54 Manufacturing Processes Structural defects are more important rolling defects some of which are difficult to remedy.

These defects include the following:( i)Wavy edges (ii)Zipper cracks (iii) Ed g e c r a c k s ( iv) C e n t r e s p l i t (v) Al l i g a t o r i n g (vi) F o l d s (vii) La mi n a t i o n s .

Wavy edges and zipper cracks:

These defects are caused due to bending of rolls under therolling pressure. A roll can be considered as a beam supported in its stands. Under rolling pressure, therolls deflect in the manner shown in Fig. 3.9. Consequently the work material becomes thinner at thetwo edges and thicker in the central portion. In other words, it means that material becomes longer asmeasured along the edges than in centre. This causes tensile stress in the centre and compressive stressin the edges. The former causes zipper cracks in the centre and the latter causes wavy edges. These are centrelines (a)(b)( c ) RollsS trip t h icker at centre(d)(e)Theseare straightlinesStrip withuniform t h icknessZipper cracks Fig. 3.9 Rolling defects Remedy for zipper cracks and wavy edges lies in provide a camber to the rolls. They are madeslightly convex in the central portion to offset the effect of deflection under rolling loads. Edgecracks and centre split: These defects are caused due to non homogeneous plastic defor-mation of metal across the width. As the work piece passes through the rolls, under the rolling pressureits height decreases while its length increases. Some lateral spread i.e. , increase in width also takesplace. However the lateral spread is more towards the edges than in the centre as there is little resistanceto lateral spread towards the edges. In the centre lateral spread is resisted by friction and the adjacentlayer of

material. Hence decrease in lateral spread in the central portion of work material results ingreater increase in length in this region as compared to the edges. This effect is shown in Fig. 3.10.

Rolling 55 Rollingdirection ( a )(b)( c

) Fig. 3.10 Rolling defect It can be realised that under such non homogeneous deformation of work material, the edgesexperience a tension (as the central portion tries to pull it due to continuity of material) and the centralportion experience a compressive stress. Such a distribution of stress may result in edge crack or insevere cases, it may even lead to a split along the central portion. Alligatoring: As pointed out earlier, rolling entails a reduction in the height with consequentincrease in length. But due to friction present at the interface of the rolls and upper and lower surfacesof the work material, the elongation on the top and bottom surfaces is less than the material located atthe centre of thickness of the work piece. If conditions become severe, it may cause a defect calledalligatoring i.e. , rupture of material along the length into an upper halfand a lower half resemblingthe open mouth of an alligator. The defect is illustrated in Fig. 3.11. ( a ) Roll A rc of contact A luminium sla b Roll (b) Fig. 3.11 Rolling defect ( alligatoring )

56 Manufacturing Processes Folds: This defect is encountered when the reduction per pass is very low. Laminations: Laminations mean layers. If the ingot is not sound and has a piping or blow holesand during rolling they donot get completely welded ( e.g. , if the piping has got oxidised material ornon-metallic inclusions it will not get welded), it will cause a defect called laminations. Very often inthe ingot, there are non metallic inclusions; during rolling they will get lengthened along with soundmaterial. This may also cause laminations.These defects can only be remedied by discarding the portion of the ingot where piping andother defects are present and selecting only good metal portion for rolling.

QUESTIONS 1. Describe the process of rolling. Illustrate your answer with a suitable explanatory sketch. 2. How is cold rolling done ? What are the differences between hot rolled and cold rolled products? 3. Bring out the difference between two-high, three-high and four high rolling mills. 4. Describe the process of ring rolling. Name some typical parts manufactured by this process. 5. Describe some common rolling defects. How can they be remedied ?

+ 0)26-4 " 57 Extrusion, Wire Drawing, Tube Drawing andMaking

Extrusion is a process in which the metal is subjected to plastic flow by enclosing the metal in a closedchamber in which the only opening provided is through a die. The material is usually treated so that itcan undergo plastic deformation at a sufficiently rapid rate and may be squeezed out of the hole in thedie. In the process the metal assumes the opening provided in the die and comes out as a long strip withthe same crosssection as the die-opening. Incidentally, the metal strip produced will have a longitudi-nal grain flow.The process of extrusion is most commonly used for the manufacture of solid and hollow sec-tions of nonferrous metals and alloys e.g ., aluminium, aluminium-magnesium alloys, magnesium andits alloys, copper, brass and bronze etc. However, some steel products are also made by extrusion.The stock or the material to be extruded is in the shape of cast ingots or billets. Extrusion maybe done hot or cold. The cross-sections of extruded products vary widely. Some of these sections areshown in Fig. 4.1. Fig. 4.1 Type of extrusions Some advantages of extrusion process are described below:( i )The complexity and range of parts which can be produced by extrusion process is very large.Dies are relative simple and easy to make.( ii )The extrusion process is complete in one pass only. This is not so in case of rolling, amountof reduction in extrusion is very large indeed. Extrusion process can be easily automated.( iii )Large diameter, hollow products, thin walled tubes etc. are easily produced by extrusionprocess.( iv )Good surface finish and excellent dimensional and geometrical accuracy is the hall mark of extruded products. This cannot be matched by rolling.

58 Manufacturing Processes Pressure required for extrusion depends upon the strength of material and upon the extrusiontemperature. It will reduce if the material is hot. It will also depend upon the reduction in cross-sectionrequired and the speed of extrusion. There is a limit to the extrusion speed. If extrusion is done at a highspeed, the metal may crack. The reduction of cross-sectional area required is also called extrusionratio. There is a limit to this also. For steel extruded hot, this ratio should not exceed 40 : 1, but foraluminium extruded hot it can be as high as 400 : 1. EXTRUSION PROCESSES Extrusion processes can be classified as followed:(A) Hot Extrusion ( i )Forward or Direct extrusion.( ii )Backward or Indirect extrusion.(B) Cold Extrusion ( i )Hooker extrusion.( ii )Hydrostatic extrusion.( iii

)Impact extrusion.( iv )Cold extrusion forging. A. Hot Extrusion Processes ( i ) Forward or direct extrusion process: In this process, the material to be extruded is in the form of a block. It is heated to requisite temperature and then it is transferred inside a chamber as shown in Fig.4.2. In the front portion of the chamber, a die with an opening in the shape of the cross-section of theextruded product, is fitted. The block of material is pressed from behind by means of a ram and afollower pad. Since the chamber is closed on all sides, the heated material is forced to squeeze throughthe die-opening in the form of a long strip of the required cross-section. Followerpad DieassemblyExtrusionRam Container Fig. 4.2 Forward or direct extrusion

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Properties of Materials INTRODUCTION PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY BRITTLENESS STIFFNESS AND RESILIENCE TOUGHNESS AND IMPACT STRENGTH HARDNESS FRACTURE OF MATERIAL FATIGUE FAILURE CREEP FAILURE QUESTIONS

IRON AND STEEL CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS WROUGHT IRON ALLOY STEELS HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEELS PROPERTIES AND USES OF NON-FERROUS METALS ALLOYS OF COPPER CUPRO-NICKELS ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ALLOYS OF NICKEL ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL WORKING PROCESSES DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HOT AND COLD WORKING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLD AND HOT WORKING PROCESSES CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING PROCESSES ACCORDING TO TYPE OF STRESS EMPLOYED CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING DIE FORGING WITH POWER HAMMERS OPEN DIE FORGING IMPRESSION DIE FORGING CLOSED DIE FORGING DROP STAMPING OR DROP FORGING HAMMERS SOME IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS LEADING TO SOUND FORGINGS FORGING PRESSES MACHINE FORGING FORGING DEFECTS HEAT TREATMENT OF FORGINGS COLD FORGING NOMENCLATURE OF ROLLED PRODUCTS MECHANISM OF ROLLING TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS ROLLS AND ROLL PASS DESIGN RING ROLLING COLD ROLLING ROLLING DEFECTS EXTRUSION PROCESSES MACHINES FOR EXTRUSION EXTRUSION DEFECTS WIRE DRAWING

TUBE DRAWING TUBE MAKING TOOLS OTHER OPERATIONS PERFORMED WITH PRESSES BENDING DEEP DRAWING COINING AND EMBOSSING COINING GUILLOTINE SHEAR PATTERNS PATTERN ALLOWANCES TYPES OF PATTERNS MOULDING SAND AND ITS PROPERTIES MOULD MAKING TECHNIQUE Core CORES CORE PRINTS GATES, RUNNERS AND RISERS CUPOLA CONSTRUCTION OPERATION OF CUPOLA CASTING DEFECTS DIE CASTING STEPS IN DIE CASTING Objective Type Questions CENTRE LATHE CUTTING TOOLS USED ON THE LATHE HOLDING THE WORK PIECE IN THE CHUCK AND CENTERING TAPER TURNING PROFILE OR FORM TURNING SHAPING MACHINES OR SHAPER DRIVE CUTTING TOOLS USED IN SHAPING OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON SHAPERS PLANER OR PLANNING MACHINE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING TWIST DRILL DRILLING MACHINES BASIC MILLING PROCESS TYPES OF MILLING PROCESSES

(a) Peripheral milling PERIPHERAL MILLING FACE MILLING END MILLING MILLING MACHINES 1. Horizontal milling machines, HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE CHOICE OF ABRASIVES CLASSIFICATION OF WHEELS GRIT BOND AND GRADE WHEEL STRUCTURE WHEEL SHAPES MOUNTING A WHEEL ON MACHINE, BALANCING, TRUING AND DRESSING GRINDING OPERATIONS AND GRINDING MACHINES COOLANT CLASSIFICATION GAS WELDING PROCESS EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR GAS WELDING TYPES OF FLAMES WELDING OPERATION USE OF FILLER RODS AND FLUXES OXYACETYLENE CUTTING ARC WELDING STRIKING AN ARC HEAT AFFECTED ZONE ARC BLOW WELDING POSITIONS ARC WELDING DEFECTS ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING SOLDERING AND BRAZING SOLDERING PROCESS BRAZING PROCESS Importance of Materials

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