Running Head: RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION

Issues, Trends, and Research in Adult Education Computers and The Digital Learner

Thomas J. Okon Southern Illinois University Workforce Education and Development

June 30, 2011

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION Introduction This paper is about Adult Education. It does not discuss adults like me, who may be working on their masters degree or doctorate. The adults this review references are probably not wealthy or very educated. They are the middle class or lower with only basic educational skills. Adult education was invented for the kind of people that want to become literate and obtain the knowledge and skills necessary for employment and self-sufficiency. They are the ones that strive to obtain the educational skills necessary to become full partners in the educational development of their children (Illinois Community College Board, 2009).

A struggle to obtain an education though is only one of the challenges that these adults may encounter. The other is the ever-advancing technology of computers. Being able to operate a computer has become almost an essential skill in this century. Whether for simply writing papers or researching topics on the Internet, a computer has also become a necessary tool for todays students. This paper discusses the issues and trends that are present in the adult education field as they relate to computer technology and its use by adults attempting to obtain further education. The research for this paper has been obtained from searching online journals and articles using the EBSCO host database through the Morris Library at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, and Google Scholar on the Internet. Professional associations associated with adult education include the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning, the Association for Career and Technical Education, and the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education.

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION Overview In 1977 Ken Olsen of Digital Equipment pronounced that There is no reason for any

individual to have a computer in his home (Aro & Olkinuora, 2007 p. 3). Things have certainly changed since the 70s. Computer technology has changed, and so has our perception of the technology. The prevailing trend now is to try to get computers and Internet access into every home. The development of information technology has been extremely rapid during the last few decades. The use of a computer for different kinds of applications such as shopping and paying the bills, not to mention e-mail and other communications on the net, has spread very rapidly and has already become almost indispensable (Aro & Olkinuora, 2007). Caught up in all this change is the Adult Education student. It used to be that their only concern was to learn their subjects and then move on to the next degree. Now it is expected that students hand in computer generated copies of their assignments, often with pictures and artwork included in them. For those that have kept up with the technology this may not be that hard. But for those older adult students who have spent time raising families or working low technology jobs it can be a major undertaking. There also is considerable evidence suggesting that older adults find learning about computers more difficult than younger people do, are more likely to forget, and take longer to reach a level of proficiency (Broady, Chan, & Caputi, 2010). While learning difficulty may be an issue for older students, there are other issues that adults young and old in the United States and around the world have to contend with. Issues like the inability to afford a computer, the lack of access to computers for those that cant afford them, and the lack of available training are all deterrents to an adult education student. This literature review will discuss the prevailing research on the issues and trends that are of concern to the field of Adult Education. Issues include the digital divide, digital literacy, and using

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION computers in literacy instruction. The Digital Divide In1999, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) released a benchmark study titled Falling through the Net: Defining the Digital Divide. In this work, NTIA defined the Digital Divide as the concept that society should not be separated into

information haves and information have-nots (NTIA, 1999). Policy makers and researchers now know that a divide exists in computer ownership between the economically disadvantaged and the general population in the United States. Minorities, the elderly, and individuals with low educational achievement also appear to be left out of the new digital economy (Larrison, Nackerud, Risler, & Sullivan, 2002). Disadvantaged adults trying to obtain an education are certainly part of this group. They struggle to function at the most basic levels of computing, and to access digital resources. Those able to communicate via email or access the Internet have an advantage over those that dont. As an ever-increasing number of resources, information and services are placed on the Internet and there is more electronic communication, the issue of equal access to Information Communication Technology (ICT) services by all individuals is a significant issue of social justice, particularly as many of these services are provided commercially (Atkinson, Black, & Curtis, 2008). As of 2005, 68% of American adults, or about 137 million people, use the Internet. Thirty-two percent of American adults, or about 65 million people, do not use the Internet and not always by choice. Certain groups continue to lag in their Internet adoption. Only 26% of Americans age 65 and older go online compared with 67% of those aged 50-64, 80% of those aged 30-49, and 84% of those aged 18-29. Despite the popular belief that identity-based discrepancies in physical access to computers and the Internet are disappearing, substantial gaps

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION still remain. For example, although 70% of White adults in the United States use the Internet, only 57% of African Americans are using online resources.

Meanwhile, although 93% of households with annual incomes greater than $75,000 have home Internet access, fewer than 49% of households with annual incomes less than $30,000 have access. Also, 29% of those who have not graduated from high school have access, compared with 61% of high school graduates and 89% of college graduates (Fox, 2005). For English as Second Language (ESL) adults the divide is even deeper. Spanish-speaking Latinos have strikingly low rates of computer ownership and home Internet access. Latinos are much less likely to have access to computers and the Internet at home than are white, non-Latinos (Fairlie, 2007). Trends and Possible Solutions If disadvantaged adults are ever going to be able to achieve an advanced education, solutions to the digital divide must be discovered. One way to bridge the digital gap calls for government intervention. Providing a free Internet connection, computer training and incentives for families to acquire computers could all be feasible policies, but the effectiveness and costs of such policies is still widely an unknown issue. Improving our knowledge about the determinants of computer abilities is fundamental for the choice of the best policy mix (Miniaci & Parisi, 2006). Another government strategy could focus on providing technical support and training to identified disadvantaged groups within the community. Providing access to hardware and software resources to the community can be achieved through facilities such as community technology centers. It is also important to locate such resources in convenient locations since some disadvantaged groups indicated they found it difficult to physically access locations where ICT resources are located. In particular, the distance of the ICT resources from car parking or

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION public transport was an issue (Atkinson, Black, & Curtis, 2008). In Sweden, Internet Cafs have become popular. They provide public access to the Internet, and are often located in urban settings providing Internet access alongside cafe or restaurant provisions. The IT-Cafe offers a variety of subsidized computer courses for its

visitors, including ones specially designed for elderly users. These cafes have been successful in building a sense of local community in the area (Ferlander & Timms, 2001). In Atlanta, Georgia community technology centers have succeeded. Kvasny and Keil (2006) found that when people embraced the initiatives started there, they were full of enthusiasm, and that there also is no question that some learning occurs, and the programs are beneficial. However, Kvasny and Keil also found that there doesnt seem to be a mechanism for people to go to the next step, whether that is technical certification, going to college, buying a computer or escaping the poverty that put them on the losing end of the divide in the first place. The divide cannot be expected to continue without adverse consequences to society and its economy. Business and government leaders must recognize the importance of bringing everyone onto the information grid. However, that may not be enough to stop the trend. Strategically planned initiatives focused on social, cultural, economic, and educational differences within individual communities are needed (Sipior, Ward, Volonino, & Marzec, 2004). In order to include people in the Information Society, and for them to be able to reach the outside world, it is important to show potential users how they can benefit from ICT. People wont use it if they do not see it as relevant to their lives. Rather than looking solely at issues of access and skills, more emphasis should be put upon the value that technology can add in terms of enriching peoples lives (Ferlander &Timms, 2006) Finally, when we dig deeper, and broaden our concept of access, this is when we find a

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION

vast, complex web of inequities that are sociopolitical in nature and unsolvable merely by adding more or faster computers and Internet access to homes and schools. These include inequitable access to support and encouragement to pursue educational and professional interests related to technology, and gaps in opportunity actually to use the technologies in ways that empower people to participate more fully and equitably in society (Gorski, 2009). We also could view the digital divide simply as a disparity in utilization of goods and services arising from income differences just as we might view disparities in purchases of other electronic goods, such as cameras, stereos, or televisions. Or, we could view it as a disparity in a good that has important enough implications, such as education, healthcare, or job training, that it warrants redistributive policies. It seems policy makers cannot agree on an answer to this question. However, the former chair of the Federal Communications Commission, Michael Powell, referred to the digital divide as a Mercedes divide. Id like to have one; I cant afford one,(Fairlie, 2007). Digital Literacy Another important issue in Adult Education concerns a students ability to operate a computer. No matter the access or disadvantages, if an adult cant use a computer in an effective way, his attempts to use it for his studies will prove futile. This concept is often called Digital Literacy or Computer Literacy. The American Library Association defines information literacy as the ability to recognize when information is needed and to be able to locate, evaluate, and use it effectively. It follows then that digital literacy is information literacy in a digital environment. Digital literacy refers to the technical, cognitive, and sociological skills that people need to perform efficiently in a digital world (Huerta & Sandoval-Almazan, 2007).

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION

With the dawn of a new millennium and the rapidity with which technology has changed society, the concept of literacy has assumed new meanings. In our accelerated, media saturated and automated society, a new literacy is required, one more broadly defined then the ability to read and write (Jones-Kavaller & Flannigan, 2006). For a person to be digital literate he must be able to read and interpret media (text, sound, images), to reproduce data and images through digital manipulation, and to apply the new knowledge gained from digital environments. The most critical of these is the ability to make educated judgments about what was found online. (Jones-Kavaller & Flannigan, 2006) The importance of this cannot be denied. Adult students must be able retrieve and synthesize the information they find. The information overload that is common in most searches only amplifies the problem. Making a critical appraisal of all that information is essential. Digital Literacy also means the ability to communicate. Merchant (2007) found that one of the key characteristics of digital literacy is the way in which it readily combines with other modes of communication. Context is very important in any practice of literacy and the multimodal nature of many screen-based texts highlights the importance of combining our reading of visual and other modes with digital writing, as we make meanings through these new texts (Merchant, 2007). This ability to communicate thus becomes one of the most important reasons to become digital literate. This includes the possibilities for communicating with the world beyond the classroom walls. The proliferation of social media sites like Facebook, and LinkedIn, and their use by job posters and job seekers alike reinforce the need for career changing adult students to become literate with all these new technologies.

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Trends in Perception Despite the perceived importance in becoming digital literate, there are those that dismiss the idea of computer technology as having relevance to their lives. They do not see computer or digital literacy as a means to an economically, socially, or informationally enriched future. Its possible, that in most cases, perceiving computer technology as irrelevant to ones life reflects a lack of knowledge about what computers have to offer rather than an informed and measured rejection of the technology (Stanley, 2003). Many non-computer users are also deterred by its high social costs: difficulty of use, presumed lack of technical competence, and computer-related anxiety. Taken together, these are all obstacles to learning computers because they challenge ones existing physical and/or psychological comfort zones (Stanley, 2003). Furthermore, while most of these non computer users believed that computer literacy would make them more marketable, the majority were mostly unclear as to what specific jobs they would be qualified to pursue once they acquired basic computer skills. They were also unclear about how they would go about finding an office job. It seems these persons would benefit significantly from a curriculum that defined a clearer pathway that connected computer knowledge to application (Stanley, 2003). There continues to be a great deal of discussion in business and education circles alike about the type of skills one will need to survive and thrive in this century. But there is also little known today about the level of skills currently possessed by students. This is because researchers are still in the process of articulating the specific skills needed, and because too little systemic examination of existing skill levels has been undertaken (Silvernail, Small, Walker, Wilson, & Wintle, 2008). The Center for Education Policy, Applied Research, and Evaluation

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(CEPARE) at the University of Southern Maine has begun to address this issue by developing a 75-minute scenario-based test to measure high school senior and college freshmen students Information and Communication Technology (ICT) literacy skills. These skills are defined as the ability of post-secondary students to: define, access, manage, integrate, evaluate, create, and communicate information in a technological environment (Silvernail et al., 2008). The evidence gathered from this test suggests that on the whole, the project was successful. It was demonstrated that by providing students with instruction on how to evaluate digital resources, students did improve their skills in evaluating online materials (Silvernail et al., 2008). Technology and Literacy Despite the growth in adult learning, millions of adults who need instruction are still not participating in it. The most obvious gap is in the participation of adults who need to enhance their basic literacy skills. About 40 million adults function at the lowest levels of literacy; only 3 million of these are receiving instruction. Many other adults also need further learning to re-tool for changing jobs, acquire higher-level skills, or obtain a credential to aid career advancement and flexibility (Voorhees & Lingenfelter, 2003). Though there are many computer technology hurdles for adults who are still struggling with basic literacy, it has become apparent that one way to improve literacy is reading on the Internet. This act usually requires one to be continuously specifying searches and assessing search results (Aro & Olkinuora, 2007). It can be said that proficiency with technology is a form of literacy. Being able to use a computer to compose a brief document, surfing the Internet to locate information, or making a withdrawal from an ATM are common technology-related activities for many adults (Smith & Smith, 2010). The active use of a computer is positively related to literacy and the most enthusiastic computer users are also the most avid readers of

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION books and newspapers (Aro & Olkinuora, 2007).

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Based on the findings from a study by Smith and Smith (2010), it appears that the simple act of operating a computer can improve ones ability and skills in reading and writing. Their study examined how adult computer literacy practices were related to general literacy tasks. When controlling for age, education, and personal income the studys findings indicated that there were significant and large differences between computer users and non-users on prose literacy, document literacy, and quantitative literacy. The participants who had used a computer showed higher scores than those who had not used a computer. Educational researchers and practitioners alike assert that the potential of new technologies for learning is likely to not be found in the technologies themselves but in the way in which these technologies are used for learning (Holum & Gahala, 2001). Trends in Instruction Within a traditional literacy classroom, the curriculum had typically relied heavily on books and other printed materials to supplement instruction. Classes were structured by lecture, small group interaction, and projects, often supported by tutors for more individualized attention. What has happened recently though is that technology is increasingly shaping literacy activities. More programs are choosing to integrate newer technologies into their programming as a supplement to existing instruction. The audio and videotapes of the past have been replaced by the World Wide Web and the Internet (Milheim, 2007). Computer technology has enabled literacy program directors to create a new environment for learning that goes beyond the classroom, curricula, and text-based formats to which they are accustomed. A computer allows students to learn through intersections of touch, visual stimuli, and multiple muscle movements, which often occur with greater intensity than with other

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traditional literacy exercises (Milheim, 2007). Literacy programs have already taken steps to use computer technology tools in a variety of ways, including student assessment, drills, practice lessons, and the integration of computer-based projects in tandem with existing course content, such as essay writing via a word processing program (Milheim, 2007). Beyond simply using computers for instruction, there is the emergence of e-learning as a viable choice. High quality e-learning for the workplace can complement other learning options through the capability to achieve the following: increase access and flexibility for learning, engage learners in more active modes of learning, personalize learning opportunities, and integrate it into the workplace, for just-in-time learning (Chang-Barker, 2006). E-learning is appropriate for all levels and types of learners. It builds on best practices in how people learn and shows positive change in the acquisition of new skills and knowledge. It is also equally adoptable in both formal and informal learning situations. Teachers and instructors can use if for alternative assessment of learning aimed at accreditation. Lifelong learners can use it during their ongoing acquisition of insight and competencies (Chang-Barker, 2006). Literacies continually emerge as new technologies are invented. So, the nature of literacy in technologically rich settings will most certainly continue to change. Therefore, future conceptions of the nature of literacy in technologically rich settings will be very different from the conception of the nature of literacy in todays technologically rich settings (Eryaman, 2007). Summary This literature review has focused on some of the key issues, trends, and research in Adult Education. The specific concerns of how adults interact with computers, was the main focus. This cannot be considered an exhaustive synthesis of all the available research available. It does however highlight some very valuable insights into issues that will continue to be of much

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discussion in the future. Literacy and digital literacy will continue to be essential capabilities of all adults. Those that wish to change careers or advance their present employment will have to embrace the powerful capabilities of digital technologies. The challenges for learning are significant, but the rewards for mastery, or at least competency are numerous.

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION References Aro, M., & Olkinuora, E. (2007). Riding the information highway towards a new kind of learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26, 4, 385398. Atkinson, J., Black, R., & Curtis, A.(2008). Exploring the Digital Divide in an Australian

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Regional City: a case study of Albury. Australian Geographer, Vol. 39, No. 4, 479-493. Broady, T., Chan, A., & Caputi, P. (2010). Comparison of older and younger adults attitudes towards and abilities with computers: Implications for training and learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41, 3, 473485. doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2008.00914.x Chang-Barker, K. (2006). eLearning and literacy policy recommendations. FuturEd Consulting Education Futurists Inc. Fairlie, R. W. (2007). Explaining differences in access to home computers and the Internet: A comparison of Latino groups to other ethnic and racial groups. Electron Commerce Research 7, 265291. DOI 10.1007/s10660-007-9006-5 Ferlander, S., & Timms, D. (2006). Bridging the dual Digital Divide: A Local Net and an ITCafe in Sweden Information, Communication & Society, 9, 2, 137159. DOI: 10.1080/13691180600630732 Fox, S. (2005). Digital divisions. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Gorski, P. C., (2008). Insisting on digital equity: Reframing the dominant discourse on multicultural education and technology. Urban Education, 44, 348-364. DOI: 10.1177/0042085908318712 Huerta, E., & Sandoval-Almazan, R. (2007). Digital Literacy: Problems faced by Telecenter Users

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in Mexico. Information Technology for Development, 13, (3), 217232. DOI: 10.1002/itdj.20071 Holum, A., & Gahala, J. (2001). Critical issue: Using technology to enhance literacy instruction. North Central Regional Educational Lab, Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Illinois Community College Board (2009). A Visioning Document for the Illinois Adult Education and Family Literacy Program: Continuing Our Work to Meet Adult Learners Needs. Retrieved at http://www.iccb.org Jones-Kavaller, B. R., & Flannigan, S. (2006, November) Connecting the digital dots: Literacy of the 21st century. Educause Quarterly, 8-10. Kvasny, L., & Keil, M. (2006). The challenges of redressing the digital divide: a tale of two US cities. Info Systems Journal, 16, 2353. Larrison, C. R., Nackerud, L., Risler, E., & Sullivan, M. (2002). Welfare Recipients and the Digital Divide: Left out of the new economy. Journal of Technology in Human Service, 19, (4) Merchant, G. (2007). Writing the future in the digital age. Literacy, 41, 3, 118-129 Milheim, K., (2007). Influence of technology on informal learning. Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal, 1,1, 21-26 Miniaci, R., & Parisi, M.L. (2006). Social interactions and the Digital Divide: Identification and policy implications. Contributions to Economic Analysis & Policy, 5, 1

National Telecommunications and Information Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. (1999). Falling through the Net: Defining the digital divide. Silvernail, D. L., Small, D., Walker, L., Wilson, R. L., & Wintle, S. E. (2008). Using technology

ISSUES, TRENDS, AND RESEARCH IN ADULT EDUCATION in helping students achieve 21st Century skills: A Pilot Study. Center for Education Policy, Applied Research, and Evaluation University of Southern Maine And Maine School Administrative District #54 Sipior, J. C., Ward B. T., Volonino, L., & Marzec, J. Z. (2004). A community initiative that diminished the Digital Divide. Communications of the Association for Information Systems,13, 29-56. Smith, C. S., Smith, T. J., (2010). Adults uses of computer technology: Associations with literacy tasks. Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol. 42(4) 407-422 Stanley, L.D., (2003). Beyond Access: Psychosocial Barriers to Computer Literacy. The Information Society, 19, 407416. DOI: 10.1080/01972240390241538 Voorhees, R. A., & Lingenfelter, P. E., (2003). Adult learners and state policy. State Higher Education Executive Officers & Council for Adult and Experiential Learning

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