A Level Maths C4

Module C4
1 Core Mathematics 4 (A2 Unit 4724) Basic Info:

Algebra and graphs; Differentiation and integration; Differential equations; Vectors. The C4 exam is 1 hour 30 minutes long and is in two sections, and worth 72 marks. (Thats about a minute per mark allowing some time for over run and checking at the end) Section A (36 marks) 5 7 short questions worth at most 8 marks each. Section B (36 marks) 2 questions worth about 18 marks each. Grade Boundaries. These vary from exam to exam, but in general, for C1, the approximate raw mark boundaries are: A B C D 58 4 50 4 43 4 35 3 Raw marks 80% 70% 60% 50% U MS % The raw marks are converted to a unified marking scheme and the UMS boundary figures are the same for all exams.
2 C4 Contents
Module C1 Module C2 Module C3 Module C4 58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 59 C4 Integrating Trig Functions 60 C4 Integration by Inspection 61 C4 Integration by Parts 62 C4 Integration by Substitution 63 C4 Partial Fractions 64 C4 Integration with Partial Fractions 65 C4 Binomial Series 66 C4 Parametric Equations 67 C4 Differentiation: Implicit Functions 68 C4 Differential Equations 69 C4 Vectors 70 Apdx Catalogue of Graphs 71 Apdx Facts, Figures & Formul 72 Apdx Trig Rules & Identities 73 Apdx Logs & Exponentials 74 Apdx Calculus Techniques 75 Apdx Standard Calculus Results 76 Apdx Integration Flow Chart Update 2 Update 2 Update 1 Update 2 Dec 11 Update 4 * Jan 12 Update 1 New Update 2 Dec 11 Update 1 Dec 11 Update 4 * Jan 12 Update 3 * Jan 12 Update 6 Dec 11/Jan 12 Updated Updated Updated Dec 11 Update 1 Jan 12 Update 2 Jan 12 15 149 247 381 385 395 409 415 429 443 455 457 465 475 485 497 521 529 535 535 543 545 547
Plus other minor editoral alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
3 Contact Details
These are my class notes for C4, which my Dad has transcribed on to the computer for me, although he has gone a bit OTT with them! My cousin has been studying the AQA syllabus and so some of the chapters have been marked to show the differences. Although a lot of my hand written mistakes have been corrected - there may be a few deliberate errors still in the script. If you find any, then please let us know so that we can correct them. Any other suggestions would be also welcome. Kathy, Apr 2011 mymathsnotes@googlemail.com
381
My A Level Maths Notes
4 Brief Syllabus
4.1 Algebra and Graphs
N divide a polynomial, (degree 4), by a linear or quadratic polynomial, & give quotient & remainder (might be 0) N express rational functions as partial fractions, and carry out decomposition, where the denominator is no more complicated than (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f ) or (ax + b) (cx + d)2, and not top heavy. N use the expansion of (1 + x)n where n is a rational number and x <1 (finding a general term is not included, but adapting the standard series to expand, e.g. (2 x)1 is included) N understand the use of a pair of parametric equations to define a curve, and use a given parametric representation of a curve in simple cases N convert the equation of a curve between parametric and Cartesian forms.
4.2 Differentiation and Integration

N use the derivatives of sin x, cos x, tan x together with sums, differences and constant multiples N find and use the first derivative of a function which is defined parametrically or implicitly N extend the idea of reverse differentiation to include the integration of trig functions (e.g. sin x, sec2 2x) N use trig identities (e.g. double angle formulae) in the integration of functions such as cos2 x N integrate rational functions by decomposition into partial fractions N recognise an integrand of the form (x) , and integrate, for example 2 x x +1 N recognise when an integrand can be regarded as a product, and use integration by parts to integrate, for example, x sin 2x, x2e2, ln x (understand the relationship between integration by parts and differentiation of a product) N use a given substitution to simplify and evaluate either a definite or an indefinite integral (understand the relationship between integration by substitution and the chain rule).
k(x)
4.3 First Order Differential Equations

N derive a differential equation from a simple statement involving rates of change (with a constant of proportionality if required) N find by integration a general form of solution for a differential equation in which the variables are separable N use an initial condition to find a particular solution of a differential equation N interpret the solution of a differential equation in the context of a problem being modelled by the equation.
4.4 Vectors
N use of standard notations for vectors N carry out addition and subtraction of vectors and multiplication of a vector by a scalar, and interpret these operations in geometrical terms N use unit vectors, position vectors and displacement vectors N calculate the magnitude of a vector, and identify the magnitude of a displacement vector AB as being the distance between the points A and B N calculate the scalar product of two vectors (in either two or three dimensions), and use the scalar product to determine the angle between two directions and to solve problems concerning perpendicularity of vectors N understand the significance of all the symbols used when the equation of a straight line is expressed in the form r = a + tb N determine whether two lines are parallel, intersect or are skew N find the angle between two lines, and the point of intersection of two lines when it exists.
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Module C4
5 Basic Knowledge
Knowledge of C1, C2 and C3 is assumed, and you may be asked to demonstrate this knowledge in C4. You should know the following formulae, (which are NOT included in the Formulae Book).
5.1 Differentiation and Integration

Function f (x) sin kx cos kx tan kx x in radians! Dif f erential
dy dx
= f (x)
Function f (x) sin kx cos kx tan kx
Integral f (x) dx 1 cos kx + c k

1 sin kx + c k 1 ln | sec kx | + c k
k cos kx k sin kx k sec2 kx
(g (x)) g (x) dx
5.2 Vectors
= (g (x)) + c
| xi
+ yj + zk | =
x2 + y2 + z2
(ai + bj + ck) (xi + yj + zk) = ax + by + cz
x a p q = b y = ax + by + cz = c z
() ()
p q = | p | | q | cos
a2 + b2 + c2) ( x2 + y2 + z2) cos
r = a + tp
5.3 Trig
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A sin2 A = 1 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A 1 tan 2A 2 tan A 1 tan2 A
a sin x b cos x R sin (x ) a cos x b sin x R cos (x R = a2 + b2 R cos = a b a ) (watch signs)
R sin = b 0 < a < 2
tan =
383
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58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions

58.1 Defining other Trig Functions
This depends on 3 ideas: N Definitions of tan x, cot x, sec x & cosec x in terms of sin x & cos x N The differential of sin x & cos x N Product and Quotient rules of differentiation. From previous module: (Note the coloured letters in bold - an easy way to remember them). 1 1 1 sec x cosec x cot x cos x sin x tan x Function f (x) sin x cos x Product and Quotient rules: Product rule: if y = uv then Quotient rule: if y = Chain rule: dy du dv = v + u dx dx dx Dif f erential dx = f (x) cos x sin x true for x in radians
dy
v du u dv u dy then = dx 2 dx v dx v dy dy du = dx du dx
We can use these results to find the differentials of the other trig functions:
tan x y = tan x y = Quotient rule: if y = sin x u cos x v
v du u dv u dy then = dx 2 dx v dx v dy cos x cos x sin x sin x = dx cos2x = cos2x + sin2x 1 = = sec2x 2x cos cos2x
sec x y = sec x = u = cos x y = u1 du dx dy du dy dx dy dx = sin x = u2 = du dy dx du sin x = tan x sec x cos2x 1 = (cos x)1 cos x
= sin x ( u2) =
385
My A Level Maths Notes 3

cosec x y = cosec x = u = sin x y = u1 use the Chain rule: du dx dy du dy dx dy dx dy dx = cos x = u2 = du dy dx du 1 = (sin x)1 sin x
= cos x (u2) = cos x 1 = = cot x cosec x sin 2x tan x sin x
or use the Quotient rule: u = 1 v = sin x du = 0 dx dv = cos x dx dy sin x 0 1 cos x cos x = = = cot x cosec x 2x dx sin sin2 x
cot x y = cot x = u = tan x v = u1 du dx dv dx dy dx dy dx = sec x sec x tan2x 1 tan x 1 tan x = = 2x 2x tan tan tan2x = u2 = = cot 2x 1 = cosec2x 1 = (tan x)1 tan x
Summary so far: Function f (x) sin x cos x tan x cot x cosec x sec x Function f (x) sin kx cos kx tan kx Dif f erential dx = f (x) cos x sin x sec2x cosec x cosec x cot x sec x tan x Dif f erential dx = f (x) k cos kx k sin kx k sec2 kx
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dy
dy
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58.2 Worked Trig Examples

58.2.1 Example: Differentiate the following: 1
y = x3sin x u = x3 v = sin x [product rule]
du dv = 3x2 = cos x dx dx dy = x3 cos x + sin x 3x2 dx dy = x2 (x cos x + 3sin x) dx
y = Let:
1 cos x cos x x x u = cos x v = x
[quotient rule]
du dv = sin x = 1 dx dx dy x (sin x) cos x = dx x2 dy x sin x cos x x sin x + cos x = = 2 dx x x2
y = cos4x u = cos x du dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = sin x = dy du du dx y = u4 dy = 4u3 du
[chain rule]
= 4u3 (sin x) = 4cos3x (sin x) = 4cos3x sin x [quick method - diff out - diff in]
y = cos4x y = (cos x)4 dy = 4 (cos x)3 (sin x) dx dy = 4cos3x sin x dx
[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
y = ln sec x u = sec x y = ln u
[chain rule]
du dy 1 = sec x tan x = dx du u dy 1 = sec x tan x = tan x dx sec x
387

y = sin 3x u = 3x du dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = 3 = dy du du dx 4
)
y = sin u dy = cos u du
[chain rule]
= cos (u) 3 = 3cos 3x
)
24 22 20
7
y = sin23x u = 3x v = sin u y = v2
y=sin 3x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
18
16
y = sin2u
14
12
10
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
du dx dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx
dy = 2v dv dy du dv = dv dx du = 3 = 2v 3 cos u = 2sin u 3 cos u = 6cos 3x sin 3x = 3sin 6x
dv = cos u du
[extended chain rule]
double angle formula
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58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 8

Alternative approach to above problem y = sin23x = (sin 3x)2 u = sin 3x du dx dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = 3cos 3x = dy du du dx y = u2 dy = 2u du [chain rule]
= 2u 3cos 3x = 6sin 3x . cos 3x = 3sin 6x [double angle formula]
y = sin5x cos3x u = sin5x If z = sin x u = z5 du dz du dx du dx du dx dz = cos x dx du dz = dz dx = 5z 4 = 5z

4
v = cos3x Use chain rule on v If w = cos x v = w3 dv dw dv dx dv dx dv dx dw = sin x dx dv dw = dw dx = 3w 2 = 3w 2 (sin x) = 3cos2x sin x
Use chain rule on u
cos x
= 5sin4x cos x
Use product rule: dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = v du dv + u dx dx
= cos3 x 5sin4x cos x sin5x 3cos2x sin x = 5cos4 x sin4x 3sin6x cos2x = sin4x cos2 x (5cos2x 3sin2x)
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y = ln sin x = ln (sin x)2 = Let 1 ln (sin x) 2 u = sin x y = 1 ln u 2 1 du = cos x u dx 1 cos x cos x = u 2sin x [product rule] v = sin x [log laws]
1
[chain rule]
dy 1 = du 2 dy 1 = dx 2
11
y = 4x6sin x Let u = 4x6
du dv = 24x5 = cos x dx dx dy du dv = v + u dx dx dx dy = sin x 24x5 + 4x6 cos x dx dy = 4x5 (6 sin x + x cos x) dx [chain rule]
12
y = tan3x 3tan x = (tan x)3 3tan x Let u = tan x du = sec2x dx
y = u3 3u dy du dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = 3u2 3 = dy du du dx
= (3u2 3) sec2x = (3tan2x 3) sec2x = 3sec2x (tan2x 1)
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58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 13

y = Let cos 3x e3x u = cos 3x 3sin 3x v = e3x dv = 3e3x dx [quotient rule]
du = dx
v du u dv dy = dx 2 dx dx v dy e3x (3sin 3x) cos 3x 3e3x = (e3x)2 dx = 3sin 3x cos 3x (e3x) 3 (sin 3x + cos 3x) e3x [quick method - diff out - diff in]
14
y = cosec 3x y = cosec (3x) dy = cosec (3x) cot (3x) 3 dx dy = 3 cosec3x cot 3x dx
[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
15
y = cot 23x y = (cot (3x))2 dy = 2 (cot (3x))1 ( cosec2 3x) 3 dx
[quick method - diff out - diff in]
[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket used twice] dy = 6cot 3x cosec2 3x dx
16
Find the smallest value of for which the curve y = 2 3sin has a gradient of 0.5 y = 2 3sin dy = 2 3 cos d dy When = 05 d cos = 05 3 Note: the answer is given in radians, differentiation and integration are valid only if angles are measured in radians. smallest +ve value of =
2 3 cos = 05
391

y = y = Let sin4 3x 6x (sin (3x))4 6x z = sin (3x) u = (z)4 dz = 3 cos (3x) dx v = 6x [quotient rule & chain rule]
du dv = 4 z3 = 6 dz dx dz = 3 cos (3x) dx du dz du = = 3 cos (3x) 4 z3 = 12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x) dx dx dz
v du u dv dy = dx 2 dx dx v dy 6x [12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6 = (6x)2 dx dy 6x [4 (sin (3x))3 3 cos (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6 = (6x)2 dx [or differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket] = = 72x sin (3x) cos (3x) 6 sin4 (3x) 36x2
3
sin3 (3x) [12 cos (3x) sin (3x)] 6x2
18
y = sin2x cos 3x Need product rule and chain rule: y = (sin x)2 cos (3x) dy = sin2x 3sin (3x) + cos 3x 2 (sin x) cos x dx dy = sin x [2 cos 3x cos x 3sin x sin 3x] dx
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58.3 Differentiation of Log Functions

These can be used to find the integrals by reversing the process.
y = ln | sin x | Let u = sin x y = ln |u| dy dy du = dx du dx dy 1 = cos x dx u OR If y = ln | f (x)| dy 1 = f (x) dx f (x) du = cos x dx dy 1 = du u
[chain rule]
dy 1 d = (sin x) dx sin x dx dy 1 = cos x dx sin x dy = cot x dx
y = ln | sec x | dy 1 d = (sec x) dx sec x dx dy 1 = sec x tan x dx sec x dy = tan x dx
[chain rule]
y = ln | sec x + tan x | dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx 1 sec x + tan x 1 = sec x + tan x 1 = sec x + tan x = = sec x d (sec x + tan x) dx sec x tan x + sec2x sec x (tan x + sec x)
[chain rule]
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y = ln | cosec x + cot x | dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx 1 cosec x + cot x 1 = cosec x + cot x 1 = cosec x + cot x cosec x (cot x = cosec x + = = cosec x d (cosec x + cot x) dx [chain rule]
( cosec x cot x cosec2x ( cosec x (cot x + cosec x) + cosec x) cot x
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59 C4 Integrating Trig Functions

59.1 Intro
Integrating trig functions is mainly a matter of recognising the standard derivative and reversing it to find the standard integral. You need a very good working knowledge of the trig identities and be able to use the chain rule. Although this chapter has been divided up into a number of smaller sections to aid recognition of the different types of integral, most of the methods used are similar to each other.
59.2 Integrals of
sin x, cos x and sec2 x

d (sin x) = cos x dx
From the standard derivative of the basic trig functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus:
cos x dx sin x dx sec

2
= sin x + c = cos x + c
d (cos x) = sin x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x dx
x dx = tan x + c
Only valid for x in radians
59.3 Using Reverse Differentiation:

In a similar manner the following can be found: Function y = f (x) sin x cos x sin kx cos kx sec2 kx sec x tan x cosec x cot x cosec2x cot x
E.g.
Integral f (x) dx cos x + c sin x + c 1 cos kx + k

1 sin kx + k 1 tan kx + c k
Valid for x in radians
sec x + c cosec x + c cot x + c ln | sin x |
1 cosec 2x cot 2x dx = cosec 2x + c 2
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My A Level Maths Notes 59.3.2 Example: 1
tan (2x ) dx
= 1 ln | sec (2x )| + c 2
tan x dx
2
use
2
1 + tan2x = sec2x
Avoids use of ln in the answer
(sec x 1) dx
= tan x x + c
Find the area under the curve y = sin (2x + 1 ) from x = 0 to the 3 first point at which the graph cuts the positive x-axis.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
p/3
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
5p/6
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
To find limits of function:
Axis is cut when: sin 2x + 2x +
1 = 0 3
or
1 = 0, , etc 3 2 2x = , , etc 3 3 x = (which can be ignored as it is outside the range required) 6 2 x = = 6 3
1 3 sin 2x + dx = cos 2x + 2 3 3 0 0
( ) 1 2 1 = cos ( + ) cos ( ) 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 = ( ) ( ) = 2 4 4
[cos = 1] [cos / 3 =
1] 2
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59.4 Integrals of
tan x and cot x

k f (x) dx = k ln | f (x) f (x)
To find the integrals recognise the standard integral type:
+ c
Derive
tan x
tan x = sin x cos x
tan x =
sin x dx cos x
cos x dx
1 | cos x | + c
sin x
= ln | cos x | + c = ln |(cos x)1| + c = ln
= ln | sec x | + c
tan x
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c
tan x dx
For the general case:
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c
tan ax dx
This often asked for in the exam. Similarly it can be shown that:
1 ln | sec ax | + c a
cot x = sin x dx
= ln | sin x | + c
cos x
cot ax dx
1 ln | sin x | + c a
NB the modulus sign means you cant take the natural log of a negative number.
397
59.5 Recognising the Opposite of the Chain Rule

Reversing the derivatives (found using the chain rule), the following can be derived: d sin (ax + b) = a cos (ax + b) dx d cos (ax + b) = a sin (ax + b) dx d tan (ax + b) = a sec2 (ax + b) dx
cos (ax + b) dx =
1 sin (ax + b) + c a 1 cos (ax + b) + c a
sin (ax + b) dx sec (ax + b) dx

2
= =
1 tan (ax + b) + c a
59.5.1 Example: 1
Show that
sec2 2x
= 1 4
1 4 sec 2x = tan 2x 2 4 4 0 0
2
) 1 1 = tan ( 2 ) tan (0 ) 2 4 4 2 4 1 = tan ( ) tan ( ) 2 4 4
1 [ 1 + 1] = 1 2
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59.6 Integrating with Trig Identities

This covers many of the sub topics in this chapter.You really, really need to know these, the most useful of which are: Pythag: cos2A + sin2A 1 1 + tan2A sec2A Double angle cos 2A 2 cos2A 1 cos 2A 1 2 sin2A sin 2A 2 sin A cos A cos2A sin2A
1 2 1 2
(1 + cos 2A) (1 cos 2A)
Addition or compound angle formulae sin (A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B cos (A + B) cos A cos B sin A sin B cos (A B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
From the Addition or compound angle formulae 2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B) 2 cos A cos B cos (A B) + cos (A + B) 2 sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A + B) 2 sin A cos A sin 2A sin A cos B cos A cos B sin A sin B sin A cos A
(sin (A B) + sin (A + B)) 1 ( cos (A B) + cos (A + B)) 2 1 ( cos (A B) cos (A + B)) 2

1 2 1 2
sin 2A
Factor formulae
( A + B) cos ( A B) 2 2 A+ B A B sin A sin B = 2 cos ( sin ( 2 ) 2 ) A+ B cos A + cos B = 2 cos ( ) cos ( A B) 2 2 A+ B cos A cos B = 2 sin ( ) sin ( A B) 2 2
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
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cos
3x dx cos2A
1 2 1 2 1 2
(1 + cos 2A)
[Double angle]
cos
2
3x dx = =
(1 + cos 6x) dx
(x + 1 sin 6x) + c 6
sin 3x cos 3x dx
2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B) [Compound angle]
sin 3x cos 3x dx
= = =
1 2
sin (3x 3x) + sin (3x + 3x) dx sin (6x) dx
1 2
1 1 cos 6x + c 2 6 1 = cos 6x + c 12
4 0
sin2
( 1 x) dx 2
4 0
sin2
( 1 x) dx 2
= = = =
1 2 1 2
4 0
(1 cos 2x ) dx 2 sin x ] 4 0 sin 4) (0 sin 0)]
[Double angle]
[x 1 (4 2[
1 2
(4 0)
= 2
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59.7 Integrals of Type:
cos A cos B, sin A cos B & sin A sin B
This type of problem covers the most common questions. Use the addition (compound angle) trig identities.
59.7.1 Example: 1
Integrate sin 3x cos 4x Use formula: 2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B) Let: A = 3x, B = 4x 2 sin 3x cos 4x = sin (3x 4x) + sin (3x + 4x) = sin (x) + sin 7x sin 3x cos 4x =
1 2
(sin (x)
1 2
+ sin 7x) + sin 7x) dx
sin 3x cos 4x dx =
= =
1 2
(sin (x)
(cos x
1 cos 7x) + c 7
1 1 cos x cos 7x + c 2 14
Integrate sin 4x cos 4x Use formula: sin A cos A Let: A = 4x

1 2
(sin (2A)
= =
sin 4x cos 4x
1 2
sin 8x dx
1 1 1 cos 8x cos 8x + c = 8 2 16
401
59.8 Integrating EVEN powers of
sin x & cos x
For this we need to adapt the double angle cosine identities: cos 2A 2cos2A 1 cos 2A 1 2sin2A cos2A sin2A
1 2 1 2
(1 + cos 2A) (1 cos 2A)
This technique can be used for any even power of sin x or cos x, and also sin2 (ax + b) etc.
59.8.1 Example: 1
Find:
sin x dx
2
Recognise:
sin2A =
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
(1 cos 2A) (1 cos 2x) dx
sin x dx
= =
(x
1 sin 2x) + c 2
Find:
cos x dx
2
Recognise:
cos2A =
1 2 1 2 1 2
(1
+ cos 2A)
cos x dx
2
= =
(1 + cos 2x) dx
(x
+ 1 sin 2x) + c 2
Find: now
sin2 2x dx
1 2
sin2A =
(1 cos 2A)
Let A = 2x,
1 2
sin2 2x =
1 2
(1 cos 4x)
sin2 2x dx =
(1 cos 4x) dx
4 1 1 = x sin 4x 0 2 4 1 4 = sin (0 0) 4 2 4 = 8
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59 C4 Integrating Trig Functions 4

Find:
cos x dx
4
cos x dx
4
= cos2x cos2x dx 1 1 = (1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx 2 2 1 = (1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx 4 = = = = = 1 2 (1 + 2cos 2x + cos 2x) dx 4 1 1 1 + 2cos 2x + (1 + cos 4x) dx 4 2 1 3 1 + 2cos 2x + cos 4x dx 4 2 2 1 3 1 x + sin 2x + sin 4x + c 2 4 8 3 1 1 x + sin 2x + sin 4x + c 8 4 32
Find:
sin (2x
2
+ 3) dx Recognise: sin2A = + 3) dx = =
1 2 1 2 1 2
(1 cos 2A) (1 cos 2 (2x + 3)) dx (1 cos (4x + 6)) dx
sin (2x
2
Recall:
cos (ax + b) dx sin (2x

2
1 sin (ax + b) + c a
1 2
+ 3) dx =
x 1 cos (4x + 6) + c 4
403
cosn A sin A, sinn A cos A
Another example of applying the reverse of the differentiation and the chain rule: From the chain rule, the derivative required is d (sinn x) = n sinn 1x cos x dx In reverse
sin
Similarly:
x cos x dx =
1 sinn + 1 + c n + 1 1 cosn + 1 + c n + 1
cos
59.9.1 Example: 1
x sin x dx =
sin 4x cos x dx = 1 sin5x + c 5 cos7x sin x dx = 1 cos 8x + c 8 Three ways of integrating sin x cos x:
sin x cos x dx
1 2 sin x + c 2
See sinn x cos x above See cos nx sin x above See addition formula
1 = cos2x + c 2 =
2 sin 2x dx
1 = cos 2x + c 4
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59.10 Integrating ODD powers of
sin x & cos x
This technique is entirely different - change all but one of the sin/cos functions to the opposite by using the pythag identity: cos2x + sin2x = 1 Hence: sin2x = 1 cos2x cos2x = 1 sin2x
59.10.1 Example: 1
Find:
sin x dx
3
sin x dx = sin x sin x dx

3 2
sin x sin x dx = sin x (1 cos x) dx

2 2
= Recognise standard type
(sin x cos x sin x) dx

2
cos x sin x dx
n
[from previous section] 1 3 cos x + c 3
= cos x +
Find:
sin x dx
5
(sin x sin x sin x) dx = sin x (1 cos x) (1 cos x) dx

2 2 2 2
= = Recognise standard type

n
sin x (1 2cos x + cos x) dx

2 4
(sin x 2cos x sin x + cos x sin x) dx

2 4
cos x sin x dx
= cos x + 2 3 1 cos x cos5x + c 3 5
405
sec x, cosec x & cot x

From the standard derivative of these functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus: d (sec x) = sec x tan x dx d (cosec x) = cosec x cot x dx d (cot x) = cosec2 x dx
sec x tan x dx cosec

2
= sec x + c = cosec x + c
cosec x cot x dx
x dx = cot x + c
59.11.1 Example: 1
sin
cos 3x 2 3x Rewrite integral as:
sin
cos 3x = 2 3x =
sin 3x
cos 3x dx sin 3x
cosec 3x cot 3x dx
1 = cosec 3x + c 3
cot
x dx Recognise identity: 1 + cot 2 x = cosec2 x
cot
x dx =
(cosec
x 1) dx
= cot x x + c
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secnx tan x, tannx sec2x
From the standard derivative of these functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus: d (sec x) = sec x tan x dx and
sec x tan x dx
= sec x + c
d (secn x) = n secn 1 x (secntan x) dx = n secnx tan x
Reversing the derivative gives
sec x tan x dx
n
1 n sec x + c n
d (tan x) = sec2x dx and
sec
=
x dx = tan x + c
d (tann + 1x) = (n + 1) tannx sec2x dx
Reversing the derivative gives
tan x sec x dx
n 2
1 tann + 1x + c n + 1
59.12.1 Example: 1
Find:
tan x sec x dx
2 2
tan x sec x dx
2 2
1 3 tan x + c 3
Find:
tan x dx
2
tan x dx = (sec
2
1) dx
= tan x x + c
Find:
tan x dx
3
tan x dx = tan x tan x dx

3 2
= = =
tan x (sec x 1) dx
2
(tan x sec x tan x) dx

2 1 tan 2x 2
+ ln (cos x) + c
Alternatively
tan x dx = (tan x sec x tan x) dx

3 2
1 sec2x 2
+ ln (cos x) + c
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59.13 Standard Trig Integrals (radians only)

d (sin x) = cos x dx d (cos x) = sin x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x dx d (sec x) = sec x tan x dx d (cosec x) = cosec x cot x dx d (cot x) = cosec2 x dx
cos x dx sin x dx sec

2
= sin x + c = cos x + c
x dx = tan x + c = sec x + c = cosec x + c
sec x tan x dx cosec

2
cosec x cot x dx
x dx = cot x + c
d (sin (ax + b)) = cos (ax + b) dx d (cos (ax + b)) = sin (ax + b) dx d (tan (ax + b)) = sec2 (ax + b) dx d (sin f (x)) = f (x) cos f (x) dx d (cos f (x)) = f (x) sin f (x) dx d (tan f (x)) = f (x) sec2 f (x) dx
cos (ax + b) dx sin (ax + b) dx sec (ax + b) dx

2
1 sin (ax + b) + c a 1 cos (ax + b) + c a
= =
1 tan (ax + b) + c a = sin f (x) + c = cos f (x) + c
f (x) cos f (x) dx f (x) sin f (x) dx f (x) sec

2
f (x) dx = tan f (x) + c
tan x dx sec x dx cosec x dx sin x cos x dx

n
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c cos x = ln | sin x | + c
cot x dx = sin x dx
= ln | sec x + tan x | + c = ln | cosec x + cot x | + c = 1 sinn + 1x + c n + 1 1 cos n + 1x + c n + 1
cos x sin x dx
n
= = =
sec x tan x dx
n
1 secnx + c n 1 tann + 1x + c n + 1
tan x sec x dx
n 2
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60 C4 Integration by Inspection
OCR C4 / AQA C3
60.1 Intro to Integration by Inspection

This covers two forms of integration which involve a function combined with its differential, either as a product or a quotient. These include:
k f (x) N Integrals of the form f (x) dx n N Integrals of the form k f (x) [ f (x)] dx
N Integrals of the form k f (x) e f (x) dx Integration of these types is often called integration by inspection or integration by recognition, because once proficient in using this method, you should be able to just write down the answer by inspecting the function. It is derived from reversing the function of a function rule for differentiation, i.e. the chain rule. The key to using this method is recognising that one part of the integrand is the differential (or scalar multiple) of the other part. There are several methods of integrating fractions and products, depending of the form of the original function, and recognition of this form will save a good deal of calculations. A common alternative to this method is integration by substitution.
60.2 Method of Integration by Inspection

The basic method for any of these types is the same: N Guess N Test at a suitable integral by inspecting the function your guess by differentiating
d N Reverse if dx (guess) = z, then z dx = (guess) + c, since differentiation & integration are inverse processes
N Adapt compare your z dx with original question and adapt the answer accordingly. Note that any adjustment must be a number only, not a function of x. (This step not required if f (x) is the exact differential of f (x))
60.3 Integration by Inspection Quotients

k f (x) Integrals of the form f (x) dx are basically fractions with a function in the denominator and a multiple of its differential in the numerator, assuming the function is rational.
E.g.
2 differential of the denominator 4x dx 2 a function with a differential of 2x x + 1 4 differential of the denominator 4 sin x dx a function with a differential of sin x cos x + 1
From C3 work, using the chain rule, recall that: If y = ln x then then dy 1 = dx x dy 1 = f (x) dx f (x)
and if y = ln f (x)
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Reversing the differential by integrating we get:
k f (x) dx k ln | f (x) f (x)
+ c
Note that the modulus sign indicates that you cannot take the natural log of a negative number. Following our method, our first guess should, therefore, be: (guess) = ln | denominator |. Note that the numerator has to be an exact derivative of the denominator and not just a derivative of a function inside the denominator.
E.g.
x x + 2 dx ln | x + 2 | + c In this case use substitution to evaluate the integral.
Recall the following standard integrals and differential: 1 dx = ln | x | + c x 1 1 dx = ln | ax + b | + c ax + b a k k dx = ln | ax + b | + c ax + b a n n1 d f (x) = n f (x) f (x) dx
([
])
chain rule
60.3.3 Example: 1
x2 dx 1 + x3 Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: ln | 1 + x3 | d 1 3x2 ln | 1 + x3 | = 3x2 = dx 1 + x3 1 + x3 3x2 dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c 1 + x3
1 x2 dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c 1 + x3 3 Note: Adjustment has to be a number only.
2ex dx x e + 4 Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: ln | ex + 4 | d 1 ex ln | ex + 4 | = x ex = x dx e + 4 e + 4 ex dx = ln x e + 4 2ex dx = 2 ln x e + 4
| ex | ex
+ 4| + c + 4| + c
2
= ln (ex + 4) + c
Squared term is +ve
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60 C4 Integration by Inspection 3
cos x sin x dx sin x + cos x Guess: Test: ln | sin x + cos x | d 1 cos x sin x ln | sin x + cos x | = (cos x sin x) = dx sin x + cos x sin x + cos x cos x sin x dx = ln | sin x + cos x | + c Reverse: sin x + cos x Adapt: Not required because the numerator is the exact differential of the denominator.
2x dx 2 x + 9 f (x) Of the form f (x) dx 2x dx = ln | x2 + 9 | + c 2 x + 9
= ln (x2 + 9) + c Note: for all real values of x, (x2 + 9) > 0, hence modulus sign not required.
tan x dx Think tan x = Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt:
Often comes up in the exam! sin x d and (cos x) = sin x cos x dx
ln | cos x | d 1 sin x ln | cos x | = ( sin x) = dx cos x cos x sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c cos x sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c cos x tan x dx = ln | cos x | + c = ln | cos x |1 + c = ln 1 | cos x | + c
= ln | sec x | + c
cot 2x dx Think cot 2x = Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: 1 cos 2x d = and (sin 2x) = 2 cos 2x tan 2x sin 2x dx
ln | sin 2x | d 1 2 cos 2x (2 cos 2x) = ln | sin 2x | = dx sin 2x sin 2x 2 cos 2x dx = ln | sin 2x | + c sin 2x cos 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c sin 2x 2 cot 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c 2
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x3 dx 4 x + 9 Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: ln | x4 + 9 | d 1 4x3 ln | x4 + 9 | = 4 4x3 = 4 dx x + 9 x + 9 4x3 dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c 4 x + 9 1 x3 dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c 4 x + 9 4 1 = ln (x4 + 9) + c 4
x term is +ve
60.4 Integration by Inspection Products

Integrals of the form k f (x) (f (x))n dx and k f (x) ef (x) dx involves a function raised to a power or e raised to the power of the function, multiplied by a multiple of the differential of f(x). Note that many of these examples can also be solved by other methods like substitution.
E.g.
x (x xe 3x
+ 1) dx
2 4
f (x) = x2 + 1 f (x) = 3x3 + 1 f (x) = x2
f (x) = 2x f (x) = 9x2 f (x) = 2x f (x) = 5x4
x2 (3x3 + 1) dx
x2
4 x5 + 6
dx
f (x) = x5 + 6
Some quotients have to be treated as a product: x dx = 2 + 1 x
x ( x2 + 1)
1 2
dx
: f (x) = x2 + 1
f (x) = 2x
From earlier work with the chain rule, recall that: If y = f (x)
n
then then
If y = e f (x) Reversing the differentials by integrating we get:
dy = n f (x) f (x) dx dy = f (x) e f (x) dx
n1
n+1 1 f (x) f (x)n dx f (x) + c n + 1
f (x) e f (x) dx e f (x) + c
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60 C4 Integration by Inspection 60.4.2 Example: 1

x (x2 + 1)2 dx Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt:
( x2
+ 1)
2+1
( x2 + 1)
3 2 2 d 2 2 2 (x + 1) = 3 (x + 1) 2x = 6 x (x + 1) dx
6 x (x2 + 1)2 dx = (x2 + 1)3 + c x (x2 + 1)2 dx = 1 (x2 + 1)3 + c 6
cos x sin3x dx cos x (sin x)3 dx Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: (sin x)4 d [ (sin x)4] = 4 (sin x)3 cos x = 4 cos x (sin x)3 dx 4 cos x (sin x)3 dx = (sin x)4 + c cos x sin3x dx = 1 sin4x + c 4
1
x2 (x3 + 5) dx x2 ( x3 + 5)2 dx Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt:
( x3
+ 5)2
3 1 1 d 3 (x + 5)2 = 3 (x3 + 5)2 3x2 = 9 x2 (x3 + 5)2 dx 2 2 3 1 9 2( 3 2 2 3 x x + 5) dx = ( x + 5) + c 2 3 1 2 3 2( 3 2 2 x x + 5) dx = ( x + 5) + c 9
x ex dx
2
Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt:
ex
2 2 d x2 e = ex 2x = 2x ex dx
[ ]
2x ex dx = ex + c
2 2
x ex2dx = 1 ex2 + c 2
cos x esin x dx Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt: esin x d sin x [ e ] = esin x cos x = cos x esin x dx cos x esin x = esin x + c not required
413

5 x 2 (3x2 4)5 dx x (3x 4) dx
Guess: Test: Reverse: Adapt:
(3x2
4)
4 5 5 d (3x2 4) = 4 6x (3x2 4) = 24x (3x2 4) dx
24x (3x2 4)5 dx = (3x2 4)4 + c x (3x2 4)5 dx = 1 (3x2 4)4 + c 24
After a while it becomes easier to write the answer down, but always check the possible answer by differentiating. ex (6ex 5)2 dx Note: Adapt: Inspect: f (x) = 6ex 5 f (x) = 6ex
Test:
ex (6ex 5)2 dx = 1 6ex (6ex 5)2 dx 6 2 3 1 x x 1 1 (6ex 5) 6e (6e 5) dx = 6 6 3 3 1 (6ex 5) = 18 3 2 2 d 1 1 x x x x x 18 (6e 5) = 18 6e 3 (6e 5) = e (6e 5) dx
60.5 Integration by Inspection Digest

d 1 ln f (x) = ( f (x)) dx f (x) k f (x) dx = k ln | f (x) f (x)
+ c
f (x) cos f (x) dx = sin f (x) + c 1 sinnx cos x dx = sinn + 1 + c n + 1

n1 d [ ( f (x))n] = n f (x) [ f (x)] dx n+1 1 f (x) [ f (x)] n dx [ f (x)] + c n + 1
d [ e f (x) ] = f (x) e f (x) dx
dx = ex + c
f (x) e f (x) dx e f (x) + c
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61 C4 Integration by Parts
OCR C4 / AQA C3
This is the equivalent of the product rule for integration. It is usually used when the product we want to integrate is not of the form f (x) (f (x))n and so cannot be integrated with this standard method, or by recognition or by substitution. Integrating by Parts is particularly useful for integrating the product of two types of function, such as a polynomial with a trig, exponential or log function, (e.g. x sinx, x2 ex, ln x).
61.1 Rearranging the Product rule:

The rule for Integrating by Parts comes from integrating the product rule. d dv du Product rule: (uv) = u + v dx dx dx d (uv) dx = u dv dx + v du dx Integrating w.r.t x to get: dx dx dx dv du uv = u dx + v d dx dx u dv dx = uv v du dx Rearranging: dx dx
u dv dx = uv v du dx dx dx
61.2 Choice of
u & dv/dx
Care must be taken over the choice of u and dv / dx. The aim is to ensure that it is simpler to integrate v du than the original u dv . So we choose u to be easy to dx dx differentiate and when differentiated to become simpler. Choose dv to be easy to integrate. Normally, u is assigned to any polynomial in x, and if any exponential function is involved, assign this to dv . dx However, if ln x is involved make this u, as it is easier to differentiate the ln function than to integrate it.
61.3 Method
N Let u = the bit of the product which will differentiate to a constant, even if it takes 2 or 3 turns, such as polynomials in x, (e.g. x3 differentiates to 3x2 6x 6) N If this is not possible or there is a difficult part to integrate let this be u. e.g. ln x. N Differentiate to find du . dx N Let the other part of the product be dv , like eax which is easy to integrate. dx Integrate to find v. Substitute into the rule and finish off. Add the constant of integration at the end. Sometimes integrating by parts needs to be applied more than once (see special examples). Do not confuse the use of u in the second round of integration. N This is the method used to integrate ln x. N N N N
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61.4 Evaluating the Definite Integral by Parts

Use this for substituting the limits:
u
a
b dv dx = uv a dx
v
a
du dx dx
61.5 Handling the Constant of Integration

The method listed above suggests adding the constant of integration at the end of the calculation. Why is this? The best way to explain this is to show an example of adding a constant after each integration, and you can see that the first one cancels out during the calculation.
Example:
Find:
Solution:
x sin x dx
& dv = sin x dx dv v = = cos x + k dx
Let: u = x du = 1 dx
where k is the constant from the first integration and c is the constant from the second integrations. dv du Recall: u dx = uv v dx dx dx
x cos x dx
= x ( cos x + k) = x cos x + kx +
( cos x + k) 1 dx cos x dx k dx
= x cos x + kx + sin x kx + c = x cos x + sin x + c
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61.6 Integration by Parts: Worked examples

61.6.1 Example: 1
Find:
Solution:
x cos x dx
& dv = cos x Note: u = x becomes simpler when differentiated. dx dv v = = cos x = sin x dx
x cos x dx
= x sin x
sin x 1 dx
dv = x dx v = x2 2
= x sin x + cos x + c
Alternative (longer) Solution:
Let: u = cos x du = sin x dx
&
x cos x dx = sin x . =
x2 2
x2 (sin x) dx 2
x2 x2 sin x + sin x dx etc etc 2 2 As you can see, this gives a more involved solution, that has to have another round of integration by parts. This emphasises the importance of choosing u wisely. In this case it would be prudent to start again with u = x.
Find:
Solution:
x sec x dx
2
&
dv = sec2x dx dv v = = tan x dx
Standard tables
x sec x dx
2
= x tan x
tan x 1 dx
Standard tables
= x sin x + ln (cos x) + c
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Find:
Solution:
(4x + 2) sin 4x dx
& dv = sin 4x dx 1 v = cos 4x 4
Let: u = 4x + 2 du = 4 dx
(4x + 2) sin 4x dx
1 = (4x + 2) ( cos 4x) 4 = = 1 (4x + 2) cos 4x + 4
4 cos 4x . 4 dx cos 4x dx
1 1 (4x + 2) cos 4x + sin 4x + c 4 4
Find:
Solution:
sin x dx
Let: u = x2 du = 2x dx
&
dv = sin x dx dv v = = cos x dx
sin x dx = x2 ( cos x) = x2 cos x +
cos x . 2x dx 2x cos x dx
& dv = cos x dx v = sin x
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give Now let u = 2x du = 2 dx
sin x dx = x2 cos x + 2x sin x = x2 cos x + 2x sin x
sin x 2 dx
2 sin x dx
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x 2 ( cos x) + c = x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + c = 2 cos x x2 cos x + 2x sin x + c = (2 x2 ) cos x + 2x sin x + c Note: Integrating any function of the form xn sin x or xn cos x, will require n rounds of integration by parts.
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61 C4 Integration by Parts 5
Find:
Solution:
x2 cos x dx
&
dv = cos x dx dv v = = sin x dx
x2 cos x dx = x2 sin x 0 0 = [ 0 0]
sin x . 2x dx
2x sin x dx
0
Now integrate by parts again, and then one final integration to give Now let: u = 2x du = 2 dx & dv = sin x dx v = cos x
x2 cos x dx = 0 = 0
= [ 2 0] + = 2
{[ {[
2x ( cos x) 2x cos x
0
]
0
cos x . 2 dx
]
+
0
2 cos x dx
0
2 cos x dx
2 cos x dx
0
= 2 [ 2 sin x ] 0
= 2 [0 0] = 2
Find:
Solution:
2x sin (3x 1) dx
& dv = sin (3x 1) dx 1 v = cos (3x 1) 3 1 = 2x cos (3x 1) 3 = = 2 2 x cos (3x 1) + 3 3
Let: u = 2x du = 2 dx
2x sin (3x 1) dx
3 cos (3x 1) . 2 dx cos (3x 1) dx
2 2 1 x cos (3x 1) + sin (3x 1) + c 3 3 3 2 2 = x cos (3x 1) + sin (3x 1) + c 3 9 2 2 = sin (3x 1) x cos (3x 1) + c 9 3
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Solve by parts
x (2x + 3)
dx
This can be solved by inspection, but is included here for completeness.

Solution:
Let: u = x du = 1 dx Recall: v = =
dv = (2x + 3)5 dx
(ax + b)n dx =
5
1 (ax + b)n + 1 + c a (n + 1) 1 (2x + 3)6 + c 2 (6)
(2x + 3)
dx =
1 (2x + 3)6 + c 12 dv du
Recall:
u dx dx
5
= uv
v dx dx 12 (2x + 3)
6
x (2x + 3)
dx = x . = =
1 (2x + 3)6 12
1 dx
x 1 (2x + 3)6 12 12
(2x + 3)
dx
x (2x + 3)6 12 x = (2x + 3)6 12 1 = (2x + 3)6 x 12 = = = = =
1 1 (2x + 3)7 + c 12 2 7 1 1 (2x + 3)7 + c 12 14 1 (2x + 3) + c 14
1 (2x + 3) 14x (2x + 3)6 + c 12 14 14 1 14x 2x 3) (2x + 3)6 + c 12 14 1 12x 3 (2x + 3)6 + c 12 14 3 4x 1 (2x + 3)6 + c 12 14
1 (2x + 3)6 [ 4x 1] + c 56 1 = (2x + 3)6 (4x 1) + c 56
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Find:
Solution:
xe
3x
dx
&
dv = e3x dx 1 v = e3x 3
xe xe
3x
1 1 dx = x . e3x e3x 1 dx 3 3 dx = = 1 3x 1 x e e3x + c 3 9
3x
1 3x 1 e x + c 3 3 1 = e3x (3x 1) + c 9
Find:
Solution:
2 4x
e dx
&
dv = e4x dx 1 v = e4x 4
2 4x
1 1 e dx = x2 . e4x e4x . 2x dx 4 4 1 2 4x x e 4 1 = x2 e4x 4 = 1 4x x e dx 2 1 dv dx u 2 dx dv = e4x dx 1 v = e4x 4 x e4x dx = x . 1 e4x 1 e4x dx 4 4 1 1 4x = x e4x e 4 16
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give Now let: u = x du = 1 dx &
Substituting back into the original...
x2 e4x dx = 1 x2 e4x 1 1 x e4x 1 e4x + c 4 2 4 16 1 1 1 4x = x2 e4x x e4x + e + c 4 8 32 1 1 1 = e4x x2 x + + c 4 8 32
x2 e4x dx = 1 e4x ( 8x2 4x + 1) + c 32
421

Infinite integral example. Find:
Solution:
x eax dx
&
dv = eax dx 1 v = eax a
x x eax dx = eax a 0
1 1 eax dx a
0
x 1 = eax + a 0 a
eax dx
x 1 1 = eax + eax a 0 a a x 1 = eax 2 eax a 0 a
x 1 = ax 2 ax ae a e 0 As x , x 0 aeax and 1 a2eax 0
1 x eax dx = [ 0 0] 0 2 a = 1 a2
Alternatively, you can evaluate the bracketed part early, thus:
x 1 x eax dx = eax + a 0 a
eax dx
x 1 = ax + ae 0 a = [ 0 0] + 1 a
eax dx
eax dx
x eax dx =
1 a
eax dx
1 = 2 ax a e 0 1 = [ 0] 2 a
x eax dx =
1 a2
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61.7 Integration by Parts:
ln x
So far we have found no means of integrating ln x, but now, by regarding ln x as the product ln x 1, we can now apply integration by parts. In this case make u = ln x as ln x is hard to integrate and we know how to differentiate it. The trick of multiplying by 1 can be used elsewhere, especially for integrating inverse trig functions.
61.7.1 Example: 1
Integrating ln x
ln x
Let:
1 dx u = ln x du 1 = dx x
Multiply by 1 to give a product to work with. & dv = 1 dx v = x
ln x
1 1 dx = x ln x x dx x = x ln x dx = x ln x x + c
ln x
2
Find:
Solution:
= x (ln x 1) + c
ln x dx
Following the guidelines on choice of u & dv, then we would let u = x and dv = ln x dx However, ln x is difficult to integrate, so choose u = ln x dv Let: u = ln x & = x4 dx du 1 1 = v = x5 dx x 5
ln x dx = ln x . = =
1 5 x 5
5x x
1 dx x
1 5 1 x ln x 5 5
dx
1 5 1 1 x ln x x5 + c 5 5 5 1 5 1 5 x ln x x + c 5 25
ln x dx = =
1 5 1 x ln x + c 5 5 1 5 = x (5 ln x 1) + c 25
423

Evaluate:
Solution:
x ln x dx
2
As above, choose u = ln x Let: u = ln x du 1 = dx x & dv = x dx v =

8
x2 2
8
x2 x ln x dx = ln x 2 2 2 x2 = ln x 2 2
8
x2 1 dx 2 2 x
8
x dx 22
8
x2 x2 = ln x 4 2 2 = (32 ln 8 16) (2 ln 2 1) = 32 ln 8 2 ln 2 15 = 32 ln 23 2 ln 2 15 = 96 ln 2 2 ln 2 15
8 2
x ln x dx = 94 ln 2 15
Find:
Solution:
x ln x dx
Let: u = ln x du 1 = dx x
&
dv = dx v =
3 2 2 x 3
2
1
x =
3 2
3 2 2 x 3
x ln x dx = ln x . = =
3x
1 dx x
3 2 2 2 x ln x 3 3
x 2 dx
3 2 2 2 2 3 x ln x x2 + c 3 3 3 2 3 = x ( 3 ln x 2) + c 9
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61.8 Integration by Parts: Special Cases

These next examples use the integration by parts twice, which generates a term that is the same as the original integral. This term can then be moved to the LHS, to give the final result by division. Generally used for integrals of the form eax sin bx or eax cos bx. In this form, the choice of u & dv does not matter.
61.8.1 Example: 1
Find:
Solution:
ln x dx x dv 1 = dx x
Let: u = ln x
&
du 1 = v = ln x dx x ln x dx = ln x . ln x ln x . 1 dx x x ln x 2 = (ln x) dx x ln x 2 2 dx = (ln x) x ln x 1 2 dx = (ln x) + c x 2
Note: (ln x)2 is not the same as ln x2
Find:
Solution 1:
e sin x dx
x
Let: u = sin x du = cos x dx
&
dv = ex dx v = ex
e sin x dx
x
= sin x . ex
e cos x dx
x
Now integrate by parts again, which changes cos x to sin x to give u = cos x du = sin x dx & dv = ex dx v = ex
e sin x dx
x
= ex sin x cos x . ex = ex sin x ex cos x +
e ( sin x) dx
x
e sin x dx
x
e sin x dx
x
= ex sin x ex cos x
sin x dx
e sin x dx
x
= ex (sin x cos x) + c = 1 x e (sin x cos x) + c 2
e sin x dx
x
425

Solution 2:
Let: u = ex du = ex dx
&
dv = sin x dx v = cos x
e sin x dx
x
= ex ( cos x) = ex cos x +
cos x . e dx
x x
e sin x dx
x
cos x . e dx
& dv = cos x dx v = sin x
Now integrate by parts again to give u = ex du = ex dx
e sin x dx
x
= ex cos x + ex. sin x = ex sin x + ex cos x
sin x . e
x
dx
e sin x dx
e sin x dx
x
= ex sin x ex cos x + c = 1 x e (sin x cos x) + c 2
e sin x dx
x
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Find:
Solution:
e cos x dx
x
Let: u = cos x du = sin x dx
&
dv = ex dx v = ex
e cos x dx
x
= cos x . ex = ex cos x +
e
x
(sin x) dx
e cos x dx
x
e sin x dx
& dv = ex dx v = ex
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give u = sin x du = cos x dx
e cos x dx
x
= ex cos x + sin x . ex = ex (cos x + sin x)
e
x
cos x dx
e cos x dx
x
cos x dx
e cos x dx
x
= ex (cos x + sin x) + c = 1 x e (cos x + sin x) + c 2
e cos x dx
x
427

Find:
Solution:
2x
sin 4x dx
dv = e2x dx du 1 = 4 cos 4x v = e2x dx 2 1 2x 1 2x e2x sin 4x dx = sin 4x . e e . 4 cos 4x dx 2 2 e2x sin 4x dx = 1 e2x sin 4x 2 e2x cos 4x dx 2 Let: u = sin 4x & Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give u = cos 4x du = 4 sin 4x dx & dv = e2x dx 1 v = e2x 2
1 2x 1 2x 1 2x 2x e sin 4x dx = e sin 4x 2 cos 4x . e e . ( 4 sin 4x) dx 2 2 2 1 2x 2x 1 2x 2x e sin 4x dx = e sin 4x 2 e cos 4x + 2 e sin 4x dx 2 2 e2x sin 4x dx = 1 e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x 4 e2x sin 4x dx 2 1 5 e2x sin 4x dx = e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c 2 1 2 = e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c 2 2 1 5 e2x sin 4x dx = e2x (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c 2 1 2x e2x sin 4x dx = e (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c 10
61.9 Integration by Parts Digest

u dv dx = uv v du dx dx dx
u
a
b dv dx = uv a dx
v
a
du dx dx
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62 C4 Integration by Substitution
OCR C4 / AQA C3
62.1 Intro to Integration by Substitution

Also known as integration by change of variable. This is the nearest to the chain rule that integration can get. It is used to perform integrations that cannot be done by other methods, and is also an alternative method to some other methods. It is worth checking if the integration can be done by inspection, which may be simpler. Substitution is often used to define some standard integrals. The object is to substitute some inner part of the function by a second variable u, and change all the instances of x to be in terms of u, including dx. The basic argument for Integration by Substitution is: If y =
f (x) dx
dy = f (x) dx From the chain rule, if u is a function of x dy dy dx = du dx du dy dx = f (x) du du
du du = f (x) du du
y =
dy
dx
f (x) du du
dx
dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du du
62.2 Substitution Method

N Used for integrating products and quotients, N Let u = part of the expression, usually the messy part in brackets or the denominator of a fraction, N If necessary, express any other parts of the function in terms of u, N Differentiate u to find du , dx N Re-arrange du to find dx in terms of du as we need to replace dx if we are to integrate an expression dx w.r.t u, i.e. we need to find dx = (z) du, N Substitute the expressions, found above, for x and dx, back into the original integral and integrate in terms of u. It should be reasonable to integrate, or allow the use of standard integrals, N If the integration is a definite integral, change the x limits to limits based on u, N Put your xs back in again at the end, and finish up, N If the substitution is not obvious, then it should be given to you in the exam, N There is often more that one substitution that could be chosen, practise makes perfect, N All integrals that can be done by inspection, can also be done by substitution.
429
62.3 Required Knowledge

From C3 module recall: 1 (ax + b)n = (ax + b)n + 1 + c a (n + 1) 1 1 dx = ln | ax + b | + c ax + b a e(ax + b) dx = 1 e(ax + b) + c a
62.4 Substitution: Worked Examples

62.4.1 Example:
Examples 1 & 2 are based on the form of:
f (x) dx
f (x) du du
dx
3 Use substitution to find: (5x 3) dx
Solution:
Let: u = 5x 3 du = 5 dx dx 1 = du 5 dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du du
Substituting: (5x 3)3 dx = (u)3 1 du 1 (u)3 du 5 5 1 1 = u4 + c 5 4 1 (5x 3)4 + c = 20
1 Use substitution to find: dx 4x + 2

Solution:
Let: u = 4x + 2 du = 4 dx Substituting 1 1 1 1 1 dx = du = du 4x + 2 u 4 4 u 1 = ln u + c 4 1 = ln (4x + 2) + c 4 This is a standard result: 1 1 dx = ln (ax + b) + c ax + b a dx 1 = du 4
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The integration process can be streamlined somewhat if we find dx in terms of u and du, rather that find dx du specifically each time, as in the following examples.
Use substitution to find: 1 x + x dx

Solution:
Let: u =
x,
u = x2 du 1 = dx 2 x dx = 2 x du dx = 2u du
du 1 1 = x 2 dx 2 du = 1 2 x dx
but we still have x involved, so substitute for x Substituting into the original:
1 2u 2 1 x + x dx = u2 + u 2u du u (u + 1) du (u + 1) du = 2 ln | u + 1 | + c = 2 ln | x + 1 | + c
Use substitution to find:
3x
Solution:
1 + x2 dx
Let: u = x2 du = 2x dx Substituting: 3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 x (1 + u)1 du 3 (1 + u)1 du 2 2 2x 2 3 3 3 2 = (1 + u)2 + c = (1 + u)2 + c 2 3 = ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c

Alternative solution:
1 3
dx =
du 2x
Let: u = 1 + x2 du = 2x dx Substituting: dx =
x2 = u 1 du du = 1 2x 2 (u 1)2
x = (u 1)2
du 3 1 3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 (u 1)1 (u)1 2 2 (u)2 du 1 2 2 2 (u 1) =

3 3 2 3 (u)2 + c = (u)2 + c 2 3 3
= ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
431

Use substitution to find: 3x (1 + x2) dx
Solution:
Let: u = (1 + x2) Substituting:
du = 2x dx
dx =
du 2x
3x (1 + x2)5 dx = 3 x (u)5 du 3 (u)5 du 2x 2 3 1 1 = u6 + c = u6 + c 2 6 4 6 1 = ( 1 + x 2) + c 4
6x Use substitution to find: 2x + 1 dx

Solution:
Let: u = (2x + 1) Substituting
du = 2 dx
dx =
du 2
6x 6x du 3x 2x + 1 dx = u 2 1 du u2 We have an x left, so go back to the substitution and find x u = 2x + 1 u 1 2 1 u 1 1 du 1 du = 3 1 2 u2 u2 u 1 3 u 1 du = 1 du 1 2 u1 u2 u2 2 x =
3x 1 du = 3 x 2 u 3 = 2 =
3 +1 1 u 2 u 2 du 2 2u 2 1 2u 2 + c 3
3 1
3 = 2
3
= u 2 3u 2 + c
1
= u 2 [ u 3] + c
1
= (2x + 1)2 (2x + 1 3) + c = 2 (x 1) (2x + 1)2 + c

1
Find:
Solution:
2x ex dx
2
Let: u = x2
du = 2x dx
dx =
du 2x
2x e
x2
dx = =
2x e e
2
du 2x
du = eu
= ex + c
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62 C4 Integration by Substitution 8
ex dx (1 ex)2 Note ex is a derivative of 1 ex not (1 ex)2, so use substitution. Find:
Solution:
Let: u = 1 ex du = ex dx Substituting ex ex du 1 dx = 2 x 2 du x)2 (1 e (u) e u = u2du = u1 + c = 1 + c 1 ex dx = du ex
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
Solution:
Let: u = 3x 1 du = 3 dx Substituting dx = du 3
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
1 = (x + 5) (u)5 du 3 u + 1 3
We have an x left, so go back to the substitution and find x u = 3x 1 = 1 3 1 = 3 1 = 9 = = = = = x =
u + 1 + 5 u5 du 3 u + 1 + 15 u5 du 3 (u + 16) u5 du = 1 (u6 + 16u5) du 9
( (
1 u7 16u6 1 u7 8u6 + c + + c = + 97 6 97 3 1 3u7 + 56u6 1 (3u7 + 56u6) + c + c = 9 21 189 u6 (3u + 56) + c 189 (3x 1)6 [ 3 (3x 1) + 56] + c 189 (3x 1)6 (9x + 53) + c 189
433

Solution:
4 x2 dx
[ Has the form
a2 b2x2 use x = a / b sin u]
Let: x = 2 sin u dx = 2 cos u du Substituting dx = 2 cos u du
4 x2 dx = =
4 (2 sin u)2 2 cos u du 4 4sin2u 2 cos u du =
4 (1 sin2u) 2 cos u du
but cos2u = 1 sin2u = 4 cos 2u 2 cos u du =
2 cos u
2 cos u du
= 4 but:
cos u du
2
2 cos2u = 1 + cos 2u 1 = 4 (1 + cos 2u) du 2 = 2 (1 + cos 2u) du 1 = 2 u + sin 2u + c 2 = 2u + sin 2u + c
Substituting back: Given: Identity: Identity: x = 2sin u sin2u = 1 cos2u sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u x2 4
Need to find sin u & cos u sin u = sin1 x 2 & sin2u =
( 2x ) = u
x2 4 = 4 x2 4 1 4 x2 2 = 2sin1
cos2u = 1 sin2u cos2u = 1 cos u =
Substituting:
4 x2 dx = 2sin1
( 2x ) + 2 ( 2x ) 1 4 x 2 ( 2x ) + ( 2x ) 4 x + c
2
+ c
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62.5 Definite Integration using Substitutions

Because of the substitution, you must also change the limits into the new variable, so we can then evaluate the integral as soon as we have done the integration. This saves you having to put the xs back in at the end and using the original limits.
62.5.1 Example: 1
1 0
Solution:
4 x2 dx
[ Has form
a2 b2x2 : use x = a / b sin u]
Let: x = 2sin u dx = 2 cos u du Limits: x 1 0 2sin u 1 0 dx = 2 cos u du
sin u 1 2 0
u 6 0
From previous example

2
1 0
4 x2 dx = 2u + sin 2u + c 4 x2 dx = 2u + sin 2u 0 =
u= 6
3 + 0 3 2
3 + 3 + = 3 2 6
Solution:
1 dx 2 01 + x
Let: x = tan u dx = sec2 u du Limits: x 1 0 tan u 1 0 u 0

4
dx = sec2 u du
Substituting:
1 dx = 2 01 + x =
x=1 0 x=1
1 sec2 u du 1 + tan2u 1 du Since: 1 + tan2u = sec2 u 4
0 u= 4 u=0
= u
[]
435

Solution:
Let: u = 2x 1 du = 2 dx Limits: 2 1 Substituting: 3 1
2 0
x (2x 1)6 dx
x = dx =
1 2
1 2
(u + 1)
du
x u = 2x 1
2 0
x (2x 1)6 dx = = = = = = 1 4
u=3 u = 1 1 2
(u + 1) (u6) 1 du 2
3 1
u7 + u6 du
1 1 8 1 7 3 u + u 1 4 8 7 1 1 8 1 7 3 u + u 1 4 8 7 1 1 8 1 7 1 1 1 8 7 3 + 3 (1) + (1) 4 8 7 4 8 7 1 (113257) = 28314 4
4
Solution:
Let: u = x3 + 1 du = 3x2 dx Limits:
2 1
x2 (x3 + 1) dx
x = dx =
1 2
(u + 1)
1 du 3x2
x u = x3 + 1 2 9 1 0 Substituting:
u=9 u=0
2 1
x2 (x3 + 1) dx = = = =
1 3
x 2u 2
1
1 du 3x2
9 0
u 2 du
9 9
3 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 u = 3 3u 3 2 0 0 3 1 2 2 2 3 9 0 = 9 2 3 3 9
= 6
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62.6 Reverse Substitution

This is where we have to recognise the substitution by ourselves, by recognising the reverse chain rule.
62.6.1 Example: 1
Solution:
1 ln x dx x
Let: x = eu dx = eu du Substituting 1 ln x dx = 1 ln eu eu du ln eu du u x e but: x = eu u ln e = u u = ln x u2 = u du = + c 2 dx = eu du
(ln x)2 1 + c ln x dx = x 2
Find:
Solution:
6x dx 1 + x2
Let: u = 1 + x2 du du = 2x dx = dx 2x 6x 6x du 3 dx = u 2x = u du 1 + x2 1 3u 2 = 3u 2 du = 1 + c 2
1
= 6u 2 + c = 6 ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
1
6 1 + x2 + c
Use reverse substitution to find: x2 1 + x3 dx

Solution:
Let: u = 1 + x3 du = 3x2 dx dx = du 3x2
x2 1 + x3 dx = x2 u du = 1 u 1 du 2 3x2 3 1 2 3 = u 2 + c 3 3 =
3 2 3 2 (1 + x ) + c 9
437

Consider: 7x (1 + 2x2)3 dx
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + 2x2 du du = 4x dx = dx 4x 7x 7x du 7 (1 + 2x2)3 dx = (u)3 . 4x = 4u3 du 7 7 3 = u3 du = u du 4 4 7 1 7 7 = u2 + c = u2 + c 2 + c 2 4 8 8u =

2 7 7 (1 + 2x2) + c + c 8 8 (1 + 2x2)2
In the following two questions, note that we have a fraction, of which the top is the differential of the denominator, or a multiple thereof.
f (x) dx = ln | f (x) f (x)
+ c
Try: cos x sin x dx sin x + cos x

Solution:
Let: u = sin x + cos x du du = cos x sin x dx = dx cos x sin x du cos x sin x dx = cos x sin x sin x + cos x u cos x sin x 1 = du u = ln u + c = ln | sin x + cos x | + c
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Try: ex ex dx x e + ex
Solution:
Let: u = ex + ex du = ex ex dx dx = ex du ex
du ex ex ex ex 1 dx = x = du x e + ex u u e ex = ln u + c = ln (ex + ex) + c
( ex
sec2 x dx tan3 x
+ ex) is always +ve
Try:
Solution:
Note that sec2 x is the derivative of tan x not tan3 x Let: u = tan x du = sec2 x dx dx = du sec2 x
du sec2 x sec2 x dx = tan3 x u3 sec2 x 1 = 3 du u = u3du 1 2 u + c 2 1 = + c 2 u2 1 = + c 2 tan2 x = f (x) The common trig functions that are of the form f (x) dx are: Function y = f (x) tan x cot x cosec x sec x Integral f (x) dx ln | sec x | + c ln | sin x | + c ln | sec x + tan x | + c
ln | cosec x + cot x | + c
439
62.7 Harder Integration by Substitution

If the integrand contains a2 + b x2 If the integrand contains a2 b x2 N.B. integrand = the bit to be integrated.
2 2
use use
x =
a tan u b a x = sin u b
62.7.1 Example: 1
1 25 + 16x2 dx i.e a = 5, b = 4 dx 5 = sec2 u du 4 5 dx = sec2 u du 4 1 1 5 sec2 u du 25 + 16x2 dx = 25 + 16 ( 5 tan u)2 4 4 Let: x = 1 5 2 = 25 + 25 tan2u 4 sec u du 1 5 = sec2 u du ( 25 1 + tan2u) 4 1 5 2 = 25sec 2u 4 sec u du 1 1 1 = du = 5 20 du 4 1 = u + c Note: 20 1 4x = tan1 + c Note: 20 5 5 tan u 4
tan u =
( )
4x 5
u = tan1
( 4x ) 5
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1 0
(1 x2) dx dx = cos u du dx = cos u du
Let: x = sin u Limits: x
u = sin1x u
1 sin1 x = 2 0 sin1 0 = 0
1 0
(1
x2) dx
= =
(1 sin2u) cos u du
2
(cos 2u) cos u du cos2 u du
0
2
1 = 2
(1 + cos 2u) du
1 1 2 = u + sin 2u 0 2 2 = =
1 1 1 + sin 0 + sin 0 2 2 2 2 4
) (
62.8 Options for Substitution

Substitution allows a wide range of functions to be integrated, but it is not always obvious which one should be used. The following table attempts to give some clues as to which to choose as the appropriate substitution. For : (ax + b)n
n
Try : u = ax + b un = ax + b x = x = x = u = ex ax + b = eu
a sin u b a tan u b a sec u b
(ax + b) a bx2 a + bx2 bx2 a ex
: x = ln u : x = 1 eu b a a
ln (ax + b)
441
62.9 Some Generic Solutions

1
Use substitution to find: x (ax + b) dx
Solution:
Let: u = ax + b ax = u b Substituting:
du du = a dx = dx a u b x = a
x (ax + b)n dx = u b (u)n du a a 1 = 2 (u b) un du a 1 = 2 (un + 1 bun) du a = = 1 un + 2 bun + 1 + c a2 n + 2 n + 1 1 (ax + b)n + 2 b (ax + b)n + 1 + c a2 n + 2 n + 1
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63 C4 Partial Fractions
63.1 Intro to Partial Fractions
If: 3 2 7x 8 + = 2x + 1 x 2 (2x + 1) (x 2)
then we ought to be able to convert 7x 8 3 2 back into its partial fractions of + (2x + 1) (x 2) 2x + 1 x 2 The process is often called decomposition of a fraction. To do this, we create an identity that is valid for all values of x and then find the missing constants of the partial fractions. To decompose a fraction we need to start with a proper fraction. Improper fractions (see later) have to be converted into a whole number with a proper fraction remainder. Later on, partial fractions will be useful in integration, differentiation and the binomial theorem. There are four different types of decomposition based on the sort of factors in the denominator. These are: N Linear factors in the denominator: x A B + (ax + b) (cx + d) (ax + b) (cx + d) N Squared terms in the denominator (includes quadratics that will not factorise easily) x A Bx + C + (ax + b) (cx2 + d) (ax + b) (cx2 + d) N Repeated Linear factors in the form: x A B C D + + + 3 (ax + b) (cx + d) (ax + b) (cx + d) (cx + d)2 (cx + d)3 N Improper (top heavy) fractions in the form: xn + m axn + bx + d
To solve for the unknown constants, A, B & C etc., we can use one or more of the following four methods: N N N N Equating coefficients Substitution in the numerator Separating the unknown by multiplication and substituting Cover up method (only useful for linear factors)
63.2 Type 1: Linear Factors in the Denominator

This the simplest of them all. The denominator factorises into two or more different linear factors of the form (ax + b) or (cx + d). Recognise that each of these linear factors is a root of the expression in the denominator. We set up the partial fractions on the RHS and each root must have its own unknown constant assigned to it. 7x 8 7x 8 A B e.g. = = + 2 5x + 2 2x (2x 1) (x 2) (2x 1) (x 2) e.g. 8x A B C = + + (2x 1) (x 2) (x + 4) (2x 1) (x 2) (x + 4)
443
63.3 Solving by Equating Coefficients

Taking the first example from above:
63.3.1 Example:
The first task is to factorise the denominator: 7x 8 7x 8 = 2 5x + 2 2x (2x 1) (x 2) Then set up the identity with the correct number of partial fractions: 7x 8 A B + (2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2 Add the fractions on the RHS to give: 7x 8 A B A (x 2) + B (2x 1) + (2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2 (2x 1) (x 2) 7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1) 7x 8 Ax 2A + 2Bx B Equate the terms in: x : 7x = Ax + 2Bx 7 = A + 2B 2A + B = 8 A = 7 2B Equate the Constants : 8 = 2A B Substituting or using simultaneous equations: 2 (7 2B) + B = 8 14 4B + B = 8 3B = 6 & 3B = 6 A = 3 B = 2
7x 8 3 2 = + (2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2
63.4 Solving by Substitution in the Numerator

Using the same example as above:
63.4.1 Example:
7x 8 A B + (2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2 7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1) 14 8 = B (4 1) 3B = 6 B = 2 1 (to make 2nd (B) term zero) 2 Find B by choosing x = 2 (to make the A term zero) A (x 2) + B (2x 1) (2x 1) (x 2)
Find A by choosing x =
7 1 8 = A 2 2 2 9 3 = A A = 3 2 2 7x 8 3 2 = + (2x 1) (x 2) 2x 1 x 2
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63.5 Solving by Separating an Unknown

A variation on the substitution method which involves multiplying by one of the factors, and then using substitution. In some cases this can be used if the other two methods dont work.
63.5.1 Example:
x2 4x A B + 4 x + 2 x 2
Multiply both sides by one of the factors, say (x + 2) 4x (x + 2) A (x + 2) B (x + 2) + 2 4 x x + 2 x 2 Cancel common terms: 4x B (x + 2) A+ x 2 x 2 4x B (x + 2) A = x 2 x 2 Now substitute a value for x such that the B term is zero: If x = 2 : A = 8 0 = 2 4
Now multiply both sides by one of the other factors, (x 2) in this case: 4x (x 2) A (x 2) B (x 2) + 2 4 x x + 2 x 2 Cancel common terms: 4x A (x 2) + B x + 2 x + 2 4x A (x 2) B = + x + 2 x + 2 Now substitute a value for x such that the A term is zero: If x = 2 : B = Hence: x2 4x 2 2 + 4 x + 2 x 2 8 = 2 4
Test this by substituting a value for x on both sides. Dont use the values chosen above, as we need to check it is valid for all values of x. 4 2 2 If x = 1 : + 1 4 1 + 2 1 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 6 4 = 3 3 3
445
63.6 Type 2: Squared Terms in the Denominator

This is where we have a squared term in the denominator that cannot be factorised into linear factors. It can be of the form of (ax2 + b) or it may be a traditional quadratic, such as x2 + bx + c, that cannot be factorised. In either case we have to take this into account. The general form of the partial fractions are: x A Bx + C + 2 + d) (ax + b) (cx (ax + b) (cx2 + d) Note that the numerator is always one degree less than the denominator.
63.6.1 Example: 1
4x A Bx + C A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1) + 2 (x + 1) (x2 3) x + 1 x 3 (x + 1) (x2 3) 4x A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1) 4 = A (1 3) + 0 A = 2 To eliminate the (Bx + C) term, let x = 1
Equate the terms in x 4x A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1) 4x Ax2 3A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx + C 4 = B + C Equate the constants terms : 0 = 3A + C But Hence: 4x 2 6 2x = + 2 2 3) (x + 1) (x x + 1 x 3 Check result by substituting any value for x, except 1 used above. So let x = 1 4 2 6 2 = + (1 + 1) (1 3) 1 + 1 1 3 4 2 4 = + (2) (2) 2 2 1 = 1 2 = 1 A = 2 C = 6 B = 4 C = 4 6 = 2
A trick question - know your factors (difference of squares)! 4x A B A (x 2) + B (x + 2) + 2 4 x x + 2 x 2 (x + 2) (x 2) 4x A (x 2) + B (x + 2) If x = 2 : If x = 2 : 8 = A (0) + B (4) 8 = A (4) + B (0) B = 2 A = 2
4x 2 2 + x2 4 x + 2 x 2
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63.7 Type 3: Repeated Linear Factors in the Denominator

A factor raised to a power such as (x + 2)3 gives rise to repeated factors of (x + 2). Handling these repeated factors requires a partial fraction for each power of the factor, up to the highest power of the factor. Thus, a cubed factor requires three fractions using descending powers of the factor. x A B C e.g. = + + 3 3 2 (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) Similarly, factors of (x + 2)4 would be split into fractions with (x + 2)4, (x + 2)3, (x + 2)2, (x + 2) x A B C D e.g. = + + + 4 4 3 2 (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) (x + 2) The general rule is that the number of unknowns on the RHS must equal the degree of the denominators polynomial on the left. In the example below, the degree of the expression in the denominator is four. Hence: x A B C D e.g. = + + + (x + 1) (x + 4) (x + 2)2 (x + 1) (x + 4) (x + 2) (x + 2)2 The reasoning behind the use of different powers of a factor requires an explanation that is really beyond the scope of these notes. Suffice it to say that anything else does not provide a result that is true for all values of x, which is what we require. In addition, we need the same number of equations as there are unknowns in order to find a unique answer. An alternative way to view this problem, is to treat the problem in the same way as having a squared term in the denominator. For example: x Ax + B = (x + 2)2 (x + 2)2 However, the whole point of partial fractions is to simplify the original expression as far as possible, ready for further work such as differentiation or integration. In the exam, repeated linear factors need to be solved as discussed above.
63.7.1 Example: 1
x (x + 1) (x + 2)2 x A B C + + 2 2 (x + 1) (x + 2) x + 1 (x + 2) x + 2 x A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 1) + C (x + 1) (x + 2) B = 2 A = 1 A+ C = 0 B = 2 A = 1 C = 1 x = 2 x = 1 Look at x2 term:
x 1 2 1 = + + 2 2 (x + 1) (x + 2) x + 1 (x + 2) x + 2
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Same problem, but treated as a squared term (interest only). x (x + 1) (x + 2)2 x A Bx + C + 2 (x + 1) (x + 2) x + 1 (x + 2)2 x A (x + 2)2 + (Bx + C) (x + 1) x = 1 1 = A (1)2 + 0 x = 2 2 = 0 + (2B + C) (1) 2 = 2B C Equate constant terms 0 = 4A + C 2B = C 2 C = 4 B = 1 A = 1
x 1 x + 4 + 2 (x + 1) (x + 2) x + 1 (x + 2)2
x2 + 7x + 5 A B C + + 3 2 (x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2) (x + 2)3 Compare numerators: x2 + 7x + 5 A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 2) + C Let: x = 2 4 14 + 5 = C 1 = A 5 = 4A + 2B + C 5 = 4 + 2B 5 B = 3 x2 + 7x + 5 1 3 5 + (x + 2)3 x + 2 (x + 2)2 (x + 2)3 C = 5 Compare coefficients: x2
Compare coefficients: constants
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63.8 Solving by the Cover Up Method

One final method of solving partial fractions, which was first described by the scientist Oliver Heaviside, is the cover up method. The restriction with this method is that it can only be used on the highest power of any given linear factor. (This will make more sense after the second example). It makes a convenient way of finding the constants and is less prone to mistakes.
63.8.1 Example: 1
6x 8 A B + (x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2 To find A, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 1) and then set x = 1 ( 6x 8 = ) (x 2) ( A )
6 8 2 = = 2 = A 1 2 1 Similarly, to find B, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 2) and then set x = 2 6x 8 (x 1) ( ) = B ( )
12 8 4 = = 4 = B 2 1 1 Hence: 6x 8 2 4 + (x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2 Why does this work? If we did it the long way by multiplying by one factor, say (x 1), we get: (6x 8) (x 1) A (x 1) B (x 1) + (x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2 Cancelling terms we get: (6x 8) B (x 1) A+ (x 2) x 2 When x = 1 the B term becomes zero, so we have: (6x 8) A (x 2) So the Cover Up Method is just a short cut method for multiplying out by one of the factors.
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The cover up method can be used on the linear parts of other more complex partial fractions. This speeds up the process, and simplifies the subsequent calculations. For example, in the problem earlier, we had this to solve: 4x A Bx + C + 2 2 3) (x + 1) (x x + 1 x 3 To find A: cover up (x + 1) and set x = 1 ( 4x ) (x2 3) ( A )
4 A (1 3) 4 A A = 2 2 The other constants can now be found using the other methods.
The cover up method can also be used to partly solve problems with repeated linear factors. The proviso is that only the highest power of the repeated factor can be covered up. 6 A B C + + 2 2 (x + 2) (x 1) x + 2 (x 1) x 1 To find A: cover up (x + 2) and set x = 2 ( 6 ) (x 1)2 ( A )
6 A (2 1)2 6 A 9 6 (x + 2) ( 6 B 3 A = 2 3 B ( )
To find B: cover up (x 1)2 and set x = 1 )
B = 2
The cover up method cannot be used to find C, so one of the other methods is required. To find C set x = 0 6 2 2 C + + 2 2 (x + 2) (x 1) 3 (x + 2) (x 1) x 1 6 2 2 C + + 2 2 (2) (1) 3 (2) (1) 1 6 2 2 C = + 2 6 1 1 1 3 = + 2 C 3 2 C = 3 6 2 2 2 = + 2 2 (x + 2) (x 1) 3 (x + 2) (x 1) 3 (x 1)
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63.9 Partial Fractions Worked Examples

63.9.1 Example: 1
16 16 16 A B C = = + + x3 4x x (x2 4) x (x + 2) (x 2) x x + 2 x 2 A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2 x (x + 2) (x 2) A = 4 B = 2 C = 2
16 = A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2) Let x = 0 Let x = 2 Let x = 2 x3 16 = A (2) (2) = 4A 16 = B (2) (4) = +8B 16 = C (2) (4) = 8C
16 4 2 2 = + + 4x x x + 2 x 2 13x 6 x (3x 2)
Express
as partial fractions. A (3x 2) + B (x) x (3x 1)
13x 6 A B = + x (3x 2) x 3x 2
13x 6 A (3x 2) + B (x) Choose values of x x = 0 x = 2 3 6 = 2A 26 2 6 = B 3 3 3 4 = + x 3x 2 A = 3 B = 4
Ans :
12x A B C = + + (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3) x + 1 2x + 3 x 3 = A (2x + 3) (x 3) + B (x + 1) (x 3) + C (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3)
12x A (2x + 3) (x 3) + B (x + 1) (x 3) + C (x + 1) (2x + 3) Choose values of x x = 3 x = 1 x = Ans : 3 2 36 = C (3 + 1) (2 3 + 3) 12 = A (2 + 3) (1 3) 12 36C = 36 C = 1 A = 3 B = 8 4A = 12
3 3 3 9 = B + 1 3 B = 18 2 2 2 4 3 8 1 = + x + 1 2x + 3 x 3
)(
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63.10 Improper (Top Heavy) Fractions

An algebraic fraction is top heavy if the highest power of x in the numerator is greater to or equal to the highest power in the denominator. The examples below illustrate two methods of finding the unknowns. You can of course do a long division to find the whole number and remainder. Then work the partial fractions on the remainder.
63.10.1 Example: 1
x2 (x 1) (x + 2) B C + x 1 x + 2 Note: A in not divided by another term because the fraction is a top heavy one and dividing out a top heavy fraction will give a whole number plus a remainder. A+ x2 A (x 1) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) + C (x 1) x = 1 x = 2 1 = 3B 4 = 3C B = 1 3 4 3
C =
A = 1 (coefficient of x2) x2 1 4 = 1 + (x 1) (x + 2) 3 (x 1) 3 (x + 2) 3x2 + 6x + 2 (2x + 3) (x + 2)2 this is NOT top heavy
e.g.
A B C + + 2x + 3 (x + 2)2 x + 2 B = 2
3x2 + 6x + 2 A (x + 2)2 + B (2x + 3) + C (2x + 3) (x + 2) 2 = B
x = 2 etc
e.g.
3x2 + 6x + 2 (2x + 3) (x + 2) A +
this IS top heavy
B C + 2x + 3 x + 2
3x2 + 6x + 2 A (2x + 3) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) + C (2x + 3) 2 = C
x = 2 etc
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63 C4 Partial Fractions 4
Here is an alternative method, which splits the numerator into parts that can be divided exactly by the denominator, giving the whole number part immediately. x2 + 3x 11 x2 + 3x 11 = (x + 2) (x 3) x2 x 6 = x2 x 6 + 4x 5 x2 x 6
x2 + 3x 11 x2 x 6 4x 5 = 2 + 2 (x + 2) (x 3) x x 6 x x 6 4x 5 x 6 A B = 1 + + x + 2 x 3 = 1 + x2 The partial fraction required is based on the remainder and is now: x2 4x 5 A B = + x 6 x + 2 x 3
which can be solved in the normal manner.
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63.11 Using Partial Fractions

Some examples of using partial fractions for differentiation and integration. Partial fractions can also be used for series expansions.
63.11.1 Example: 1
Differentiate the following function: f (x) = x + 9 + x 6 x + 9 A B f (x) = = + (2x 3) (x + 2) (2x 3) (x + 2) 2x2 x + 9 = A (x + 2) + B (2x 3) Let x = 2 : Let x = 3 : 2 7 = 7B 3 3 + 9 = A + 2 3 + 18 = A (3 + 4) 2 2 3 1 f (x) = (2x 3) (x + 2) y = [ f (x)] n dy = n f (x) [ f (x)] n 1 dx B = 1
A = 3
Recall:
f (x) = 3 (2x 3)1 (x + 2)1 f (x) = 3 (1) 2 (2x 3)2 (1) (x + 2)2 = 6 (2x 3)2 + (x + 2)2 1 6 2 (x + 2) (2x 3)2 We could have used the quotient rule, but this method is sometimes easier. f (x) =
63.12 Topical Tips

N The number of unknown constants on the RHS should equal the degree of the polynomial in the denominator: e.g. x2 + 7x + 5 A B C + + 3 2 (x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2) (x + 2)3 N The denominator on the LHS is a degree 3 polynomial, so the number of constants on the RHS = 3 N A rational function is one in which both numerator and denominator are both polynomials.
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64 C4 Integration with Partial Fractions

64.1 Using Partial Fractions in Integration
The ideal format for integrating a fraction is : 1 1 dx = = ln | ax + b | + c ax + b a Partial fractions gives us the tool to tackle fractions that are not in this ideal form.
64.2 Worked Examples in Integrating Partial Fractions

64.2.1 Example: 1
Find (x2
(x
1 dx 1)
1 A B A (x 1) + B (x + 1) = + = 1) (x + 1) (x 1) (x + 1) (x 1) 1 = A (x 1) + B (x + 1) 1 1 = 2B 1 = 2A 1 B = 1 2 1 2
Let x = 1 Let x = 1
A =
(x
1 dx = 1) = =
2 (x 1) 2 (x + 1)dx
1 2
(x 1)dx 2 (x + 1)dx
1 1 ln | x 1 | ln | x + 1 | + c 2 2 1 |x 1| = ln + c 2 |x + 1|
Find
(x 1) (x + 4) dx
5 (x + 1)
5 (x + 1) A B A (x + 4) + B (x 1) = + = (x 1) (x + 4) (x 1) (x + 4) (x 1) (x + 4) 5 (x + 1) = A (x + 4) + B (x 1) 15 = 5B 10 = 5A 2 B = 3 A = 2 3
Let x = 4 Let x = 1 5 (x + 1)
(x 1) (x + 4) dx = (x 1) dx + (x + 4) dx
= 2
(x 1) + 3 (x + 4) dx
= 2 ln | x 1 | + 3 ln | x + 4 | + c
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Calculate the value of
1 dx 1 x (x 5)
1 A B A (x 5) + B (x) + = x (x 5) x x 5 x (x 5) 1 A (x 5) + Bx 5B = 1 B = 1 5 1 Let x = 0 5A = 1 A = 5 1 1 1 = + x (x 5) 5x 5 (x 5) Let x = 5
1 1 dx = 5 1 x (x 5)
1 1 + dx x (x 5)
4
1 = ln x + ln (x 5) 5 1 =
1 [ (ln 4 + ln (4 5)) (ln 1 + ln (1 5))] 5 1 = [ (ln | 4 | + ln | 1 | ) + ln | 1 | ln | 4 |] 5 1 2 = (2 ln 4) = ln 4 5 5
(but ln 1 = 0)
4
Calculate the value of
1 dx (x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 A B A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1) + (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x + 1) (2x + 3) (x + 1) (2x + 3) 1 A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1) x = 3 2 1 B = 1 2 B = 2 A = 1
x = 1
2A + 3 = 1 =
1 2 (x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 dx = (x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 2 dx (x + 1) (2x + 3)
= ln (x + 1) 2 ln (2x + 3) 0 =
1 x + 1 1 x 1 ln = ln + 2 2x + 3 0 2 2x + 3 2x + 3 0
ln x + 1 = ln 1 Substitute 0 into this bit... 3 2x + 3 0
()
3 x 1 = ln 1 + 2x + 3 0 2
1 Rearrange & substitute into this bit... = ln 2 + = 1 1 1 ln ln 2 2 3
()
()
1 3 ln 2 2
()
()
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65 C4 Binomial Series
65.1 The General Binomial Theorem
In C2, the Binomial Theorem was used to expand (a + b)n for any +ve integer of n, and which gave a finite series that terminated after n + 1 terms. This was given as: (a + b)n = nC0 an + nC1 an 1b + nC2 an 2b + nC3 an 3b + + nCn 1 ab
2 3 n1
+ nCn b
The coefficient of each of the above terms can be found using a calculators nCr button, however, this is only valid when n and r are positive integers. n! So the formula nCr = cannot be used for fractional or negative values of n and r. (n r)! r! Because the expansion is finite, the RHS exactly equals the LHS of the equation. Plotting both sides of the equation as separate functions would give identical graphs. Now we want to be able to use the Binomial Theorem, for any rational value of n. In fact, restricting n to +ve integers is a just a special case of the general Binomial Theorem, in which n can take any rational value (which of course includes fractional and ve values of n). Rearranging the binomial (a + b)n into the form (1 + x)n; the general Binomial Theorem now becomes: n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x + 2! 3! 4! n (n 1) (n r + 1) r + x + r! The big change here, is that the expansion has an infinite number of terms, (except for the special case mentioned above) and the RHS is now only an approximation of the function on the LHS (unless you can calculate all the infinite terms:-). We must also determine if the expansion diverges or converges towards the value of the LHS.
65.2 Recall the Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progression

Recall from C2, that the sum of a Geometric Progression (GP) is given by: Sn = a + ar + ar2 + + arn 2 + arn 1 The sum to infinity, S, only has a meaning if the GP is a convergent series, (the sum to infinity of a divergent series is undefined). The general formula for the sum of a GP is: Sn = a (1 rn) (1 r)
However, if r is small i.e. 1 < r < 1, then the term rn tends to 0 as n Mathematically this is written: if | r | < 1, then lim rn = 0
n
and the sum to infinity becomes:
S =
a (1 r)
|r|
< 1
The GP is said to converge to the sum S
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65.3 Convergence and Validity of a Binomial Series

From our general binomial expansion: n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n r + 1) r (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + + x + 2! 3! r! we can see the similarities to the Geometric Progression (GP) in the section above. For a binomial expansion, the sum of all the terms to infinity only has a meaning if the binomial converges. Thus: when r , and if xr 0 then the series will converge to the value of (1 + x )n. From the above equation, one can see that a binomial will converge only when | x | < 1. We say the expansion is valid for | x | < 1. Valid just means convergence in this instance. In the formula above, the role of x is a generic one. We can replace x with any variation of the term, so, for example, the binomial (1 + bx)n is only valid for | bx | < 1. [Note: do not confuse the choice of variable letters used here with those used for a GP] Another way of looking at the validity of the expansion is to plot the LHS and RHS of the equation as two separate functions. The two graphs will only have a close match when | x | < 1. The example below shows how the expansion of (1 + x)1 compares when plotted on a graph. (1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 + The RHS matches the LHS most closely between the valid values of 1 < x < 1 (i.e. | x | < 1) The best approximation is when x is small and close to 0. In this region the expansion converges quickly, with fewer terms required. When x is closer to 1, but still in the valid range, the convergence is slow, and many more terms are required. Note the difference between the expansion to 5 terms and the one to 8 terms.
y 4
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
5 terms
y = (1 x)1
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 x5 + x6 x7
8 terms
Fig: Binomial Expansions Compared
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65.4 Handling Binomial Expansions

It is all too easy to get these expansions wrong, especially if a minus sign is involved. Thus, for an expansion to the 5th term: n (n 1) n (n 1) (n 2) n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) (1 x)n 1 + n (x) + (x)2 + (x)3 + (x)4 2! 3! 4! In this case we get alternating signs for each term: n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 (1 x)n 1 nx + x x + x 2! 3! 4! Note that the signs will change again if n is ve. Some confusion can also be caused by the way the general theorem is stated with x as the variable and then being asked to evaluate something like (1 3x)n. The x term can take any coefficient b, which is also raised to the same power as the x term, thus: n (n 1) n (n 1) (n 2) (1 bx)n = 1 + n (bx) + (bx)2 + (bx)3 + 2! 3! Stating the theorem with u as the variable, or even using a symbol may help in your understanding: n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 u + u + u + 2! 3! 4! n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 (1 + )n = 1 + n + + + + 2! 3! 4! Evaluating (1 3x)n becomes more obvious as u or is replaced everywhere with 3x. (1 + u)n = 1 + nu + In evaluating the coefficients, note the pattern that they form. Each succeeding value in the bracket is one less that the previous.
E.g.
Assuming a value of n = 2, instead of writing down the 4th coefficients as 2 (2 1) (2 2) 3! write 2 (3) (4) 3! Once you see the pattern it is very easy to write down the next coefficients in turn. E.g: 2 (3) (4) (5) 4!
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Expand
Solution:
1 up to the term in x3 2 (1 + x) 2 (2 1) 2 2 (3) (4) 3 x + x 2! 3! 2 (3) 2 2 (3) (4) 3 = 1 + (2x) + x + x 2! 3! 2 (3) 2 (2 3) (4) 3 = 1 2x + x + x 2! 3!
(1 + x)2 = 1 + (2x) + (1 + x)2 (1 + x)2
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 Valid for | x | < 1
Expand (1 + 3x)2 up to the term in x3

3 Replace n with 2 and replace all xs with 3x
Solution:
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 + (1 + 3x)2 = 1 +
3
3 1 () 3 (3x) + 2 2 (3x)2 + 2 2!
3 1 2 2
( ) ( 1 ) 2
3!
(3x)3
3 3 9 x + 4 9x2 + 8 27x 3 2 2! 3! 3 9 27 2 27 3 (1 + 3x)2 = 1 + x + x x 2 8 16 |x| < 1 Valid for | 3x | < 1 or 3
Expand
Solution:
5 + x in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3 1 2x
5 + x = (5 + x) (1 2x)1 1 2x Expand: (1 2x)1 = 1 1 (2x) + 1 (2) 1 (2) (3) (2x)2 + (2x)3 2! 3!
= 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3 (5 + x) (1 2x)1 = (5 + x) (1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3) = 5 + 10x + 20x2 + 40x3 + x + 2x2 + 4x3 + 8x4 = 5 + 11x + 22x2 + 44x3 + 8x4 Ans : Valid for | 2x | < 1 = 5 + 11x + 22x2 + 44x3 or
|x|
<
1 2
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65.5 Using Binomial Expansions for Approximations When 1 < x < 1 (i.e. | x | < 1) then the series will be a good approximation of (1
For (1 + bx)n then the series is valid (or convergent) when | bx | < 1 or | x | < 1 . b
+ x)n.
65.5.1 Example: 1
Expand (1 2x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3 and hence by choosing values for x, find an approximation for 2.
Solution:
(1 2x) = 1 +
1 2
1 2
1 (2x) + 2
1 2
( 1 ) 2
2!
(2x)2 +
1 2
3 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) 2
3!
(2x)3
(1 2x) = 1 x
1 2 1 x x3 + 2 2 x = 1 2
To find 2 let (1 2x) = 2 22 1 +

1
1 1 12 1 13 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 2 2 4 2 8 1 1 1 1 + + 2 8 16 23 14375 ( 2 = 141421 by calculator) 16 |x| < 1 Valid for | 2x | < 1 or 2
( )
( ) ( )
Using the above expansion find the approximate value of 21 by substituting x = 0.08. Substituting & using the rules for surds:
Solution:
(1 2x) = =
1 2 008 = 84 = 100
084
4 21 2 = 21 100 10
2 1 1 21 1 008 (008)2 (008)3 + 10 2 2 09165 09165 10 2
21
21 45827 (5 sf ) 21 = 458257 (by calculator) Valid for | 2x | < 1 or
|x|
<
1 2
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65.6 Expanding
n
(a + bx)n
This requires you to change the format from (a + bx)n to (1 + kx)n by taking out the factor an. Thus: bx bx n (a + bx) = a 1 + = a 1 + a a b n (n 1) b = an 1 + n x + x a 2! a b a Valid for x < 1 or | x | < a b
)
2
| |
( )
n (n 1) (n 2) b x 3! a
( )
4 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b x 4! a
( )
65.6.1 Example: 1
Expand (4 3x2) up to and including the term in x4.
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( ) 3 3 1 3 Now: (1 x ) = 1 + ( x ) + x + 4 2 4 2! ( 4 ) 3 3 1 9 2 (1 x ) = 2 1 x ( x ) 4 8 8 16
(4 3x2)
2 1 3 3 = (4 3x ) 4 1 x2 42 1 x2 4 4
2 2
1 2
3 2 1 x2 4
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
3 9 4 = 2 1 x2 x 8 128 3 9 4 = 2 x2 x 4 64 From (1 3 x2) expansion valid for 4
| 3x | < 1 or | x | < 4
2
4 3
Expand
Solution:
4 x up to and including the term in x3 2 (2 + x)
4 x 1 = (4 x) (2 + x)2 = (4 x) . 22. 1 + x 2 (2 + x) 2 1 3 1 (4 x) 1 x + x2 x3 + 4 4 2 1 = 4 4x + 3x2 2x3 x + x2 4 1 11 3 = 4 3x + 4x2 x + 4 4 3 11 3 = 1 x + x2 x 4 16 1 From 1 + 1 x expansion valid for x < 1 or 2 2 =
( (
3 3 x + 4
| |
|x|
< 2
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65.7 Simplifying with Partial Fractions

65.7.1 Example: 1
Use partial fractions to expand
Solution:
1 in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3 (1 + x) (1 2x)
1 A B + (1 + x) (1 2x) (1 + x) (1 2x) Let x = 1 2 A (1 2x) B (1 + x) + (1 + x) (1 2x)
1 A (1 2x) + B (1 + x) 1 1 = A (0) + 1 B 2 3 1 = B 2
B =
2 3 1 3
Let x = 1
1 = A (1 + 2) + B (0) 1 = 3A A =
1 1 2 + (1 + x) (1 2x) 3 (1 + x) 3 (1 2x)
Expand each term separately then add together: 1 1 1 (1) (1 1) 2 (1) (1 1) (12) 3 = (1 + x)1 = 1 + (1) x + x + x 3 (1 + x) 3 3 2! 3! = = 1 (2) 2 (1) (2) (3) 3 x + x 1 x + 3 2! 3! 1 [ 1 x + x2 x3 3
1 x x2 x3 + 3 3 3 3
2 2 = (1 2x)1 3 (1 2x) 3 = = 2 (1) (1 1) (1) (1 1) (1 2) (2x)2 + (2x)3 1 + (1) (2x) + 3 2! 3! 2 [ 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3 3
2 4x 8x2 16x3 + + + 3 3 3 3
Now combine the expansions: 1 x x2 x3 2 4x 8x2 16x3 1 = + + + + + 3 (1 + x) (1 2x) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 = 1 + x + 3x2 + 5x3 2 1 (1 2x)1 is valid when |2x | < 1 or when | x | < 3 2 1 Note that (1 + x)1 is valid when | x | < 1 3 1 combined expansion is valid when | x | < 2 Note that
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65.8 Binomial Theorem Digest:

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 x + x + x + 2! 3! 4! n (n 1) (n r + 1) r + x + Valid for | x | < 1 r!
( ) b n (n 1) b = a 1 + n x + ( a x) + n (n 1) (n 2) ( b x) a 2! 3! a b a Valid for | x | < 1 or | x | < a b

bx bx n (a + bx) = a 1 + = a 1 + a a
n 2 n n n
4 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b x 4! a
( )
N For the general Binomial Theorem any rational value of n can be used (i.e. fractional or negative values, and not just positive integers). N For these expansions, the binomial must start with a 1 in the brackets. For binomials of the form (a + bx)n, the a term must be factored out. n b n n Therefore, the binomial (a + bx) must be changed to a 1 + x . a N When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero. N When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms. and the coefficients are never zero.
N In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n. N The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i. e. 1 < x < 1). This is the condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition. b b N For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or a a a |x| < b N The range must always be stated. N When the series is convergent it will make a good approximation of (1 + x)n depending on the number of terms used, and the size of x. Small is better.
| |
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 + (1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + (1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 + (1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + All valid for | x | < 1
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66 C4 Parametric Equations
66.1 Intro to Parametric Equations
Some relationships between the variables x and y are so complicated that it is often convenient to express x and y in terms of a third variable called a parameter.
E.g.
x = t4 y = t3 t
(1) (2)
The equations (1) & (2) are called the parametric equations of the curve. By eliminating t from both equations it is possible to find a direct relationship between x and y, which is of course the Cartesian equation of the 3 1 curve. (In this example we obtain y = x 4 x 4 , a very tricky equation to deal with, which nicely illustrates the reason for using parametric equations).
66.1.2 Example: 1
If y = t 3, & x = 2t 3 + 2 sketch a graph to see how the curve is represented.
Solution:
30
t = 2 t = 1 t = 0 t = 1 t = 2 t = 3
x = 14 x = 0 x = 2 x = 4 x = 18 x = 56
y = 8 y = 1 y = 0 y = 1 y = 8 y = 27
-20 -10
25
20
15
10
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-5
-10
Sketch the curve for x = t 3 4t & y = t 2 1

Solution:
y 8 3 0 1 0 3 8
3 15 2 0 1 3 0 0 1 3 2 0 3 15
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-1
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66.2 Converting Parametric to Cartesian format

To convert to Cartesian equations: N Rearrange the x-equation to get t on its own N Substitute this into the y-equation. N or visa versa! Choose the simpler of the two equations to find t = ?
66.2.1 Example: 1
Express the parametric equation x = t 2 & y = t 2 1 in cartesian form and sketch the curve.
Solution:
x = t 2 y = t2 1 x 6 4 2 0 2 4 y 15 3 1 3 15 35
t = x + 2 y = (x + 2)2 1
20
15
10
-6
-4
-2
-5
Sketch the curve of the parametric equation x = t + 1 & y =

Solution:
1 t
x = t + 1 y = 1 t y
t = x 1 y = 1 x 1
6
9 01 4 02 1 05 05 0666 0 1 05 2 1 15 2 2 1 4 0333 11 02
-10 -8
-6
-4
-2
10 12
-1
-2
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66 C4 Parametric Equations 3
Express the parametric equation x =
Solution:
1 & y = t 2 + 4 in cartesian form. 1 + t
1 1 + t 1 1 + t = x 1 t = 1 x x =
2 1 y = 1 + 4 x 1 2 y = 2 + 1 + 4 x x 1 2 y = 2 + 5 x x
Show that the parametric equation x = at + form as:

Solution:
1 1 and y = at n can be given in the cartesian n t t
(x y) (x + y)n = 2n + 1an Substitute for x & y in the LHS of the above equation:
( ) ( ) 2at + 1 at 1 at + 1 + at 1 ( t ) ( t ) t t ( t2 ) (2at) t2 2 a t = 2 a
n n n n n n n n n+1 n n n
n at + 1 at 1 at + 1 + at 1 tn tn tn tn n
66.3 Sketching a Curve from a Parametric Equation

66.3.1 Example: 1
Sketch the curve x = 1 t, y = t 2 4
Solution:
y-axis is cut at: x = 0 1 t = 0 Co-ordinate of y-axis cut at (0, 3)
t = 1
y = 3
x-axis is cut at: y = 0 t2 4 = 0 Co-ordinate of x-axis cut at (1, 0) and (3, 0)
t2 = 4
t = 2
x = 1, 3,
Since t 2 is never ve, the minimum value of y is 4 For all values of y > 4 there are 2 values of x in the form of 1 k . Hence curve is symmetrical about the line x = 1.
-1
10
0 -3 -4
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66.4 Parametric Equation of a Circle

Circle centre (0, 0) radius r: x = rcos Circle centre (a, b) radius r: x = a + rcos y = b + rsin y = rsin
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66.5 Differentiation of Parametric Equations

Two methods can be used: N Eliminate the parameter and differentiate normally or N Use the chain rule: dy dy dt dt 1 = and = dx dx dt dx dx
dt
66.5.1 Example: 1
Find the gradient of the curve x = t 2, y = 2t at the point where t = 3
Solution: Method 1
t =
y = 2 x = 2x 2 1 x
dy 1 = x 2 dx
When t = 3, x = 32 = 9 Gradient
Method 2
dy 1 1 = = dx 9 3
x = t2 y = 2t
dx = 2t dt dy = 2 dt dy 1 1 = 2 = dx 2t t dy 1 1 = = dx t 3
dy dy dt = dx dt dx When t = 3,
Find the equation of the normal at the point (8, 4) to the curve given parametrically by: x = t 3,
Solution:
y = t2
t = x3
y = x3
dy 2 1 = x 3 dx 3 2 2 1 1 1 Gradient: = (8) 3 = . = 3 3 (2) 3 Gradient of normal given by: m1m2 = 1 y 4 = 3 (x + 8) y = 3x + 28 Gradient = 3 Equation of line given by y y1 = m (x x1)
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Find the turning points on the curve given by x = t, y = t 3 3t
Solution:
dx dt = 1, = 1 dt dx dy = 3t 2 3 dt dy dy dt = dx dt dx At the turning points 3t 2 3 = 0 3t 2 = 3 t2 = 1 t = 1 = 1
dy = (3t 2 3) 1 = 3t 2 3 dx dy = 0 dx
From start equations: When t = 1 x = 1 When t = 1 x = 1 & & y = 2 y = 2
Co-ordinates of turning points are (1, 2) , (1, 2) x = t = Sign

dy dx
1 1 2 1 1 2 +
1 1 0
0 0 \
0 0 \
1 1 0
2 2 +
Shape
(1, 2) is a max
(1, 2) is a min 1 t
Find the equation of the general tangent to the curve given by x = t, y =

Solution:
dx dt = 1, = 1 dt dx 1 y = = t 1 t dy dy dt = dx dt dx
dy 1 = t 2 = 2 dt t dy 1 1 = 2 1 = 2 dx t t 1 1 Need a general equation, so use point t, with a gradient of 2 t t
( )
y y1 = m (x x1) y 1 1 = 2 (x t) t t
by t 2
t 2y t = x + t t 2y t = x + t t 2y + x 2t = 0
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66 C4 Parametric Equations 5
Find the equation of the normal to the curve given by x = t 2, y = t + 1 t
Solution:
x = t2 y = t +
dx = 2t, dt
1 = t + t 1 t dy dy dt = dx dt dx
dt 1 = dx 2t dy 1 = 1 t 2 = 1 2 dt t dy 1 1 = 1 2 dx t 2t
= = When t = 2
t2 1 1 t2 2t
t2 1 2t 3
dy 22 1 4 1 3 = = = 3 dx 2 2 16 16 1 5 When t = 2 x = 22 = 4, y = 2 + = 2 2 5 So we want equation of normal through point 4, 2 3 16 Gradient of tangent = Gradient of normal = 16 3
( )
Equation of normal is:
y y1 = m (x x1) 5 16 = (x 4) 2 3 5 16x 64 y = + 2 3 3 y
6y 15 = 32x + 128 6y + 32x 143 = 0
If x = t 2 3t Find
&
y = 4t 3 3t 2 18t + 5
dy when t = 2 dx
Solution:
dx = 2t 3, dt
dy = 12t 2 6t 18 dt
dy dy dt dy 12t 2 6t 18 = = dx dt dx dx 2t 3 48 12 18 Ans : = = 18 4 3
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Take the parametric curve defined by x = 2t 2 & y = 4t with two points with the following coordinates, P (2p2, 4p) & Q (2q2, 4q). a) Find the gradient of the normal to the curve at P b) Find the gradient of the chord PQ c) Show that p2 + pq + 2 = 0 when chord PQ is normal to the curve at P d) The normal to a point U (8, 8) meets the curve again at point V. The normal to point V crosses the curve at point W. Find the co-ordinates of W. Step 1 ----- Draw a sketch!!!!!! t = y 4 y
20
x = 2
( 4y )
y2 = 8x
P (2p2, 4p)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-20
Q (2q2, 4q)
a) Find the gradient at point P: x = 2t 2 & y = 4t dx dy = 4t = 4 dt dt dy dy dt 1 1 = = 4 = dx dt dx 4t t 1 The normal m2 is given by: m2 = 1 t m2 = t At point P (2p2, 4p) ; y = 4p 4p = 4t p = t The gradient of the normal at point P = p b) The gradient of a straight line is For the line PQ Simplifying : y1 y2 x1 x2 4p 4q m = 2p2 2q2 = 2 (p q) 2 = (p q) (p + q) (p + q)
c) The line PQ is normal to the curve at P. Hence: 2 = p (p + q) 2 = p (p + q) = p2 pq p2 + pq + 2 = 0
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d) Consider the line UV as the same as PQ For U (8, 8) y 4p = 8 p = 2 : 4 + 2q + 2 = 0 p = 2 Find the value of q using p2 + pq + 2 = 0 2q = 6 q = 3 Co-ordinates of V = (2q2, 4q) = (18, 12) Now consider the line VW as the same as PQ. So 4p = 12 p = 3 Find the value of q using p2 + pq + 2 = 0 p = 3 : 9 3q + 2 = 0 3q = 11 q = 11 3
Co-ordinates of W = 2
11 2 11 , 4 3 3 8 2 = 26 , 14 9 3
( ( )
( )) = ( 242 , 44) 9 3
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67 C4 Differentiation: Implicit Functions

67.1 Intro to Implicit Functions
For the most part we have dealt with explicit functions of x, where a value of y is defined only in terms of x. dy Functions have been in the form y = f (x), and the derivative = f (x) is obtained by differentiating w.r.t x. dx However, some functions cannot be rearranged into the simpler form of y = f (x), or x = f (y). If we cannot express y solely in terms of x, we say y is given implicitly by x. Similarly, if we cannot express x solely in terms of y, we say x is given implicitly by y. Even so, given a value of x, a value for y can still be found, after a bit of work.
E.g.
y = 2x2 3x + 4 x2 + y2 6x + 2y = 0
is expressed explicitly in terms of x. is expressed implicitly.
Typical examples of implicit functions are found in the equations of circles, ellipses and hyperbolae. An example implicit function showing the complex shape given by a cubic function.
3y3 x3 + 2y2x = 5y
1
0 1
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67.2 Differentiating Implicit Functions

By now, differentiating an explicit function, such as y = f (x), should have become second nature. dy So much so, that without thinking, the first thing we write down when we see a differential is dx = In differentiating an implicit function, this blind technique wont work, since you cannot make y the subject of the equation first. To differentiate an implicit function, we differentiate both sides of the equation term by term w.r.t x. In fact, this is what we have always done, but we tend to forget that the differential of y wrt to x is dx . The difficult part of dealing with these functions is knowing what to do with terms such as y2, x3y2 and this is where the chain and product rules come to the rescue. We use the chain rule such that: d d dy (y) = (y) dx dy dx Simply stated, the chain rule says take the differential of the outside function and multiply by the differential of the inside function. The general rule for implicit functions becomes: differentiate the x bits as normal, and then the y bits w.r.t y and dy multiply by dx . Remember that any terms in y now differentiate to multiples of dx .
dy dy
67.2.1 Example:
Find dx if: x2 + 2y y2 = 5 Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term: d 2 (x ) + d (2y) d (y2) = 0 dx dx dx d 2 (x ) = 2x Term 1: dx d Term 2: (2y) =? Use the chain rule to differentiate a y term w.r.t x: dx d d dy dy (2y) = (2y) 2 dx dy dx dx Term 3: d 2 (y ) = d (y2) dy 2y dy dx dy dx dx dy dx dy dy x + y = 0 dx dx
dy
Combining the resulting terms and rearrange to give 2x + 2 dy dy 2y = 0 dx dx dy dy y = x dx dx dy (1 y) = x dx dy x = dx (y 1)
dy x = dx (1 y)
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67.3 Differentiating Terms in

dy
y w.r.t x
Terms in y differentiate to multiples of dx using the chain rule.
67.3.1 Example: 1
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
Solution:
x2 + y2 + 3y = 8
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term: d 2 (y ) + d (3y) = 0 2x + dx dx d 2 (y ) = d (y2) dy 2y dy Assign chain rule to the y2 term: dx dy dx dx 2x + 2y dy dy + 3 = 0 dx dx dy (2y + 2) = 2x dx dy 2x = dx 2y + 2 x2 + y2 6x + 2y = 0 dy 6 + dx dy 2x + (2y + 2) dx dy 6 2x = dx 2y + 2 dy = 0 dx
Rearrange:
Solution:
2x + 2y Rearrange:
6 = 0
Find an expression for the gradient of the curve:

Solution:
3x2 2y3 = 1 dy 6x x = = 2 2 dx 6y y
6x 6y2
dy = 0 dx y = ax
Solution:
Take logs both sides: Differentiate w.r.t to x: but: Hence: y = ax
ln y = ln ax = x ln a 1 dy = ln a y dx dy = y ln a dx dy = ax ln a dx dy x (a ) = ax ln a dx
477

Solution:
sin (x + y) = cos 2y
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term: d d [ sin (x + y)] = (cos 2y) dx dx d d d Assign chain rule to LHS: [ sin (x + y)] = [ sin (x + y)] (x + y) dx dy dx d dy [ sin (x + y)] = cos (x + y) 1 + dx dx d d Use chain rule on the RHS: (cos 2y) = sin (2y) (2y) dx dx d dy (cos 2y) = sin (2y) 2 dx dx dy dy 1 + cos (x + y) = 2 sin (2y) (1) dx dx dy dy cos (x + y) + cos (x + y) = 2 sin (2y) dx dx dy dy 2 sin (2y) + cos (x + y) = cos (x + y) dx dx dy cos (x + y) = dx 2 sin (2y) + cos (x + y)
It is not necessary to find the expression for gradient unless asked for. To find a gradient from dy given coordinates just substitute into equation (1), then rearrange for dx .
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67.4 Differentiating Terms with a Product of
x and y
These need to be treated as a product of two functions, hence, we use the product and chain rules to differentiate them. Recall: If y = uv dy dv du = u + v dx dx dx The examples 1 & 3 below show the product and chain rule used in full. Once mastered, we can generally dy differentiate powers of y normally w.r.t y and append dx .
67.4.1 Example: 1
Solution:
xy2 du = 1 dx dv dv dy dy = = 2y dx dy dx dx
Let u = x Let v = y2
Use chain rule
d (xy2) = u dv + v du = x . 2y dy + y2. 1 dx dx dx dx dy = 2xy + y2 dx x3 + xy2 y3 = 5
Using the result from (1) above, differentiate w.r.t to x:

Solution:
dy dy 3x2 + 2xy + y2 3y2 = 0 dx dx dy [ 2xy 3y2] = 0 3x2 + y2 + dx dy [ 2xy 3y2] = 3x2 y2 dx dy = dx 3x2 y2 = [ 2xy 3y2] 3x2 + y2 [ 3y2 2xy] y = xey du = 1 dx dv dv dy dy = = ey dx dy dx dx
Solution:
Let u = x Let v = ey
dy dy = x ey + ey dx dx
479

If exy = sin x
Solution:
show that:
d 2y dy + 2 + 2y = 0 2 dx dx
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : ex 2nd Differentiation But ex dy + yex = cos x dx Product rule: u = ex v = y
d 2y dy dy x + ex + yex + e = sin x dx2 dx dx
sin x = exy d 2y dy dy + + y + = y 2 dx dx dx d 2y dy + 2 + 2y = 0 2 dx dx
Differentiate w.r.t x:
Solution:
5x4 + x2y3 + 5y2 = 0
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : d 2 3 (x y ) + d (5y2) = 0 20x3 + dx dx Product rule: u = x2 Now: and d 2 3 (x y ) = x2 3y2 dy + y3 2x dx dx du = 2x dx v = y3 dv dy = 3y2 dx dx
d (5y2) = 10y dy dx dx dy dy 20x3 + x2 3y2 + y3 2x + 10y = 0 dx dx dy dy + 2xy3 + 10y = 0 dx dx dy dy 3x2y2 + 10y = 20x3 2xy3 dx dx 20x3 + 3x2y2 dy 20x3 2xy3 = dx 3x2y2 + 10y
Differentiate w.r.t x:
Solution:
xy
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x (2 methods): xy (1) (xy)2

1
x 2 y2
1 1
1 1 1 dy 1 1 1 d 1 1 1 x 2 dy y2 x 2 y2 = x 2 y 2 + y2 x 2 = + 1 1 dx 2 dx 2 2 y2 dx x2
)
1 1
(2)
1 d 1 1 dy 1 x 2 dy y2 1 d 1 + y = 1 + 1 (xy)2 = (xy) 2 (xy) = (xy) 2 x dx dx dx 2 2 2 y2 dx x2
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67.5 Tangents and Normals of Implicit Functions

67.5.1 Example: 1
Find the equation of the tangent at (x1, y1) to the curve:
Solution:
x2 + 2y2 6y = 0
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : dy dy 2x 4y 6 = 0 dx dx dy 2x = (4y + 6) = 0 dx dy 2x = dx 4y + 6 dy x = dx 2y + 3 dy x1 = dx 2y1 + 3 y y1 = x1 (x x1) 2y1 + 3
At (x1, y1)
Equation of tangent is:
Find the gradient for the curve x2 + 2xy 2y2 + x = 2 at the point ( 4, 1).
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : 2x + But: and 2x + 2x + 2x d d (2y2) + 1 = 0 (2xy) dx dx d dy (2xy) = 2x + 2y dx dx d (2y2) = 4y dy dx dx 2x dy + 2y 4y dy + 1 = 0 dx dx dy dy 2x + 2y 4y + 1 = 0 dx dx dy 4y = 2x 2y 1 dx
Product rule: u = 2x
v = y
(1)
dy dx dy (2x 4y) = 2x 2y 1 dx dy 2x 2y 1 2x + 2y + 1 = = dx (2x 4y) 4y 2x
dy 2 (4) + 2 (1) + 1 5 = = dx 4 (1) 2 (4) 12 Alternatively, save time by substituting the given coordinates in the earlier equation (1) dy dy 8 8 + 2 4 + 1 = 0 dx dx dy dy 5 12 = 5 = dx dx 12 When at ( 4, 1)
481

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 3x2 xy 2y2 + 12 = 0 at the point (2, 3)
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : dy dy 6x x y 4y = 0 dx dx dy dy x 4y = y 6x dx dx dy 6x y = dx x + 4y Gradient at point (2, 3) dy 6 (2) 3 9 = = dx 2 + 4 (3) 14
Equation of the tangent at point (2, 3) y 3 = 9 (x 2) 14
14y = 9x + 24
Find the gradient of the curve x3y 7 = sin y at the point where y = 1 2
Solution:
( )
Find the x-coordinate to start with: When y = 1, x3 7 = sin
() 2
x3 = 1 + 7 x =
3
8 = 2
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : d 3 (x y) 0 = d sin y dx dx 2 d 3 (x y) = x3 dy + y3x2 Now: dx dx and:
( )
Product rule: u = x3
v = y Chain rule
() ( ) dy dy x + 3x y = cos ( y) dx 2 2 dx
3 2
d d dy y = cos y sin = cos y dx 2 2 dx 2 2 2 dx
( )
( )
When x = 2, y = 1, 8 dy = 12 dx dy 12 3 = = dx 8 2
aeqfal
dy + 3 4 1 = 0 dx
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67.6 Stationary Points in Implicit Functions

67.6.1 Example: 1
Find the gradient for the curve y2 xy + 4x2 = 6 at the point where x = 1.
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : d 2 (y ) d (xy) + 8x = dx dx d 2 (y ) Now: dx d and: (xy) dx dy dy 2y x + y dx dx 2y 0 = 2y dy dx dy = x + y dx
Product rule: u = x
v = y
+ 8x = 0 (1)
dy dy x y + 8x = 0 dx dx dy (2y x) = y 8x dx dy y 8x = (2y x) dx y2 y + 4 6 = 0 (y + 1) (y 2) = 0 dy 1 8 9 = = = 3 (2 1) 3 dx dy 2 8 = ( 4 1) dx = 6 = 2 3
When x = 1 (1, 1) (1, 2)
y2 y 2 = 0 y = 1 y = 2
Show that at the stationary points: 10x2 1 = 0 dy y 8x = = 0 (2y x) dx y 8x = 0 y = 8x Substitute into the original function: (8x)2 x (8x) + 4x2 = 6 64x2 8x2 + 4x2 6 = 0 60x2 6 = 0 10x2 1 = 0 Alternatively, recognise that dx = 0 and substitute into the differential at (1) dy dy 2y x y + 8x = 0 dx dx 0 0 y + 8x = 0 y = 8x etc.
dy
483

Find an expression for the x-coordinates of the stationary points of the equation: ax2y + by3 = cx + 6
Solution:
Differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t to x : d (ax2y) + d (by3) = c dx dx d (ax2y) = ax2 dy + y2ax Now: dx dx d (by3) = 3by2 dy and: dx dx ax2 dy + y 2ax + 3by2 dy = c dx dx dy dy ax2 + 2axy + 3by2 = c dx dx
dy
Product rule: u = ax2
v = y
(1)
At the stationary point dx = 0, so substitute this into the differential at (1). Then find an expression for y and substitute that into the original equation. 0 + 2axy + 0 = c y = ax2 c 2ax 2axy = c (2)
c c + b 2ax 2ax
( )
= cx + 6
Sub (2) into original equation
c bc3 x + = cx + 6 2 8a3x3 bc3 c = cx x + 6 8a3x3 2 The x-coordinate given by:

aeqfal
bc3 c = x + 6 8a3x3 2 2bc3 8a3
(cx + 3) x3 =
67.7 Implicit Functions Digest

Function f (y) a ax akx xy x2y Dif f erential 0 ax ln a k akx ln a x dy + y dx dy + 2xy dx sin (ky) cos (ky) uv u v k k dy cos (ky) dx dy sin (ky) dx
dy dx
= f (x)
Function f (y)
Dif f erential
dy dx
= f (x)
uv + vu vu uv v2
x2
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68 C4 Differential Equations
68.1 Intro to Differential Equations
At last, after years of work, learning to differentiate and integrate various functions, we now get to put all this knowledge to work on practical problems. A differential equation is one in which the variables x, y and one of the derivatives of y w.r.t x are connected in dy some way. For the purposes of this section we will only consider the first derivative of the function, dx , although higher derivatives such as 2 can be used. The first derivative leads to a first order differential dx equation. The general form of a first order differential equation is: dy f (y) = g (x) dx where f is a function of y only and g is a function of x only. Typically, the differential will be w.r.t time t, such as a change of area with time, giving dA . dt Normally a differential equation is solved by eliminating the differential part by integration.
d 2y
68.2 Solving by Separating the Variables

Differential equations are solved by separating the variables, which, in simple terms, means moving all the terms in y and dy to the LHS of the equation, and the terms in x and dx to the RHS. Both sides can then be integrated. dy f (y) = g (x) dx
f (y) dx dx = g (x) dx
But:
dy
dy
Integrate both sides w.r.t. x
dy dx = dy dx
f (y) dy = g (x) dx
Technically dx is not a fraction, but can often be handled as if it were one. Integrating both sides would normally give rise to a constant of integration on both sides, but convention has it that these are combined into one. This gives a general solution to the problem, with a whole family of curves being generated, depending on the value of the constant of integration. A particular solution is found when certain conditions are assumed, called the starting conditions, and the constant of integration can be calculated.
68.2.1 Example: 1
Solve: dy = xy2 dx 1 dy = x dx y2
1
2
dy =
x dx
1 x2 = + c y 2 1 x2 = 2 y 2
If x = 0, and y = 05, c = 0 2 = 2
485

Find the general solution of
Solution:
1 dy 2y = 2 x dx x + 1 dy = 2xy dx + 1 1 2x dy = 2 dx y x + 1 f (x)
dy 2xy = 2 dx x + 1
x2
Tip: it is good practise to keep any constant (2 in the above case) in the numerator.
y dy = x
2x dx + 1
Recall:
f (x) dx
= ln | f (x)| + c
ln y = ln (x2 + 1) + c ln y ln (x2 + 1) = c ln
Rearrange: x2
( x y+ 1 ) = c
2
y = ec + 1 where ec is a constant, k
y = ec ( x 2 + 1 )
y = k ( x2 + 1)
A curve has an equation that satisfies the differential equation: dy cos x 2 = dx y and which passes through the point (0, 2). Find the equation.
Solution:
2 dy =
cos x dx y
2y dy = cos x dx
2y dy = cos x dx
(general solution) 4 = sin 0 + c c = 4 y2 = sin x + 4
y2 = sin x + c Find c using (0, 2): Ans :
(particular solution)
A curve is such that the gradient of the curve is proportional to the product of the x & y coordinates. If the curve passes through the points (2, 1) & (4, e2), find the equation.
Solution:
dy xy dx
1 dy = y
dy = kxy dx
ln y =
1 dy = kx dx y kx2 + c 2 2 = 8k + c 0 = 2k + c
kx dx
Find k & c using the given co-ordinates: (4, e2) (2, 1) 6k = 2 substituting: Ans : k = 1 3 c = x2 2 6 3 2 3 ln y =
ln y =
x2 4 6
x2 4 6
y = e
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68.3 Rates of Change Connections

The key to doing these problems is to identify three components and write them down mathematically: N What you are given N What is required N What is the connection between the two items above (Sometimes the chain rule must be used to establish a connection).
68.3.1 Example: 1
If y = 4 cos 2 and increases at 5 radians per second, find the rate at which y is increasing when = 2.
Solution:
Given: Required:
y = 4 cos 2, dy dt when
d = 5 dt = 2 dy dy d = dt d dt
Connection (chain rule): y = 4 cos 2
dy = 8 sin 2 d
dy = 8 sin 2 5 = 40 sin 2 dt dy When = 2, = 40 sin 4 = 0 dt In this case y is not increasing or decreasing.
A spherical balloon is inflated, such that its volume is increasing at a steady rate of 20 cm3 per second. Find the rate of change of the surface area when the radius is 10 cm.
Solution:
Given that the volume increases: Volume of a sphere is: Surface area of a sphere is:
dV = 20 dt 4 V = r3 3 A = 4r2 dA dt
dV = 4r2 dr dA = 8r dr
We require the rate of change of area: From the chain rule: When r = 10
dA dA dr dV = dt dr dV dt dA 1 = 8r 20 dt 4r2 dA 40 = dt r dA 40 = = 4 cm2 sec1 dt 10
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68.4 Exponential Growth and Decay

The general form of exponential growth is: dy = ky dt 1 dy = k y dt 1 dy dt = k dt y dt 1 dy = k dt y ln y = kt + c y = ekt + c y = ekt ec y = Aekt where A = ec Integrate both sides wrt t
Similarly, the general form of exponential decay is: dy = ky dt y = Ae kt
68.4.1 Example: 1
A wonder worm experiment has found that the number of wonder worms, N, increases at a rate that is proportional to the number of worms present at the time.
Solution:
The rate of change in population is
dN dt
dN N dt dN = kN dt 1 dN = k N dt
where k is a positive constant
Integrate both sides w.r.t t etc.
A chemical reaction produces two chemicals A and B. During the reaction, x grams of chemical A is produced during the same time as y grams of chemical B. The rate at which chemical A is produced is proportional to ex, whilst the production rate for chemical B is proportional to ey. Show how A & B change w.r.t each other.
Solution:
Given:
dx ex dt
dy ey dt dy dy dt = dx dt dx dy 1 = kyey = key x dx k x ex
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68.5 Worked Examples for Rates of Change

68.5.1 Example: 1
At each point P of a curve for which x > 0, the tangent cuts the y-axis at T. N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to the y-axis. If T is always 1 unit below N, find the equation of the curve.
y
Err - Not to scale
N 1
{
T x
x
Solution:
Gradient of tangent =
1 x
Gradient of tangent
dy 1 = dx x
y = ln x + c
A rat has a mass of 30gms at birth. It reaches maturity in 3 months. The rate of growth is modelled by the differential equation: dm = 120 (t 3)2 dt where m = mass of the rat, t months after birth. Find the mass of the rat when fully grown.
Solution:
Given:
dm = 120 (t 3)2 dt
m = 120
(t 3)
dt
(t 3)3 m = 120 + c 3 m = 40 (t 3)3 + c Evaluate c: t = 0, m = 30 30 = 40 (0 3)3 + c c = 1110 m = 40 (t 3)3 + 1110 When t = 3, m = 1110 gm m = 40 (3 3)3 + 1110
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A farmer thinks that the rate of growth of his weeds is proportional to the amount of daylight that they receive. If t = the time in years after the shortest day of the year, the length of effective daylight, on any given day, is given by: 12 4 cos (2 t) hours On the shortest day of one year, the height of the plant is 120cm. 73 days later the weed has grown to 130 cm. What will the height be on the longest day of the following year?
Solution:
Given: Daylight hours: Let: h = height, Given: growth rate: &
D (t) = 12 4 cos (2 t) dh = growth rate dt dh 12 4 cos (2 t) dt
dh = k [ 12 4 cos (2 t)] dt h = k
12 4 cos (2 t) dt 3 cos (2 t) dt
h = 4k
sin (2 t) = 4k 3t + c 2 Substitute to find c When t = 0 (shortest day), h = 120 120 = 4k (0 0) + c Hence c = 120 Substitute to find k When t = 73 1 = , h = 130 365 5
sin (2 t) 130 = 4k 3t + 120 2 sin ( 2 ) 3 5 130 = 4k + 120 5 2 130 = 4k (0600 0151) + 120 130 120 = 1795k k = 10 = 5572 0449
Assume that t = 0.5 on the longest day. sin (2 05) h = 4 5572 3 05 + 120 2 h = 22290 [ 15 0] + 120 h = 33435 + 120 h = 153 cm (3 sf)
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68 C4 Differential Equations 4
A spherical balloon is inflated and when the diameter of the balloon is 10cm its volume is increasing at a rate of 200 cm3/sec. Find the rate at which its surface area is increasing at that time.
Solution:
4 3 r 3 dV Required: rate of change of volume: dt dV dV dr Connection: = dt dr dt dV 3 4 2 = r = 4r2 dr 3 dV dr = 4r2. dt dt dV Now = 200 when 2r = 10 dt dr Hence: 200 = 100 dt dr 2 = rate of increase of radius at this particular time. dt Given: volume of sphere: V = Given: sfc area of sphere: Connection: When 2r = 10, S = 4r2 dS dS dr dr = = 8r. dt dr dt dt dr 2 = so that: dt
dS 2 = 40. = 80 cm2 / sec dt
A culture of bacteria grows at a rate proportional to the number of bacteria in the culture. The number of bacteria in the culture is 1000 at lunch time. After 1 hour the number of bacteria is 3300. What is the number of bacteria after 3 hours and 24 hours?
Solution:
Given:
dP P dt dP = k dt P
dP = kP dt
dP = P
k dt
At lunchtime t = 0 and population P = 1000 c = 69
ln P = kt + c Find c: ln 1000 = c Find k: ln 3300 = k + 69 k = 81 69 = 12 After 3 hours: After 24 hours: ln P = 12 3 + 6.9 ln P = 12 24 + 6.9 ln P = 105 ln P = 357 P 36315 P 32 101
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A single super cell starts to divide and grow and after t hours the population has grown to P. At any given time the population of bacteria increases at a rate proportional to P2. Find how many hours it takes for the population to reach 10,000, given that after 1 hour the population is 1000, and after 2 hours the population is 2000.
Solution:
Given:
dP P2 dt dP = k dt P2
dP = kP2 dt
2
dP
k dt
1 (kt + c)
dP =
k dt
P1 = kt + c P = Find c:
1 = (kt + c) P
At time t = 1, P = 1000 1000 = 1 (k + c) 1 (2k + c) 1000 (k + c) = 1
At time t = 2, P = 2000 2000 = 2000 (2k + c) = 1
Use simultaneous equations 1000k + 1000c = 1 4000k + 2000c = 1 2000k + 2000c = 2 2000k k = 1 2000 Substitute k into (1) c = 3 2000 = 1 (1) (2) (3) = (1) 2 (4) = (3) (2)
1000 + 1000c = 1 2000 3 1000c = 2 1 (kt + c) 1 P
When population P = 10,000 P =
kt + c = t =
kt =
1 1 c k P
t = 2000 t = 3
1 c P
1 3 + 10000 2000
t =
2000 6000 + 10000 2000
2 = 28 hrs 10
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The population of a small village is 1097 in the year 1566. Assuming the population, P, grows according to the differential equation below, and where t is the number of years after 1566: dP = 0.3Pe 0.3t dt 1) Find the population of the village in 1576, correct to 3 significant figures. 2) Find the maximum population the village will grow to, in the long term.
Solution:
dP = 0.03Pe 0.03t dt dP = 0.03e 0.03tdt P
dP = P
0.03e
0.03t
dt
ln (P) =
0.03 0.03t e + c 0.03
ln (P) = e 0.03t + c To find c: P = 1097 & t = 0 ln (1097) = e0 + c = 1 + c 7 = 1 + c c = 8 ln (P) = e 0.03t + 8 = 8 e 0.03t

To find the population in 10 years time:
ln (P) = 8 e 0.03 10 = 8 e 03 = 8 07408 = 72592 P = 1420 (3 sf)

To find the limiting population in the long term:
1 e 0.03t 1 Note that as time increases, the term e 0.03t 0 Therefore, in the long term: ln (P) = 8 e0.03t = 8 ln (P) = 8 0 P = 2980 (3 sf)
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Solve dy = y sin t and assume the starting conditions to be y = 50 when t = secs dt
Solution:
dy = y sin t dt 1 dy = sin t dt y
y dy = sin t dt
ln y = cos t + c y = ecos t + c Let the constant To find A: 50 = A ecos 50 = A e(1) A = y = 50 e y = A ecos t y = ec ecos t ec = A
50 cos t e e
y = 50 e1 ecos t y = 50 e(1 cos t)
A system is modelled by the equation: p = 60 1 e 4 After T hours, p is 48 cms. Show that: T = a ln b Find a & b.
Solution:
where a & b are integers
48 = 60 60e
t 4 t 4
48 60 = 60e 12 t = e 4 60 1 t = e 4 5 1 t ln = 5 4 1 t = 4 ln 5
()
()
where a = 4 & b = 5 Note the change of sign here!!!
t = 4 ln 5
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From Q 9 above, show that: dp p = 15 dt 4 Find p, when it is growing at a rate of 13 cm per hour.
Solution:
p = 60 60e
t 4
dp 1 t = 60 e 4 dt 4 = 15 e But e 60e
t 4 t 4
( )
t 4
= 60 p
60 p p = 1 60 60 dp p 15p = 15 1 15 dt 60 60 dp p = 15 dt 4 =
If the system is growing at a rate of 13 cms per hour, find p: dp p = 15 = 13 dt 4 p = 8 p = 15 13 = 2 4
11
The gradient of the tangent at each point P of a curve is equal to the square of the gradient OP. Find the equation of the curve.
Solution:
Gradient of line OP =
y x
y P
dy Gradient of tangent at P = dx
Err - Not to scale

O
Now
dy y2 y2 = = 2 dx x x 1 1 dy = 2 dx 2 y x
()
y2dy = x2dx
dy =
dx
1 1 = + c y x 1 1 cx = y x
1 1 = c y x y = x 1 cx
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From the equation x = 15 12e integers.
Solution:
t 14
show that t = 14 ln
( a ) when x b
= 10 and where a & b are
10 = 15 12e 10 = 15 12e
t 14 t 14
10 15 5 t t = e 14 = e 14 12 12 5 t ln = 12 14 5 12 t = 14 ln t = 14 ln 12 5 dx 1 Show that = (15 x) dt 14 t t dx 1 14 12 14 = 12 e e dt 14 14 15 x t But e 14 = 12 dx 12 15 x 1 = = (15 x) dt 14 12 14
( )
( )
( )
Note the change of sign here!!!
( )
68.6 Heinous Howlers

Handling logs causes many problems, here are a few to avoid.
ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3 You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) (4x 5) + 3 ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: (y + 2) = 3 (4x 5) ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x You cannot just remove all the lns so:
(y + 2) 2x ln (y + 2) = ln x2
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: (y + 2) = x2
ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x You cannot convert to exponential form this way: To solve, raise e to the whole of the RHS : (y + 2) ex + e3x (y + 2) = ex
2 + 3x 2
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69 C4 Vectors
69.1 Vector Representation
A scalar has magnitude only, e.g. length or distance, speed, area, volumes. A vector has magnitude AND direction. e.g. velocity, acceleration, momentum. i.e. A journey from one point to another. Moving from point A to B is called a translation, and the vector a translation vector. Notation: Three ways of expressing vectors:
AB = from A to B
() ()
(1, 7) A
x 5 = 5 across; 4 down y 4 where 5 & 4 are the components in the x & y direction.
5 AB = 4
a
B (6, 3)
a (bold print) or in hand writing a or a
The translation vector can be calculated from the co-ordinates A (1, 7), B (6, 3):
AB = a =
( ) ( ) ()
Bx Ax By Ay = 6 1 5 = 3 7 4
The length of the line in the diagram represents the magnitude of the vector and vectors are equal if the magnitude and direction are the same. Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction and are scalar multiples of the original vector. e.g. the vector 3b is parallel to the vector b, and three times longer. The vector 2b is 2 times the magnitude of b and in the opposite direction.
b b b
3b 2b
Be aware that the notation only tells you in which direction to move a point and nothing about its position in space. In effect the vector carries two pieces of information, its magnitude and the inverse of its gradient. Hence these are sometimes called free vectors.
69.2 Scaler Multiplication of a Vector

If AB = a =
()
x and k is a constant number then: y ka =
()
kx ky
The constant k is called a scalar because it scales up the length of the vector
69.3 Parallel Vectors

If a = 3c then the two vectors will look like this: Vectors are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
a c
If a =
()
0 0 0 and c = then a and c are parallel because a = 3 = 3c 15 5 5
()
()
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69.4 Inverse Vector

If
AB = a =
()
x y
then
BA = a =
()
x y x y z
69.5 Vector Length or Magnitude

The magnitude or length of a vector, (also called its modulus) is written:
|| OP
|( )|
x y
or for 3-D
| OQ |

|( )|
y
Calculate the length using Pythagorass theorem:
| |2 AB
= = =
|( )|
a b a2
= a2 + b2 b2 = 32 + 42
If AB =
()
3 4 a
(1, 2) A 3
(4, 6)
| AB |
b 4
| AB |
25 = 5.
Similarly for 3-D vectors
| OQ |

|( )|
a b c
a2 + b2 + c2
69.5.1 Example: 1
A line is drawn between two points A (1, 4, 2) and B (2, 1, 3). Find the distance between the two points.
|| AB || AB
(2 1)2 + (1 4)2 + (3 2)2 =
1 + 25 + 1 =
27
= 3 3
69.6 Addition of Vectors

You should know that adding two vectors means finding the shortcut of their journeys. This is the same as making one translation followed by another. e.g.
() ( ) ( )
6 2 4 + = 3 9 6
RT = RS + ST c = a + b
c R b a S
The vector RT is called the resultant of the vectors RS and ST
It can be shown that if a =
()
2 4 and b = then: a + b = b + a (commutative rule) 3 1
( )
If RS = a then
SR = a
(same magnitude but opposite direction).

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In a similar manner, larger paths can be added or subtracted.
T e P a Q
S c R b
For example:
PT = PQ + QR + RS + ST e = a + b + c + d
69.6.1 Example: 1
Find the values of s and t given that s 2s t = 5 3s + 4t = 13 s = 3 & t = 1
() ( ) ( )
2 5 1 + t = 3 4 13
69.7 Subtraction of Vectors

Note that a vector subtraction can be written: a b = a + (b) This is the same as saying: move along vector a, followed by a move along vector b
b a ab
a+b
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69.8 The Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector with length or magnitude of 1. Any vector can be given as a multiple of
() ()
0 1 or 0 1
e.g.
AB =
() () ()
4 0 1 = 4 + 5 5 0 1
y
In 2-D, the unit vectors are i & j where: 0 1 and j = 0 1 This enables us to write vectors in a more compact format. i = e.g.
()
()
2-D
i
x z
4 0 1 AB = = 4 + 5 = 4i + 5j 5 0 1
() () ()
1 0 , j = 0
k
y
3-D
In 3-D, the unit vectors are i, j & k, where: i =
e.g.
AB =
() () () () () () ()
0 1 and k = 0 0 + 6 0 1 0 0 1 4 5 6 1 = 4 0 0 0 + 5 1 0
j
Alternative view
i
x
= 4i + 5j + 6k
3-D
i
x z
Any vector can be expressed in terms of i, j & k
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69 C4 Vectors
69.9 Position Vectors

A translation vector, on its own, has no frame of reference, it just hangs in space. It only tells you how to go from point A to point B, not where point A is. Position vectors on the other hand, are the vector equivalent of a set of co-ordinates. The position vector allows a translation vector to be fixed in space, using the origin as its fixed point of reference. The position vectors of a point A, with co-ordinates (5, 2), is the translation vector which takes you from the origin to the point (5, 2). So the co-ordinates of point A are the same as the translation vector from point O to A. position vector of point A = OA =
B
()
5 = 5i + 2j 2
a+b b a
O A
(5, 2)
AB = AO + OB AB = OA + OB = a + b
The vector co-ordinates of point A are the same as the translation vector from the origin, point O to point A, i.e. OA. 69.9.1 Example: 1
Points A & B have position vector a and b. Find the position vectors of a) the midpoint M of AB and b) the point of trisection T such that AT = 2 AB 3
Solution:
a)
A
AM =

a
M O
a+b
OM = OA + AM = a + 1 (a + b) 2 = 1a + 1b 2 2 = 1 (a + b) 2
1 (a 2
+ b)
b
B
b)
A
a
O
a+b
M T
OT = OA + AT OT = a + 2 (a + b) 3 = =
1a 3 1 3
+ 2b 3
(a + 2b)
b
B
501

a F a A k B a+b D m G h b E b a+b C
In a triangle ABC, the midpoints of BC, CA, and AB are D, E, and F respectively. Prove that the lines AD, BE and CF meet at a point G, which is the point of trisection of each of the medians.
AG via 3 different medians: i) via AD:

AG = AC + CD + DG = 2b + (a b) + m.DA Where DA = a + b 2b = a b

AG = 2b + a b + m (a b) = b + a + m (a b) = a (1 m) + b (1 m)
ii) via BE:
AG = AE + EG = b + h.EB Where EB = b + 2a

AG = b + h (b + 2a) = a (2h) + b (1 h)
iii) via FC:
AG = AF + FG = a + k.FC = a + k (a + 2b) = a (1 k) + b (2k) We can say that all the above vectors are the same, and therefore equal. Hence coefficients of a are equal and coefficients of b are equal: Coefficients of a Coefficients of b Subs (1) into (2) (1 m) = 2h = (1 k) (1 m) = (1 h) = 2k (1 m) = 2k 2h = (1 k) (1 k) = 2k 2h = 1 m = k (1) (2) k = 1 3 1 3 m = 1 3
1 3
h =
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69 C4 Vectors 3
A
Z P B
In a triangle OAB, O is the origin with A having a position vector of a and B having a position vector of b. M is the midpoint of OA. Z is a point on AB such that AZ = 2ZB. P is a point on OZ such that OP = 3PZ.
a) Find in terms of a and b the position vectors of M & Z. b) Prove that the MP = 1 (2b a) 4 c) Hence or otherwise show that M, P, & B are on the same line, i.e. colinear.
a)

OM =
1 1 OA = a 2 2

AB = AO + OB = a + b
1 (a + b) 3 1 1 1 1 2 OZ = b (a + b) = b + a b = a + b 3 3 3 3 3 ZB =
b)
MP = MO + OP
3 3 1 OZ = a + 4 4 3 1 1 1 MP = a + a + b 2 4 2 1 MP = (2b a) 4 OP =
c)

2 1 1 b = a + b 3 4 2 1 1 = b a 2 4
MB = MO + OB 1 1 MB = a + b = b a 2 2 1 MB = (2b a) 2 1 MP = MB 2 The vectors MB & MP are parallel [same vector part (2b a) with different scalar part] and both lines have a common point M. Therefore, the points M, P, & B are on the same line, i.e. colinear.

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69.10 The Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Vectors

This is where two vectors are multiplied together. One form of multiplication is the scaler product. The answer is interpreted as a single number, which is a scalar. This is also known as the DOT product, where a dot is used instead of a multiplication sign. (Not to be confused with the vector product which is called the CROSS product in vector terminology, hence the careful selection of the names). N.B. You cant have a dot product of three or more vectors, as it has no meaning. There are two main uses for the DOT product: N Calculating the angle between two vectors N Proving that two vectors are either parallel or perpendicular The dot product comes in two forms. The component form of the dot product is shown below: a b =
() () ( )
() ()
2 3 5 4
ax bx axbx = = (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby ay by ayby = (3 2) + (4 5) = 26
()()
69.10.1 Example: 1
0 2 1 8 = (2 0) + (1 8) + (4 3) = 20 4 3
If p = (2i + 3j) and q = (5i 9j), find p q (2 5) + (3 9) = 10 27 = 17
The other definition of the dot product uses the angle between vectors directly and is:
p q = | p | | q | cos cos = p q |p||q|
where is the angle between the two vectors and | p | & | q | are the scalar lengths or magnitudes of the vectors. Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the line (more later). Observe that the RHS of the equation is made up of scalar quantities, since | p | & | q | are scalars, as is cos . Hence the dot product is a scalar quantity. In addition, because | p | & | q | are always +ve values, the dot product takes the sign of cos .
P p
G
It is important that the vectors are put tail to tail to get a true idea of the angle between them.
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The inclusion of cos in the equation brings some useful results: N If p and q are parallel then = 0, cos = 1 and p q = | p | | q | N If p and q are perpendicular then = 90, cos = 0 and p q = 0 N If the angle is acute then cos > 0 and p q > 0 N If the angle is between 90 & 180 then cos < 0 and p q < 0 N If p q = 0, then either | p | = 0, | q | = 0 or p and q are perpendicular N Recall that cos = cos (180 ) (2nd quadrant) Note also that: i j = 0 i i = 1 i k = 0 j j = 1 j k = 0 k k = 1 (unit vectors perpendicular) (unit vectors parallel) (commutative law) (distributive over vector addition) (k is a scalar)
p q = q p s (p + q) = s p + s q p (kq) = (kp) q = k (p q)
69.11 Proving Vectors are Perpendicular

If two lines or vectors are perpendicular, then = 90, hence cos = 0, p q = 0
69.11.1 Example: 1
3 4 Prove that the vectors p = 2 and q = 8 are perpendicular. 4 1

Solution:
() ()
cos = 0
p q = | p | | q | cos If = 90 p q = 0 if 2 vectors are perpendicular.
()()
3 4 2 8 = (3 4) + (2 8) + (4 1) 4 1 = 12 + 16 4 = 0 perpendicular
505
69.12 Finding the Angle Between Two Vectors

Recall:
cos =
p q |p||q|
where p =
() ()
Solution:
ax bx ; q = and p q = axbx + ayby and | p | = ay by
(ax)2 + (ay)2 ,
|q|
(bx)2 + (by)2
Find the value of p q first, as if this is 0, then the lines are perpendicular.
69.12.1 Example: 1
Find the angle between the two vectors a = 3i + 4j and b = 5i 12j. cos = cos = cos = p q | p|| q| 32 (3 5) + (4 12) 15 48 = 2 + (12)2 2 5 13 + 4 5
33 65
= cos1
( 33) = 1205 (1dp) 65
Find the angle between the two vectors

Solution:
() ( )
2 1 and 3 7
p q = | p | | q | cos (2 1) + (3 7) = 19 = 13 . 50 cos 19 = 0745 13 . 50 22 + 32 . (1)2 + 72 cos
cos = = 418
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69 C4 Vectors
69.13 Vector Equation of a Straight Line

The Vector Equation tells you how to get to any point on a line if you start at the origin. So we define r as the position vector of any point on the line, (i.e. the vector co-ordinates of some point R). What we do is to move from the origin (O) to a known point on the line (A), then move in the direction of the slope to a point B. Since the line AB is parallel with a vector p, then AB = tp, where t is a scalar, and OB = OA + AB Therefore, the general vector equation of a straight line is:

r = a + tp or
Where:
r = a + p
a = the position vector of a given point on the line, (e.g. point A) t = an ordinary number which is a variable (i.e. a scalar). Sometimes this is labelled or p = direction vector of the line which defines the slope, (strictly speaking the inverse gradient). Think of tp as the translation vector part of the line. The direction vector is the translation vector when t = 1
Direction vector p
(gives slope)
B tp
Line parallel with direction vector p
r = a + tp
A a
O (origin)
Position Translation Vector Vector i.e. start point + direction moved p = 1/gradient
(in 2D case - in the 3D case
gradient has no real meaning)
An alternative form of the vector equation of a straight line can be written in component form. If a = ui + vj + wk and p = xi + yj + zk then r =
() ()
x u + y v w z
B b a r
The vector equation of a line that passes through two points A & B can be found thus:
R
O (origin)
The vector but
r = OR = OA + AR

AR = t AB AB = a + b = b a
r = OR = a + t (b a)
In this case the vector (b a) is the direction vector of the line.
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The value of t varies according to its position on the line: N N N N N If t If t If 0 If t If t < = < = > 0, point R is on the line BA produced 0, point R = A and r = a t < 1, point R is between A and B 1, point R = B and r = b 0, point R is on the line AB produced
t< t= 0
0< t< 1
t>
t= 0
r A a
R b
O (origin)
69.13.1 Example: 1
Draw the line with the vector equation: r = Method 1 t point
() ()
2 2 + t 3 1
() () () ()
2 3 4 4 6 5 8 6
then plot the graph.
Method 2 2 2 = the gradient, so plot and work out the other points according to the gradient. 3 1
()
2 3
()
Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 1) and which has the gradient 3 2 r = + t 1 1
() ()
1 2
Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 5) and (9, 2) 3 9 3 3 6 r = + t = + t 7 5 2 5 5
() (
) () ( )
Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point A (4, 1, 3) and parallel to the vector 2i + 3j 2k r = a + tp r = (4i j + 3k) + t (2i + 3j 2k)
Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point with position vector 3i + 2j and parallel to the vector 2i j r = (3i + 2j) + t (2i j)
Find the vector equation for the line parallel to the vector 3i + 4j k and which passes through the point with position vector 5i 2j + 7k a = 5i 2j + 7k x y z 5 2 7
r =
() () ()
3 5 = 2 + t 4 7 1
()
b = 3i + 4j k
()
3 4 1
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69 C4 Vectors 7
Find the vector equation for the straight line which passes through the points A, B and C, given 3 1 2 that the position vectors of A, B and C, are , and respectively. 7 9 1
( )() ()
Solution:
C B A
(2 ) ( 3) 7 9
O (origin)
To obtain the equation we need a direction vector parallel to the line, say BC (or it could be AB, BA etc.) and a position vector, say A (could be B or C).
( 1) 1
Position vector Direction vector
a =
( )
1 1

BC = BO + OC
BC =
() () ()
3 2 1 + = 7 9 2
r = OA + BC r =
( ) ()
1 1 + 1 2

Observe that the equation of the line can be calculated in several different ways such as: r = OB + BC or r = OC + BA or r = OA + AB etc. Although this would give different equations all would be valid, and give the position of any point on the line for a suitable value of .
69.14 To Show a Point Lies on a Line

69.14.1 Example: 1
Show that the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L, with vector equation r = 4i j + (i j)
Solution:
If on the line, the point must satisfy the equation of the line. i + 2j = 4i j + (i j) i + 2j = 4i j + i j Matching term coefficients: i term 1 = 4 + = 3 j term 2 = 1 = 3 As = 3 in both cases, the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L. If had not matched, then the point would not have been on the line. For a 3-D example coefficients of ALL three unit vectors must be equal for the point to be on the line.
509
69.15 Intersection of Two Lines

Two lines intersect if the position vector of both lines satisfy both equations. Two lines such as r1 = p + sq intersect when r1 = r2 i.e. p + sq = a + tp Note that in a 2-D world, individual lines either intersect or are parallel. In a 3-D world, individual lines may also intersect or be parallel, but they may not do either, (think of a railway line crossing over a road via a bridge). In this case they are called skew. & r2 = a + tp
69.15.1 Example: 1
Find the co-ordinate where these two lines meet: 3 1 1 1 r1 = + t and r2 = + s 2 1 2 4
() ()
( ) ()
x coefficients y coefficients
1 + t = 3 + s 2 + t = 2 + 4s 1 = 5 3s s = 2 t = 4
Intersection r2 = Co-ordinate is (5, 6)
( ) () ()
3 5 1 + 2 = 2 4 6
2
8
(5, 8)
6 4
Find the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from (5, 8) to the line 4x + y = 6 (using the vector method). Gradient of line is 4. Gradient of perpendicular is 1 4 5 4 Equation of perpendicular line is: r = + t 8 1 4x + y = 6
() ()
x component is: x = 5 + 4t
5
-5
0 -2
y component is: y = 8 + t
Substitute components into: 4x + y = 6 4 (5 + 4t) + (8 + t) = 6 r = 17t 12 = 6 1 ( 13, 9 17) 17 t = 18 17
( ) ()
18 4 5 + 8 17 1
Co-ordinates =
Write down in parametric form the co-ordinates of any point on the line through (5, 4) in the 3 direction of . Use these equations to find where this line meets x + y = 8 5 3 5 r = + t 5 4
() () ()
x = 5 + 3t
y = 4 + 5t 1 8
Substitute into : x + y = 8 5 + 3t + 4 + 5t = 8 r = 1 3 5 4 8 5 8t = 1 5 4
3 8 5 8

5 48 3 38
t =
() () () () ()
5 3 Co-ordinates = 4 , 3 8 8
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69.16 Angle Between Two Lines

In the previous examples on angles we took the simple case of finding the angle between vectors. This time we need the angle between two lines, expressed with a vector equation. In this case we need to consider the two direction vectors of the lines. Recall the dot product of two lines is defined by:
cos =
p q |p||q|
Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the lines. Where p is the direction vector of the line r = a + sp etc.
69.16.1 Example: 1
Find the angle between r1 = (4, 1, 2) + s (2, 2, 5) and r2 = (3, 5, 6) + t (1, 2, 1).
Solution:
2 4 r1 = 1 + s 2 5 2
Direction vectors are used to find the angle: p q = 2 1 2 2 = 2 4 + 5 = 3 5 1 4 + 4 + 25 = 1 + 4 + 1 = 33 = 574 6 = 245
() () ()()
3 1 r2 = 5 + s 2 1 6
() ()
|p|
|q|
= =
22 + 22 + (5)2 =
12 + (2)2 + (1)2 = = 3 22 = 1407
| p|| q|
cos =
p q 3 = = 0213 | p|| q| 3 22
= 1023 Recall that if lines are perpendicular, = 90, hence cos = 0 and therefore p q = 0 Similarly, if lines are parallel, = 0, hence cos = 1 and therefore p q = | p | | q |
69.17 Co-ordinates of a Point on a Line

If we have an equation of a line, say, r = (4, 1, 2) + s (2, 3, 5) then the co-ordinates of any point on a line are given by adding the parts of the equation together: 2 4 r = 1 + s 3 2 5
() ()
Cco-ordinates of a point Q: =
( )
4 + 2s 1 + 3s 2 5s
Note that when s = 0 then point Q coincides with the start point (4, 1, 2).
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69.18 3D Vectors
Note the convention that z is up.
z
k
y
j i
5 4 means 5 in the x-direction, 4 in the y-direction, and 3 in the z-direction and 3 can also be written as 5i + 4j + 3k.
()
x
N The equation of a 3-D line still works the same way as a 2-D line. N Now have the concept of planes. The horizontal plane is defined by the x-y axes and z will be zero. Vertical planes are defined by the z-y axes (x = 0), and the z-x axes (y = 0). N Lines in 3-D can be parallel, but non parallel lines do not necessarily intersect. (Think of railway lines crossing a road). Lines which are not parallel & do not meet are called skew N In 2-D, a vector direction can be thought of in terms of gradient. This does not follow in 3-D.
69.18.1 Example: 1
The co-ordinates of A = ( 6, 3, 4) & B = ( 4, 9, 5) . The line AB meets the xy plane at C. Find the co-ordinates of C.
Solution:
4 6 The translation vector = AB = b a = 9 3 5 4 This becomes the direction vector of a straight line such that: r =
() ( ) ()
2 6 1 t = 4
This cuts the plane where z = 0 2 6 r = 3 + (4) 6 1 4
( ) () ( ) () ( ) ( ) ( )
2 6 + t 6 3 1 4 4 + t = 0
6 8 14 = 3 + 24 = 21 (14, 21, 0) 0 4 4
The co-ordinates of C = (14, 21, 0)
Find the point of intersection of these two lines: r1 =

Solution:
() ()
6 9 3 2 + t 3 1
&
1 1 r2 = 3 + s 4 5 1
() ()
s = 7 2t 12 3t = 4s 12 3t = 28 8t t = 8, s = 9
a) Equate x components: 6 + 2t = 1 s b) Equate y components: 9 3t = 3 + 4s Substitute for s 5t = 40 Compare co-ords: first line In second line
12 3t = 4 (7 2t) (10, 33, 5) (10, 33, 44)
Lines do not meet, they are skew.
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69 C4 Vectors 3
Find the value of u for which the lines r = (j k) + s (i + 2j + k) and r = (i + 7j 4k) + t (i + uk) intersect.
Solution:
(1)
r1 =
() ()
0 1 1 + s 2 1 1
&
(2)
r2 =
() ()
1 1 7 + t 0 u 4 u = 3
x component: 0 + s = 1 + t y component: 1 + 2s = 7 3 = 1 + t 1 + s = 4 + tu (1) r1 = s = 3 t = 2 2u = 3 + s
(2)
2 1 3 1 1 r2 = 7 + 2 0 7 + 0 7 u 4 4 6 2
( ) () ( ) () () ( ) () ( ) () ()
3 0 0 3 1 + 3 2 1 + 6 7 1 1 1 1 3 2
G
The points A, B, & C have position vectors a = 7i + 4j 2k, b = 5i + 3j 3k and c = 6i + 5j 4k a) Find angle BAC b) Find the area of the triangle ABC (6, 5, 4) C Arrange tail to tail contact for measuring angles A (7, 4, 2)
(5, 3, 3) B Solution:
(a) Recall:
AC =
()() ()
6 7 1 5 4 = 1 2 2 4 6 6 cos 1 2 = cos1
AB =
()() ()
5 7 2 3 4 = 1 2 1 3
p q = | p | | q | cos
()()
cos = (b) = Area = 1 6 2
2 1 1 1 = 2 1
2 1 + 2 = 6 cos
( 1 ) = 60 2
3 3 2
1 ab sin c 2 6 sin 60 = 3 sin 60 =
513

The points A, B, & C have position vectors a =
()
2 1 ; 2
b =
()
Q
3 2 ; 5
c =
()
4 5 2
The point D is such that ABCD forms a parallelogram. a) Find the position vector of D b) Find the position vector of the point of intersection, Q, of the diagonals of the parallelogram c) Find angle BAC (4, 5, 2) C D
Q
G
(3, 2, 5) B Solution:
A (2, 1, 2)
(a)
OD = OA + AD BC =
()() ()
3 7 4 5 2 = 3 7 5 2

and
BC = AD
OD = OA + BC
Hence: (b)

D = AQ =
()
9 4 5
7 9 2 OD = 1 + 3 = 4 7 2 5
() ( ) ( )
1 2 2
AC =
(c)
( ) () ( ) ( ) () ( ) () ()()
4 2 2 5 1 = 4 4 2 2 AQ =
1 AC 2
3 2 1 OQ = OA + AQ = 1 + 2 = 3 2 2 0 5 1 2 = 1 2 3 35 9 cos
5 + 2 6 = cos =
35 3 cos
9 3 = 3 35 35
= 120
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Two vectors are perpendicular to each other. r1 =
() ()
4 1 1 + s 4 1 5
r2 =
( ) ()
3 3 1 + t a 6 b
a) Find the linear relationship between a & b.
As the vectors are perpendicular then the dot product of the vector must be zero, viz: p q = | p | | q | cos If = 90 cos = 0 p q = 0 In this case we only consider the directional vector part so:
()()
1 4 5 3 a b
= 0 3 + 4a + 5b = 0
(1 3) + (4 a) + (5 b) = 0 4a + 5b = 3
b) If the lines also intersect, then find the values s & t as well as a & b.
Rewriting the vectors: 4 + s r1 = 1 + 4s 1 + 5s
Since they intersect then:
( ) ( ) ( )( )
r2 = 3 + 3t 1 + at 6 + bt 4 + s 3 + 3t 1 + 4s = 1 + at 6 + bt 1 + 5s Equate x components: 4 + s = 3 + 3t Equate y components: 1 + 4s = 1 + at Equate z components: 1 + 5s = 6 + bt 7 + s = 3t a = 4 s t 7 + 5s b = t (1) (2) (3) (4) And from above we have: Substituting (2) & (3) into (4) 4 4 4a + 5b = 3 16s 35 + 25s + = 3 t t 42s = 42 s = 1
4 unknowns require 4 equations to solve the problem.
( st ) + 5 ( 7 +t 5s ) = 3
41s + 35 = 3t From (1) 41s + 35 = (7 + s) t = 2, a = 2, b = 1

c) Find the co-ordinates of the intersection.
Substitute the values for the variables into the vectors and compare LHS & RHS:
( )( )
4 + s 3 + 3t 1 + 4s = 1 + at 6 + bt 1 + 5s
Intersect at these co-ordinates:
()()
3 3 3 = 3 4 4
515

A line, N, has a vector equation
0 2 r = 4 + t 3 5 6
r (0, 4, 5) A F G N
() ()
The point B has the co-ordinates (5, 10, 10). The point A, co-ordinates (0, 4, 5) lies on the line N. a) Find the angle between AB and the line N.
x B b) Find the distance from the foot of the perpendicular, F, on line N, to the point B. (5, 10, 10) Solution:
(a)
5 0 5 0 5 AB = 10 4 = 10 ( 4) = 6 5 10 10 (5) 15
()()(
()()
4 + 9 + 36 =
)()
286 7 cos = 1459 x = 286 sin 341 = 949
5 2 p q = 6 3 6 15
[ direction vector of r ] AB
286
= (5 2) + ( 6 3) + (15 6) = 10 18 90 = 98
|p| |q|
(b)
= =
25 + 36 + 225 =
49 = 7 98 = x 286
p q = | p | | q | cos cos =
98 = 08278 286 7
sin (180 1459) = sin 341 =
Two lines have equations of r = 2i + j + (i + 3j) and r = 6i j + (i 4j). Find the position vector of the point of intersection.
Solution:
If the required point has position vector p, then this must satisfy the vector equation of both lines. p = 2i + j + (i + 3j) p = 6i j + (i 4j) 2i + j + (i + 3j) = 6i j + (i 4j) 2 + = 6 + 1 + 3 = 1 4 = 4 3 + 4 = 2 (1) (2)
Equating coefficients of terms: i term: j term:
Solving (1) & (2) gives: = 2, = 2 Substitute = 2 or = 2 into the appropriate equation: p = 2i + j + (i + 3j) = 2i + j + 2 (i + 3j) = 4i + 7j
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A vector passes through two points A & B with the following co-ordinates: A =
() ()
11 0 1 B = 9 4 5
(9, 4, 5) B N
r
O Solution:
Find the vector equation of the line AB and the co-ordinates of point N if the vector ON is perpendicular to the vector AB. Hence, find the length of ON , and the area of the triangle ABO.
A (11, 0, 1)
AB = AO + OB =
Equation of the line AB is: r =
()()() () ( )
9 20 11 0 + 4 = 4 5 6 1 20 11 + s 4 0 6 1
The vector ON , and the co-ordinates of N, are both given by the equation of the line r, and all that is required is to find the appropriate value of s. Let t be the value of s at point N. As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of both vectors we have:
AB ON = 0
()( )
11 20t 20 4t = 20 (11 20t) + 4 (4t) + 6 (1 + 6t) = 0 4 6 1 + 6t 220 + 400t + 16t 6 + 36t = 0 t = 226 1 = 452 2
Co-ordinates of point N:
( ) ()
11 10 1 = 2 2 1 + 3 2 12 + 22 + 22 = 9 = 3 400 + 16 + 36 = 2126 (20)2 + 42 + 62 =
Length of ON is: Length of AB is:
|| = ON || = AB
Area of triangle ABO is:
1 3 2126 = 3189 sq units 2
517

A line L has a vector equation of
3 1 r = 2 + s 3 3 3
F
() ()
Line L
A point Q has the co-ordinates (6, 1, 22).
Find the co-ordinates of the foot, F, of the perpendicular from the line L to the point Q (6, 1, 22) and find the distance from Q to the line L.
Q
r
(1, 2, 3) A Solution:
If F represents the foot of the perpendicular from Q, then the vector OF is: OF = OA + AF

3 1 OF = 2 + 3 3 3
() () ( )
1 + 3 2 + 3 = 3 + 3

where is the value of s that defines F.
As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of both vectors we have:
AF FQ = 0 The vector QF is:

Measure angles tail to tail
FQ = OQ OF
()( ) ( ) ( )()
1 + 3 5 3 6 FQ = 1 2 + 3 = 3 3 22 3 + 3 19 3 5 3 3 3 19 3 3 3 3 81 27 = 0 = 3 The distance of QF
= 3 (5 3) + 3 (3 3) + 3 (19 3) = 0
15 9 + 9 9 + 57 9 = 0
1 + 9 10 the co-ordinates of F = 2 + 9 = 7 3 + 9 12
( ) ()
| QF | = | QF | =

and
4 5 9 FQ = 3 9 = 6 10 19 9
( )()
42 + 62 + 102 = 152
16 + 36 + 100
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A trapezium has the co-ordinates for points A, B, and D as shown. Find the angle , the equation of the line L1, and the co-ordinate of point C.
(7, 1, 6) D C (?, ?, ?) A G (4, 1, 5)
L1 u
(9, 3, 9) B
AB and DC are parallel, and the magnitudes of AD and BC are equal.

(a) Find the angle :

p q AB AD cos = = | p | | q | | AB | | AD | 9 4 5 AB = 3 1 = 2 9 5 4
5 AB AD = 2 4
()() () ()()
3 2 1 25 + 4 + 16 = 9 + 4 + 1 = 15 45 14
&
AD =
() () ()
7 4 1 1 = 6 5 3 2 1
= (5 3) + ( 2 2) + (4 1) = 15 4 + 4 = 15
|| = AB || = AD
45 14
cos =
(b) The equation of L1:
L1 =
() ()
7 5 1 + 2 6 4 =
The co-ordinate of point C =
() ()
7 5 1 + s 2 6 4 (1)
where s is the scalar that satisfies the point C. (c) The co-ordinate of point C. There are several ways to tackle this, but one of the easiest ways is to compare the magnitudes of the parallel lines in the trapezium: From the equation L1
DC =
() () () ()
7 5 + s 2 1 6 4 7 1 6 5 = s 2 4 | Au | = | AD | cos 15 15 = 45 14 45

|| DC
25s2 + 4s2 + 16s2 = s 45
From the diagram cos =
| | = | | 2| | DC AB Au
|| Au | AD |
14
adjacent = hypotenuse
| Au | = | AD | cos = | DC | = | AB | 2 | Au | From (1) & (2) s 45 =

15 45 s =
45 2
15 15 = 45 45
(2)
The co-ordinate of point C =
() () ( ) ()
7 1 5 1 + 2 = 3 6 4 7 + 1 6 +
5 3 2 3 4 3
15 15 1 = = 45 45 45 3 =
82 3
1 3 71 3
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69.19 Topical Tips

When doing vector problems, it pays to draw a sketch. For 3-D work, just plot the x & y axes and let the z axis hang in space. Although this might not work out in every case, it does give a very good sense of how the vectors are laid out. In plotting a line for a given vector equation, say: 3 1 r = 2 + s 3 3 3 just plot the starting point A (1, 2, 3) and give the scalar s an easy value like 1 and plot B (4, 1, 6).
() ()
r
B (4, 1, 6) O (1, 2, 3) A
69.20 Vector Digest
AB = (B co-ords) (A co-ords)
AB =
()()
Bx By Bz Ax Ay Az
= translation vector slope
| OQ |

|( )|
a b c Sx Sy Sz
a2 + b2 + c2
Equation of a line = r = Start point co-ords + (scalar Direction vector) r =
() ()
dx + dy dz
Scalar Product (n.b. the answer is a scalar) p q = | p | | q | cos cos = a b = p q
() () ( )
p q < 0 = 90, = 0,
| p|| q|
ax bx axbx = = (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby ay by ayby
When 90 < < 180 When lines are perpendicular When lines are parallel
cos 90 = 0 cos 0 = 1
p q = 0 p q = | p|| q|
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70 Apdx Catalogue of Graphs

Function
y = kx2 k > 0
Properties
Quadratic Function: y is proportional to the square of x. As x doubles, y increases 4 fold. Function is even Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 0 Intercept (0, 0) Line symmetry about the y-axis. Decreasing x < 0 Increasing x > 0 Cubic Function: y is proportional to the cube of x. As x doubles, y increases 8 fold. Function is odd Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (0, 0) Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. Increasing function
Illustration
y
y = x2
y = kx3 k > 0
y = x3
y=x2
y = kxeven k > 0
Even Power Function:
y
Function is even Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 0 Intercept (0, 0) Passes points (1, 1) and (1, 1) Line symmetry about the y-axis. Decreasing function x < 0 Increasing function x > 0
y = xeven
y=x2
521
Function
y = kx k > 0
odd
Properties
Odd Power Function: Function is odd Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (0, 0) Passes points (1, 1) and (1, 1) Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. Increasing function
Illustration
y
y = xodd y=x2
x
y = kxn + xn 1 + xn 2 + + c n = even k > 0
Even Order Polynomial Function:
Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) min vertex Intercepts yes No of turning points: n 1

-1 1 2 3 4
y = kxn + xn 1 + xn 2 + + c n = odd k > 0
Odd Order Polynomial Function:
Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 4 Intercepts yes No of turning points: n 1
-2
-1
y =
k = kx1 x
Reciprocal Function: y is inversely proportional to x. As x doubles, y decreases 2 fold. Function is odd Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) 4, f (x) 0 No intercepts Asymptotes are x-axis and y-axis Decreasing function Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
y
40 30 20 10
(k > 0)
y = x 1
-3
-2
-1 -10 -20 -30 -40
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Function
y = k = kx2 2 x
Properties
Inverse Square Function: y is inversely proportional to the square of x. As x doubles, y decreases 4 fold Function is even Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) > 0 No intercepts Asymptotes are x-axis and y-axis Symmetric about the y-axis.
Illustration
y
40 30 20 10
(k > 0
y = x 2
-3
-2
-1 -10 -20 -30
y =
k xodd
= kxodd
(k > 0)
Inverse Odd Power Function: Generic shape for this type of graph. Function is odd Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) 4, f (x) 0 No intercepts Asymptotes: x-axis and y-axis Decreasing function Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
y = x odd
x
-3
-2
-1
y =
k xeven
(k > 0)
= kxeven Inverse Even Power Function: Generic shape for this type of graph. Function is even Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) > 0 No intercepts Increasing function for x < 0 Decreasing function from x > 0
1
y = x even
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
y = k x = kx 2 (k > 0)
Square Root Function: y is inversely proportional to the square root of x. As x increases 4 fold, y increases 2 fold. Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) 0 Intercept (0, 0) Increasing function from x 0
1
y = x
y = k x = k (x)2 Square Root (ve x) Function: Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) 0 Intercept (0, 0) Decreasing function
y=
(x)
523
Function
y =
1 k = kx 2 x
Properties
Inverse Square Root Function: y is inversely proportional to the square root of x. As x increases 4 fold, y decreases 2 fold. Domain: x 4, x > 0 Range: f (x) > 0 No Intercepts Asymptotes: x-axis and y-axis Exponential Function: y is proportional to a number raised to the power x. As x increases, y increases exponentially. Domain: x 4, Range: f (x) > 0 Intercept (0, 1) Asymptote: x-axis Increasing function for +ve x
Illustration
y
(k > 0)
y = x
y = kex (k > 0)
y = ex
(0, 1) x y
y =
k = kex x e
Decaying Exponential Function: y is inversely proportional to a number raised to the power x. As x increases, y decreases exponentially. Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) > 0 Intercept (0, 1) Horizontal asymptote: x-axis Decreasing function for +ve x Log (ln) Function: Domain: x 4, x > 0 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (1, 0) Asymptote: y-axis Increasing function for +ve x Reflection of f (x) = ex in the line y = x, hence inverse of ex
(k > 0)
(0, 1)
y = ex
x
y = k ln (x) y = k logb (x) k > 0
y = ln(x)
1
(1, 0)
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Function
y = k ln (x) y = k logb (x) k > 0
Properties
Log Function (x): Domain: x 4, x < 0 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (1, 0) Vertical asymptote: y-axis Decreasing function
Illustration
y
y = ln(x)
(1, 0)
y = sin x
Sine Function: Odd function Domain: x 4 Range: 1 f (x) 1 Periodic function, period 2 sin ( + 2) = sin sin () = sin x-intercept (n, 0) y-intercept (0, 0) Rotational symmetry, order 2, about the origin and also at every point it crosses the x-axis. Line symmetry about every vertical line passing through each vertex. Cosine Function: Even function Domain: x 4 Range: 1 f (x) 1 Periodic function, period 2 cos ( + 2) = cos cos () = cos x-intercept + n, 0 2 y-intercept (0, 1) Rotational symmetry, order 2, about the origin and also at every point it crosses the x-axis. Line symmetry about every vertical line passing through each vertex.
y
1
y = sin x
90
180
270
360
p/2
3p/2
2p
-1
y = cos x
y
1
y = cos x
90
180
270
360
p/2
3p/2
2p
-1
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Function
y = tan x
Properties
Tangent Function: Odd function Domain: x 4, x Range: f (x) 4 Periodic function, period x-intercept (n, 0) y-intercept (0, 0) Vertical asymptotes: x = + n 2 Rotational symmetry, order 2, about the 3 origin and also about , , , 2 2 + n 2
y
Illustration
y = tan x
-90 -1
45
90
180
270
360
p/2
3p/2
2p
y = cosec x
Cosecant Function: Odd function Domain: x 4, x n Range: 1 f (x) 1 | cosec x | 1 Periodic function, period 2 No x or y intercepts Vertical asymptotes: x = n where sin x crosses the x-axis at any multiple of (sin x = 0) Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. Line symmetry about every vertical line passing through each vertex. Secant Function: Even function Domain: x 4, x + n 2 Range: 1 f (x) 1 | sec x | 1 Periodic function, period 2 y-intercept: (0, 1) Vertical asymptotes: x = + n 2 where cos x crosses the x-axis at odd multiples of (cos x = 0) Line symmetry about the y-axis and every vertical line passing through each vertex.
y y = cosec x y= 1 sin x
1
90
90
180
270
360
-p/2
-1
p/2
3p/2
2p
y = sec x
y y = sec x
y= 1 cos x
90
90
180
270
360
-p/2
-1
p/2
3p/2
2p
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Function
y = cot x
Properties
Cotangent Function: Odd function Domain: x 4, x n Range: f (x) 4 Periodic function, period x-intercepts: + n, 0 where tan x 2 has asymptotes Vertical asymptotes: x = n where tan x crosses the x-axis at any multiple of (tan x = 0) Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
1
Illustration
y = cot x
-90 1
45
90
180
270
360
p/2
3p/2
2p
y = sin1 x
Inverse Sine Function: Odd function Restricted Domain: 1 x 1 Range: sin1 2 2 Intercept: (0, 0)
1
y
p/2
y = sin1 x
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. Increasing function
-p/2
y = cos 1 x
Inverse Cosine Function: Restricted Domain: 1 x 1 Range: 0 cos1 y-intercept 0,
y
p
( ) 2
p/2
y = cos1 x
Decreasing function
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Function
y = tan
1
Properties
Inverse Tangent Function: Odd function Domain: x 4 Range: tan1 2 2 Intercept (0, 0) 2 Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. Increasing function Horizontal asymptotes: y =
Illustration
y
p/2
y = tan1 x
-p/2
y2 = x y = x + y = x
Square Root Relation: Domain: x 4, x 0 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (0, 0) Passes points (4, 2), (0, 0), (4, 2) plus others. Not a true function
y2 = x
y =
Cube Root Function: Odd function Domain: x 4 Range: f (x) 4 Intercept (0, 0) Passes points (1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1) Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2. No domain contraints on odd numbered roots, as can take 5th, 7th, etc roots of a negative number.
y=3x
x
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71 Apdx Facts, Figures & Formul

71.1 Quadratics
71.1.1 Completing the Square
Standard solution:
x2 + bx + c = x + x2
( ) () b b bx + c = (x ) ( ) 2 2
b 2
2
b 2
+ c + c
For a quadratic of the form a (x + k)2 + q y = a (x + k)2 + q Co-ordinates of vertex (k, q) Axis of symmetry x = k If a > 0, If a < 0, graph is shaped, vertex is a minimum point graph is shaped, vertex is a maximum point b ; 2a b2 + c 4a
For a quadratic of the form ax2 + bx + c Turning point is when x = y =
b c ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x + a a b = a x + 2a ax2 + bx + c = a x +
) ( )
2
b 2a
c a
b 2a
b2 + c 4a
71.1.2 Quadratic Formula

The roots of a quadratic are given by: x = b b2 4ac 2a
The expression b2 4ac is known as the discriminant. If Discriminant > 0 Discriminant = 0 Then Graph intersects the x-axis twice Graph intersects the x-axis once Roots or solutions 2 distinct real solutions 1 real solution b 2a No real solutions = Notes If the discriminant is a perfect square, the solution is rational and can be factorised. Sometimes called repeated or coincident roots. The quadratic is a perfect square.
Discriminant < 0
Graph does not intersect the x-axis
Only complex roots, which involve imaginary numbers ( 1).
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71.2 Series
71.2.1 Sigma Notation
The sigma notation can be handled according to these rules:
r=1
(a
r
+ br) =
n
r=1
a + b
r r=1
r=1
r=k+1
ar =
r=1 n
a
r=1
r < k < n
r=1
kar = k
n
c
1
= nc = n
where c is a constant
1
1
71.2.2 Standard Sigma Results

Certain standard sums exist such as:
r=1 n
r
2
= =
1 n (n + 1) 2 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1) 6
2
r=1
r
n
n 1 1 r = n2 (n + 1)2 = n (n + 1) = r 4 2 r = 1 r=1
3
These standard results can be used to derive more complicated series.
71.2.3 Arithmetic Progression

U n = a + (n 1) d a + Sn = n 2 where l = a + (n 1) d Sum to Infinity of a Arithmetic Progression Sn = n [ 2a + (n 1) d] 2 l or Sn = n [a + l] 2
U n = a + U n 1d U n + 1 = a + U nd
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71 Apdx Facts, Figures & Formul 71.2.4 Geometric Progression

U n = ar(n 1) U n = U 0 rn Sum of a Geometric Progression Sn = Sn = Sum to Infinity of a Geometric Progression S = a (1 r) a (1 rn) (1 r) a (rn 1) (r 1) r > 1
|r|
< 1
71.2.5 Binomial Expansion (Positive integers)

The Binomial theorem, where n is a positive integer:
(a + b)n = an +
n n1 n (n 1) n 2 2 n (n 1) (n 2) n 3 3 n a b + a b + a b + + b 1! 2! 3! (n N)
(a + b)n = an + nC1 an 1b + nC2 an 2b + nC3 an 3b + + nCr an rb + + nCn 1 ab (a + b)n = an +
n1
()
n
n n n1 n n3 3 n n2 2 n nr r n1 n a b + a b + a b + + a b + + ab + b 3 r n 1 1 2
()
()
()
( )
+ b
(a + b) =
Where:
r=0
(
n
n nr r a b r
or
r=0
Cr an rb
Cr =
()
n! n = r r! (n r)!
n n
C2 =
()
Cr = nCn r
n
n (n 1) n = 2 2 1
k1
C3 =
()
n (n 1) (n 2) n = 3 3 2 1
The k-th term:
= nCk 1 an k + 1b
For the term in br
or
( )
()
n k1 an k + 1b k 1 n nr r a b r
= nCr an rb
or
Note: the combination format will only work if n is a positive integer. For n < 1 then the full version of the Binomial theorem is required. Where n is a positive integer, the expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, and is valid for all values of x. The use of the nCr form of combination symbol, is simply that this is the symbology used on calculators.
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My A Level Maths Notes 71.2.6 Binomial Expansion (Rational or negative Index)

n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4 x + x + x + 2! 3! 4! n (n 1) (n r + 1) r + x ( | x | < 1, n R ) r! Just watch the minus signs!!! Thus: n (n 1) n (n 1) (n 2) n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) (1 x)n = 1 + n (x) + (x)2 + (x)3 + (x)4 2! 3! 4! (1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
( ) b n (n 1) b = a 1 + n x + ( a x) + n (n 1) (n 2) ( b x) a 2! 3! a b a Valid for | x | < 1 or | x | < a b

bx bx n (a + bx)n = a 1 + = a 1 + a a
2 n n n
4 n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b x 4! a
( )
N For the general Binomial Theorem any rational value of n can be used (i.e. fractional or negative values, and not just positive integers). N For these expansions, the binomial must start with a 1 in the brackets. For binomials of the form (a + bx)n, the a term must be factored out. n b Therefore, the binomial (a + bx)n must be changed to an 1 + x . a N When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero. N When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms. and the coefficients are never zero.
N In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n. N The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i.e. 1 < x < 1). This is the condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition. b b N For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or a a a |x| < b N The range must always be stated. N When the series is convergent it will make a good approximation of (1 + x)n depending on the number of terms used, and the size of x. Small is better.
| |
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 + (1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + (1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 + (1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + All valid for | x | < 1 Note that when the sign inside the bracket is different from the index, the signs in the expansion alternate, and when they are the same the signs in the expansion are all positive.
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71 Apdx Facts, Figures & Formul
71.3 Area Under a Curve

71.3.1 Trapezium Rule
For a function f (x) the approximate area is given by: b xn h f (x) dx = f (x) dx [ (y0 + yn) + 2 (y1 + y2 + + yn 1)] 2 a x0
b a and n = number of strips n The value of the function for each ordinate is given by: yi = f (xi) = f (a + ih) where h = and where i is the ordinate number. In simpler terms: width A [ (First + last) + 2 the sum of the middle y values] 2
71.3.2 Mid-ordinate Rule

For a function f (x) the approximate area is given by:
b a
f (x) dx = where
xn x0
f (x) dx h [ y1/2 + y3/2 + + yn 3/2 + yn 1/2] h = b a n and n = number of strips
71.3.3 Simpsons Rule

For a function f (x) the approximate area is given by: b xn h f (x) dx = f (x) dx [ (y0 + yn) + 4 (y1 + y3 + + yn 1) + 2 (y2 + y4 + + yn 2)] 3 a x0
where In simpler terms:

b a
h =
b a n
and
n = an EVEN number of strips
f (x) dx
h [ (first + last ordinate) + 4 (sum of odd ordinates) + 2 (sum of even ordinates)] 3
71.4 Parametric Equations

Circle centre (0, 0) radius r: x = rcos Circle centre (a, b) radius r: x = a + rcos y = b + rsin y = rsin
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71.5 Vectors
Vector Equation: r = a + p r = OA + AB r = a + (b a) r = (1 ) a + b Dot Product: p q = | p | | q | cos cos = p q | p|| q| a b c = a2 + b2 + c2

Through A with direction p Through points A & B
| OQ |

bx axbx ax a b = ay by = ayby = (ax bx) + (ay by) + (az bz) = axbx + ayby + azbz az bz azbz
() () ( )
|( )|
If = 90 p q = 0
cos = 0
if 2 vectors are perpendicular.
The inclusion of cos in the equation brings some useful results: N N N N N N If p and q are parallel then = 0, cos = 1 and p q = | p | | q | If p and q are perpendicular then = 90, cos = 0 and p q = 0 If the angle is acute then cos > 0 and p q > 0 If the angle is between 90 & 180 then cos < 0 and p q < 0 If p q = 0, then either | p | = 0, | q | = 0 or p and q are perpendicular Recall that cos = cos (180 ) (2nd quadrant)
Note also that: i j = 0 i i = 1 i k = 0 j j = 1 j k = 0 k k = 1 (unit vectors perpendicular) (unit vectors parallel) (commutative law) (distributive over vector addition) (k is a scalar)
p q = q p s (p + q) = s p + s q p (kq) = (kp) q = k (p q)
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72 Apdx Trig Rules & Identities

72.1 Basic Trig Rules
Degrees Radians sin cos tan sin2 cos2 tan2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 30
6 1 2 3 2 1 3 1 4 3 4 1 3
45
4 1 2 1 2
60
3 3 2 1 2
90
2
180 0 1 0
270
3 2
360 2 0 1 0
1 0 AT 1 0 ND
1 0 AT
1
1 2 1 2
3
3 4 1 4
Where AT means function approaches an asymtote and ND means not defined. 360 = 2 radians Examples: cos x = sin x = 1 2 180 573 1 tan 30 = 3 1 radian =
Recall:
SOHCAHTOA sin = cos = tan = opposite hypotenuse adjacent hypotenuse opposite adjacent
tan x = cosec x = 1 sin x
sin x cos x 1 sec x = cos x
cot x =
1 tan x
sin = cos cos = sin where
tan = cot cot = tan
sec = cosec cosec = sec
+ = 90
= 90 cos () = sin (90 ) cosec () = cosec sec () = sec cot () = cot
sin () = cos (90 ) sin () = sin cos () = cos tan () = tan
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Second quadrant
sin = sin (180 ) cos = cos (180 ) tan = tan (180 )

Third quadrant
cosec = cosec (180 ) sec = sec (180 ) cot = cot (180 ) cosec = cosec ( 180) sec = sec ( 180) cot = cot ( 180) cosec = cosec (360 ) sec = sec (360 ) cot = cot (360 )
sin = sin ( 180) cos = cos ( 180) tan = tan ( 180)

Fourth quadrant
sin = sin (360 ) cos = cos (360 ) tan = tan (360 )
72.2 General Trig Solutions

N Cosine N N N N N Sine N N N N N Tan N N N N The principal value of tan = k is as per your calculator where = tan1k A second solution is found at = 180 + tan1k ( = + tan1k) Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2) k valid for k 4 The principal value of sin = k is as per your calculator where = sin1k A second solution is found at = 180 sin1k ( = sin1k) Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2) k valid only for 1 k 1 The principal value of cos = k is as per your calculator where = cos 1k A second solution is found at = 360 cos 1k ( = 2 cos 1k) Thereafter, add or subtract multiples of 360 (or 2) k valid only for 1 k 1
72.3 Sine & Cosine Rules

Sine rule: a b c = = sin A sin B sin B a2 = b + c2 2bc cos A cos A = b2 + c2 a2 2bc 1 1 ab sin C = bh (Half base vert height) 2 2
2
Cosine rule:
Area of a triangle:
A =
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72.4 Trig Identities

72.4.1 Trig Identities
( 1 ) 2 1 cos sin ( ) 2
sin cos tan sin cos
sin x = cos (90 x) cos x = sin (90 x)
72.4.2 Pythagorean Identities

cos2 + sin2 1 1 + cot 2 cosec2 1 + tan2 sec2 (1) ( Division of (1) by sin2 ) (Division of (1) by cos2 )
72.4.3 Compound Angle (Addition) Identities

sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B cos (A B) cos A cos B tan (A B) sin A sin B tan A tan B 1 tan A tan B
72.4.4 Double Angle Identities

sin 2A 2 sin A cos A cos 2A cos2A sin2A 2 cos2A 1 1 2sin2A tan 2A 2tan A 1 tan2A (sin2 = 1 cos2 ) (cos2 = 1 sin2 )
72.4.5 Triple Angle Identities

sin 3A 3sin A 4sin3A cos 3A 4cos3A 3cos A tan 3A 3tan A tan3A 1 3tan2A
72.4.6 Half Angle Identities

cos2 A 1 (1 + cos A) 2 2 A 1 sin2 (1 + cos A) 2 2
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My A Level Maths Notes 72.4.7 Factor formul:

Sum to Product rules:
Or
( A + B) cos ( A B) 2 2 A+ B A B sin A sin B = 2 cos ( sin ( 2 ) 2 ) A+ B cos A + cos B = 2 cos ( ) cos ( A B) 2 2 A+ B cos A cos B = 2 sin ( ) sin ( A B) 2 2 A+ B B A cos A cos B = 2 sin ( sin ( 2 ) 2 )
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
Note the gotcha in the signs
Alternative format:
sin (A + B) + sin (A B) = 2sin A cos B sin (A + B) sin (A B) = 2cos A sin B cos (A + B) + cos (A B) = 2cos A cos B cos (A + B) cos (A B) = 2sin A sin B
Product to Sum rules:
2sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A B) 2cos A sin B = sin (A + B) sin (A B) 2cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A B) 2sin A sin B = cos (A + B) cos (A B)
72.4.8 Small t Identities

If t = tan sin cos 2t 1 + t2
1 t2 1 + t2 2t tan 1 t2
72.4.9 Small Angle Approximations

sin tan cos 1 in radians!!!!!!! 2 2
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72.5 Harmonic (Wave) Form:
a cos x + b sin x
a sin x b cos x R sin (x ) a cos x b sin x R cos (x ) (watch signs)
R =
a2 + b2
R cos = a b a
R sin = b 0 < a < sin = 2 b a2 + b2
tan = cos = Recall
a a2 + b2
sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B cos (A B) cos A cos B sin A sin B
72.6 Formul for integrating cos A cos B, sin A cos B, & sin A sin B
2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B) 2 cos A cos B cos (A B) + cos (A + B) 2 sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A + B) 2 sin A cos A sin 2A 2 cos2 A 1 + cos 2A 2 sin2 A 1 cos 2A
72.7 For the Avoidance of Doubt

The expressions sin1 and (sin )1 are not the same. sin1 arcsin and is the inverse of sin in the same way that f 1 (x) is the inverse of f (x). (sin )1 is the reciprocal of sin i.e.
1 (sin )1 = sin
The confusion is made worse by the fact that we use: sin2 = (sin )2.
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72.8 Geometry
72.8.1 Straight Lines

Equation of straight line y = mx + c y y1 = m (x x1) m1m2 = 1 y y1 x x1 = y2 y1 x2 x1 Line thro (x1, y1) , (x2, y2) Line thro (x1, y1)
Dist between 2 points
D =
(x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2
Mid point co-ordinates of a line
M =
(x
x1 y2 y1 , 2 2
72.8.2 Equation of a Circle

x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 Circle centre = (g, f ) radius =
(g2 + f 2 c)
(x x1)2 + (y2 y1)2 = r2
72.8.3 Areas
Area of a triangle: Area of a sector: Arc length: 1 1 ab sin C = bh (Half base vert height) 2 2 1 A = r2 ( in radians) 2 A = l = r ( in radians)
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73 Apdx Logs & Exponentials

73.1 Log & Exponent Rules Summarised
Exponents Logarithms
N = bx b0 = 1 b1 = b aman = a(m + n) am = a(m n) an 1 = a(n) an

n
logb N = x logb 1 = 0 logb b = 1 loga (MN) = loga M + loga N loga
b > 0
( M ) = log M log N N
a a 1 loga N = loga N
( )
m = mn
loga n M =
1 loga M n
(am)n = a(mn) (am) n = a

1
loga Mn = n loga M loga M n = 1 loga M n loga N = loga b = logb N logb a 1 logb a

1
( m) n
Change of base
a b 1 = b a
()
ln
a b = ln b a
alogam = m alogax = x eln x = x ea ln x = xa loga (ax) = x ln ex = x a ln ex = ax
Tips: To solve problems like ax = b take logs on both sides first. Note: log x log10 x & ln x lne x
73.2 Handling Exponentials

eax + c = eax.ec If ec = A then: eax + c = A eax
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73.3 Heinous Howlers

Dont make up your own rules! N log (x + y) is not the same as log x + log y. Study the above table and youll find that theres nothing you can do to split up log (x + y) or log (x y). N log (y) is not the same as log x . When you divide two logs to the same base, you are in fact using the y log (x) change-of-base formula backwards. Note that log (y) = logy (x), NOT log x ! y
log (x)
()
()
N (log x) (log y) is not the same as log (xy). Theres really not much you can do with the product of two logs when they have the same base. Handling logs causes many problems, here are a few to avoid.
ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3 You cannot just remove all the lns so: (y + 2) (4x 5) + 3 ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: (y + 2) = 3 (4x 5) ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x You cannot just remove all the lns so:
(y + 2) 2x ln (y + 2) = ln x2
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first: (y + 2) = x2
ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x You cannot convert to exponential form term by terrm like this: To solve, raise e to the whole of the RHS : (y + 2) ex + e3x
2 + 3x 2
(y + 2) = ex
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74 Apdx Calculus Techniques

74.1 Differentiation
General differential of a function:
y =
[ f (x)]
dy = n f (x) f (x) dx
n1
Inverse Rule:
dy 1 = dx dx dy
Chain Rule:
dy dy du = dx du dx
Product Rule:
y = uv dy dv du = u + v dx dx dx
Quotient Rule:
y = f (x) g (x) dy = f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x) dx
y =
u v
y =
f (x) g (x)
v du u dv dy = dx 2 dx dx v
Trig Rules:
dy f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x) = dx {g (x)}2
dy = n sinn 1x cos x dx dy y = cosnx = n cosn 1x sin x dx dy y = tannx = n tann 1x sec2x dx y = sinnx dy = ax ln a dx
y = ax
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74.2 Integration
Standard integrals (useful for substitution or by inspection):
f (ax + b) dx f (x) [f (x)] f (x) dx f (x) e

f (x) n
1 F (ax + b) + c a 1 n+1 + c [ f (x)] n + 1
dx =
f (x)
= ln | f (x)| + c dx = ef (x) + c = sin f (x) + c = cos f (x) + c = ln | sec f (x)| + c etc
f (x) cos f (x) dx f (x) sin f (x) dx f (x) tan f (x) dx

By Parts:
u
a
b dv dx = [ uv] a dx
v
a
du dx dx
Vol of revolution:
Basic Vol of revolution: V = x-axis vol of revolution: V = y-axis vol of revolution: V =
b a
(radius)2 dx y2 dx x2 dy x-axis y-axis a & b are x limits a & b are y limits
b a b a
74.3 Differential Equations

dy = xy dx 1 dy = x y dx
y dx dx = x dx y
1 dy =
1 dy
x dx
1 2 x + c 2
1 x2 + c 1 x2
ln | y | =
eln y = e 2
y = e 2 ec y = Ae 2
1 x2
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75 Apdx Standard Calculus Results

Function f (x) a xn ex eax e
f (x)
Dif f erential 0 nxn 1 ex aeax f (x) e cos x sin x sec2x

f (x)
dy dx
= f (x)
y = f (x) a xn ex eax
Integral f (x) dx = F (x) + c ax + c xn + 1 + c n + 1 ex + c

1 eax + c a
(n 1)
(a 0)
sin x cos x tan x
sin x cos x tan x tan x
cos x + c sin x + c ln | sec x | + c ln | cos x | + c 1 cos kx + c k 1 sin kx + c k 1 sin (kx + n) + c k 1 ln | sec kx | + c k ln | sin x | + c cosec x + c sec x + c ln | tan 1 x | + c 2 ln | cosec x + cot x | + c ln | sec x + tan x | + c ln | tan
sin kx cos kx tan kx sin f (x) cos f (x) tan f (x)
k cos kx k sin kx k sec2 kx f (x) cos f (x) f (x) sin f (x) f (x) sec2 f (x)
sin kx cos kx cos (kx + n) tan kx cot x cosec x cot x sec x tan x cosec x
cot x cosec x sec x For all trig:
cosec2x cosec x cot x sec x tan x x in radians
cosec x sec x sec x sec2 kx cosec2x
(1x 2
+ 1 )| + c 4
1 tan kx + c k
cot x + c ln | x | + c x ln (x) x + c uv uv dx + c (ax + b)n + 1 + c a (n + 1) ax + c ln a (n 1) (x 0)
ln x ln f (x) uv u v
1 x f (x) f (x) uv + vu vu uv v2
1 x ln x u v (ax + b) ax
545

Function y = f (x) Dif f erential sin1 x cos 1 x tan1 x sin1 cos 1 tan 1 x (a) x (a) x (a) 1 1 x2 1 1 x2 x2 1 + 1
dy dx
= f (x)
y = f (x) f (x) f (x) 1 ax + b x2 1 a2
Integral f (x) dx ln | f (x)| + c

1 ln | ax + b | + c a
1 a2 x2 1 a2 x2 1 x2 + a2
1 a2 x2 1 a2 x2 1 x2 + a2 x2 1 + 1
| | 1 a + x ln + c 2a | a x | x sin ( ) + c a 1 x tan ( ) + c a a
1
1
1 x a ln + c 2a x + a
tan1 x + c
General differential of a function: dy y = axn = axn 1 dx y =
Standard integrals (useful for substitution or by inspection):
[ f (x)]
dy = n f (x) f (x) dx
n1
ax dx
n
a xn + 1 + c n + 1
n
dy 1 = dx dx Chain Rule: y = uv
f (x) [f (x)]
dy dy du = dx du dx dy dv du = u + v dx dx dx
dx =
1 n+1 + c [ f (x)] n + 1
dy
f (x) dx f (x) e
f (x)
f (x)
= ln | f (x)| + c dx = ef (x) + c = sin f (x) + c = cos f (x) + c = ln | sec f (x)| + c etc du dx dx
Product Rule: y = u v
f (x) cos f (x) dx f (x) sin f (x) dx f (x) tan f (x) dx

By Parts:
Quotient Rule:
v du u dv dy = dx 2 dx dx v
dy y = sin x = n sinn 1x cos x dx dy y = cosnx = n cosn 1x sin x dx dy y = tannx = n tann 1x sec2x dx

n
u
a
b dv dx = [ uv] a dx
v
a
Basic Vol of revolution: V = x-axis vol of revolution: V = a & b are x limits y-axis vol of revolution: V = a & b are y limits
b a
(radius)2 dx y2 dx x axis
b a
y = ax
dy = ax ln a dx
b a
x2 dy
y axis
546
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
76 Apdx Integration Flow Chart

Start Look for clues in question
Standard Integral?
(See formula book)
Integrate normally
If power is 1: use ln x or
(ax +
b)n =
(ax + b)n + 1 a (a + 1)
Top a constant? Can you use a neg power? Y
Product of 2 terms? (one in x)
Form of n f (x) [ f (x)] dx
Guess [ f (x)] n + 1 and try differentiating to check
Use long division to give whole number and proper fraction
Top heavy fraction?
Is it a quotient (fraction)?
Form of f (x) ef (x)dx
Guess ef (x) and try differentiating to check
Substitution required?
Guess ln f(x) and check details
Let u=part in brackets. Look for special cases such as trig expressions
Form of
f (x) dx f (x)
Parts required?
If n 0 rearrange as
f (x) [f (x)]n dx
Integration by parts as normal. Remember the special cases such ln x.
f (x) dx [f (x) n ]
Form of
Change sin2 x into
Let u=part in brackets usually on the bottom. (Denominator cannot be factorised).
Substitution required?
Is it a trig?
Even power of sin or cos only
1 (1 cos 2x) 2
Change cos2 x into

1 (1 + cos 2x) 2
Usually works if Y denominator factorises. Integrate fractions separately.
Partial fractions?
Odd power of sin or cos only.
Use sin2x = 1 cos2x or vice versa to change all but one of the powers then use a substitution
Split into two fractions and integrate separately.
Two terms on top?
tan ?
= tan x dx or
ln | sec x|
= ln | cos x |
547
The End
548
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012

A Level Maths C4

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A Level Maths C4

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Module C4

1 Core Mathematics 4 (A2 Unit 4724) Basic Info:

My A Level Maths Notes

4.2 Differentiation and Integration

4.3 First Order Differential Equations

5.1 Differentiation and Integration

Function f (x) sin kx cos kx tan kx

Integral f (x) dx 1 cos kx + c k

k cos kx k sin kx k sec2 kx

(ai + bj + ck) (xi + yj + zk) = ax + by + cz

a2 + b2 + c2) ( x2 + y2 + z2) cos

a sin x b cos x R sin (x ) a cos x b sin x R cos (x R = a2 + b2 R cos = a b a ) (watch signs)

R sin = b 0 < a < 2

My A Level Maths Notes

58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions

tan x y = tan x y = Quotient rule: if y = sin x u cos x v

My A Level Maths Notes 3

= cos x (u2) = cos x 1 = = cot x cosec x sin 2x tan x sin x

58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions

58.2 Worked Trig Examples

du dv = 3x2 = cos x dx dx dy = x3 cos x + sin x 3x2 dx dy = x2 (x cos x + 3sin x) dx

1 cos x cos x x x u = cos x v = x

du dv = sin x = 1 dx dx dy x (sin x) cos x = dx x2 dy x sin x cos x x sin x + cos x = = 2 dx x x2

y = cos4x u = cos x du dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = sin x = dy du du dx y = u4 dy = 4u3 du

y = cos4x y = (cos x)4 dy = 4 (cos x)3 (sin x) dx dy = 4cos3x sin x dx

[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]

du dy 1 = sec x tan x = dx du u dy 1 = sec x tan x = tan x dx sec x

My A Level Maths Notes 6

= cos (u) 3 = 3cos 3x

dy = 2v dv dy du dv = dv dx du = 3 = 2v 3 cos u = 2sin u 3 cos u = 6cos 3x sin 3x = 3sin 6x

[extended chain rule]

double angle formula

58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 8

= 2u 3cos 3x = 6sin 3x . cos 3x = 3sin 6x [double angle formula]

y = sin5x cos3x u = sin5x If z = sin x u = z5 du dz du dx du dx du dx dz = cos x dx du dz = dz dx = 5z 4 = 5z

v = cos3x Use chain rule on v If w = cos x v = w3 dv dw dv dx dv dx dv dx dw = sin x dx dv dw = dw dx = 3w 2 = 3w 2 (sin x) = 3cos2x sin x

Use chain rule on u

Use product rule: dy dx dy dx dy dx dy dx = v du dv + u dx dx

My A Level Maths Notes 10

y = 4x6sin x Let u = 4x6

y = tan3x 3tan x = (tan x)3 3tan x Let u = tan x du = sec2x dx

= (3u2 3) sec2x = (3tan2x 3) sec2x = 3sec2x (tan2x 1)

58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions 13

y = cosec 3x y = cosec (3x) dy = cosec (3x) cot (3x) 3 dx dy = 3 cosec3x cot 3x dx

[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]

y = cot 23x y = (cot (3x))2 dy = 2 (cot (3x))1 ( cosec2 3x) 3 dx

[quick method - diff out - diff in]

My A Level Maths Notes 17

du dv = 4 z3 = 6 dz dx dz = 3 cos (3x) dx du dz du = = 3 cos (3x) 4 z3 = 12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x) dx dx dz

sin3 (3x) [12 cos (3x) sin (3x)] 6x2

58 C4 Differentiating Trig Functions

58.3 Differentiation of Log Functions

y = ln | sin x | Let u = sin x y = ln |u| dy dy du = dx du dx dy 1 = cos x dx u OR If y = ln | f (x)| dy 1 = f (x) dx f (x) du = cos x dx dy 1 = du u

dy 1 d = (sin x) dx sin x dx dy 1 = cos x dx sin x dy = cot x dx

y = ln | sec x | dy 1 d = (sec x) dx sec x dx dy 1 = sec x tan x dx sec x dy = tan x dx

My A Level Maths Notes 4

( cosec x cot x cosec2x ( cosec x (cot x + cosec x) + cosec x) cot x

59 C4 Integrating Trig Functions

sin x, cos x and sec2 x

cos x dx sin x dx sec

d (cos x) = sin x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x dx

Only valid for x in radians

59.3 Using Reverse Differentiation: