to be created in parliamentary systems. Much power is given to political parties. Can lead to inclusion of extremist parties in the legislature. Inability to throw a party out of power. Single Transferable Vote List systems of PR are frequently criticized for granting too much control over the selection of legislators. The Single Transferrable Vote (STV) is advocated as a form of PR that does away with party lists, thus giving voters more freedom. The single transferable vote attempts to apply proportional representation in multi-member constituencies by offering the voters the opportunity to cast their votes on a preferential basis.

Calculation of Single Transferable Vote Parties put up candidates for as many vacancies as there are to be filled per constituency (multi-member districts). Voters are required to cast their votes on a preferential basis in a sequential order. Counting is done on first preference votes to determine how many people voted so that the quota can be established and also to determine if anyone can be declared elected on the first preference votes. The quota is calculated by dividing the total votes cast by the number of seats to be filled and adding 1 to that figure, e.g. (18,000 / 3 = 6,000) + 1 = 6,001. A winner must get 6,001 votes if 18,000 people voted and there were three seats to be filled. Counting continues until all of the seats in a constituency have been filled by the repeated counting of the surplus ballots on a preferential basis and eliminating the last candidate from each count (if necessary) and redistributing their votes on a preferential basis. Mixed Systems Technically, it is possible to mix together different electoral systems to devise a hybrid, or mixed system. We can define a mixed system as a system where different formulas (plurality and PR, majority and PR) are used simultaneously in a single election. An example of this was the proposal by the Wooding Constitution Commission for Trinidad and Tobago in their 1974 Report for a single House consisting of 72 members. 36 members were to be elected by first past-the-post in geographical constituencies and another 36 members drawn from party lists on the basis of proportional representation. However, this type of system is more used in places such as New Zealand, Japan, Russia, Germany, and Italy Mixed Systems: Positives and Negatives This type of system incorporates the positive and the negative aspects of both the FPTP and the PR system because it is a fusion of both. The system can be very confusing you are voting for both party and the local representative. It can be time consuming and expensive. Key Terms Constituency: A body of voters represented by an elected legislator or official. Majority Government: A government formed by a political party that wins more than half the seats in a Parliament or legislature. Minority Government: A government that is elected with fewer than half the seats in a Parliament or legislature. First Past The Post (FPTP): An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes wins, even if he/she receives less than 50% of the total votes. Sometimes called simple majority. Proportional Representation (PR): An electoral system in which the number of seats each political party wins is in proportion to its share of the total votes. Hybrid Systems (Mixed Systems): A fusion of the FPTP and the PR system.It was designed to address the problems in the FPTP and the PR systems. Preferential Ballot: An electoral system whereby voters rank their choices rather than vote for a single candidate. (To win an election, a candidate must win 50% + 1 of the vote.) By-election: Occurs when a seat in the Parliament becomes vacant during the life of Parliament because the sitting MP dies, resigns, is elevated or because he/she become ineligible to sit for some other reason.

Tutorial Questions: 1. Critically examine the electoral formulae of plurality, majority and proportionality. 2. Compare and contrast the second ballot and proportional representation electoral systems. 3. Compare and contrast the first-past-the-post and the second ballot electoral system. 4. Examine and discuss the main features of the plurality, majority and proportionality formulae in electoral systems.