SAGE JOURNALS ONLINE INFORMATION SUPPORT FOR ASSIGNMENTS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS INTRODUCTION SAGE publishes more than

500 journals in Business, Humanities, Social Sciences, and Science, Technology and Medicine. Online access is available at http://online.sagepub.com which permits access to the full text of individual articles. To provide further assistance in undertaking assignments and topic discussion, specific articles are identified for each of the texts 12 chapters. CHAPTER 1 The topics for which specific articles are identified include the size of the SME, the future performance trends of a sector of industry, defining entrepreneurship, the appeal of self employment and the factors influencing the growth of small firms. SMALL FIRMS AND EMPLOYMENT (1) The Determinants of Employment Creation in Small Regional Firms, Gregory T. Papanikos, International Regional Science Review, Apr 2004; vol. 27: pp. 187 204. This article examines the determinants of employment creation in small regional firms. A number of factors are considered that account for the external and internal environment of the firm. A simple theoretical model of employment creation is developed where the determinants of a firms employment are the volume of production, the capital of the firm, and the uncertainty of the demand as evaluated by the individual entrepreneur. Employment is found to be positively related to sales, the amount of required paperwork, the application of new production processes, and the openness of the establishment to new ideas. (2) The UK Government Small Business Model-a Review, Alan Leyshon, International Small Business Journal, 1982; vol. 1: pp. 5866. This article provides a useful analysis of the factors beginning to be perceived as influencing employment levels in the SME sector during the early years of the restructuring of the UK economy as large firms downsized or moved their operations offshore. (3) Business Ownership and Sectoral Growth: An Empirical Analysis of 21 OECD Countries, Andr Van Stel and Martin Carree, International Small Business Journal, Aug 2004; vol. 22: pp. 389419. We investigate the development of business ownership (self-employment) rates over time at the sectoral level and the effect of these rates on sectoral output growth. In an earlier exercise, Carree et al. (2002) presented an analysis of the interrelationship between economy-wide business ownership rates and economic development. Their analysis raised an important research question: to what 1

extent do differences in business ownership rates at the economy-wide level reflect differences in the sectoral structures of economies or differences in business ownership rates at the sectoral level? The current article investigates this question making use of a sectoral data base of 21 OECD countries for the period 197098. Estimation results suggest that there is, on average, a too low business ownership rate in manufacturing and a too high business ownership rate in services. (4) Employment Growth in New Independent Owner-Managed Firms in Great Britain, Paul Westhead and Sue Birley, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1995; vol. 13: pp. 1134. This study explores employment change in 408 independent, owner-managed new firms in Great Britain which had received their first order between 1986 and 1990. In order to unravel the factors associated with standardised employment change in new independent firms, exploratory bivariate correlation analysis was used. Eighty-eight variables were identified from the literature and they relate to the internal characteristics of the principal owner-manager and the business as well as a range of variables which capture various aspects of the external environment. Bivariate correlation analysis results are presented for separate sub-samples of manufacturing and service firms. Moreover, in order to identify the combination of factors associated with employment change in surveyed new firms the data were further subjected to multiple correlation and regression analysis. (5) Latino Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in the United States: An Overview of the Literature and Data Sources, Brbara J. Robles and Hctor CorderoGuzmn, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sep 2007; vol. 613: pp. 1831. While significant attention has been paid to the growth of the Latino population and its contribution to the U.S. labour market, less scholarly and popular media attention has focused on Latino self-employment, entrepreneurship, and business growth. A review of interdisciplinary research literature on Latino entrepreneurship over the past 25 years indicates a gap in our knowledge about the accelerated growth in Latino small business ownership across the United States. The authors provide an overview of the current state of research on Latino entrepreneurial activities and recommend a broader research agenda that includes community-based organisations as part of the entrepreneurship landscape in urban and rural high-density Latino communities. (6) The Impact of Unemployment on New Firm Formation in Finland, Hannu Tervo and Hannu Niittykangas, International Small Business Journal, Oct 1994; vol. 13: pp. 3853. There is an a priori case that unemployment can either increase or decrease new firm formation. This paper analyses how unemployment has affected entrepreneurship in Finland where, after a sustained period of increase, new firm formation began to fall during the recession. The empirical analysis is based on the application of various statistical methods on regional data on unemployment, new firm formation and other factors. Two hypotheses based on the push-pull model are derived. The decision to

start a new firm is treated as a form of human capital investment problem. At regional level, high unemployment is shown to promote firm formation. These relationships are strengthened if the effect of other factors is eliminated. Especially in the case of those regions where both the opportunities for entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial qualifications of the population are good, a rise in unemployment will promote new firm formation. ENTREPRENEURS (7) Towards a Taxonomy of Entrepreneurial Theories, Joaquzn Guzman Cuevas, International Small Business Journal, Jul 1994; vol. 12: pp. 7788. The main objective of this paper is to explore the concept of entrepreneur, focusing on his or her functions and identifying characteristics rather than on other aspects such as the role of entrepreneurial profit or the relationship between the role of entrepreneur and macro-economic balance, or growth processes. This analysis is focused to achieve an ordination and systematisation of the contributions of the main economic and noneconomic doctrines in order to form a whole or set which embraces the fundamental parts of entrepreneurship. On this basis, three fundamental approaches are found which imply three essential functions within entrepreneurship. The thought streams, with their most representative authors, are interconnected methodically and integrated in a diagram according to criteria on which those entrepreneurial functions are outstanding on each one. (8) Entrepreneurship, Innovation, and Wealth Distribution: The Essence of Creative Destruction, Aron S. Spencer, Bruce A. Kirchhoff, and Craig White, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2008; vol. 26: pp. 926. The purpose of this article is to investigate theories that have produced differences in entrepreneurship definitions. The issue is raised because equitable wealth distribution is a fundamental focus of economics. Yet, recent attempts to guide research on entrepreneurship embrace innovation while ignoring the wealth redistribution aspect of entrepreneurship. Schumpeter argues that entrepreneurship means innovation by independently owned start-up firms that cause creative destruction that yields equitable wealth redistribution. Currently, most entrepreneurship scholars focus on innovation, by any firm, as a source of wealth creation without recognising that redistribution only occurs when innovation originates in new, independently owned firms. In this article, we describe how new micro- and nano-technologies championed by high-tech start-ups redefined the electronics industry, deconstructed the mainframe computer industry and are redefining the pharmaceutical industry today. It is suggested the entrepreneurship research should focus more on entrepreneurs that form and operate independent new firms. (9) Resourcefulness: A Proximal Conceptualisation of Entrepreneurial Behaviour, Sasi Misra and E. Sendil Kumar, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 2000; vol. 9: pp. 135154. The conceptualisation of the entrepreneurial resourcefulness model helps one to understand various aspects prompting an entrepreneur to identify opportunities and thereby regulate and direct her/his behaviour to make the best use of these 3

opportunities. The model elaborates three entrepreneurial competencies cognitive, affective and action oriented. Various details of these competencies are elaborated to explain the behaviour pattern of an entrepreneur. The model treats the behaviour of an entrepreneur as an outcome variable and acknowledges that there are significant variations in the behaviour of one entrepreneur from the other. This article helps in resolving the doubts and confusions surrounding the conceptualisation of the terms entrepreneur and entrepreneurship. The resourcefulness model clarifies these confusions and contributes towards both theory advancement and generating new research hypotheses. (10) The Entrepreneurial Self-Image: Lonely Rider or Social Team Player? Comparing Entrepreneurs in Tanzania and Indonesia, Arne Olav yhus, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 2003; vol. 12: pp. 201223. In most of the mainstream literature, entrepreneurs are portrayed as extremely individualistic actors. A study to validate this interpretation was carried out with entrepreneurs from two countries Tanzania and Indonesia. The author in this paper draws out the conclusion that the lonely rider image is not only found in the literature, but also actually seen among entrepreneurs. It seems to be a common feature that entrepreneurs attach very little importance to relationships with other actors in their social environment. However, while analysing the historical records on how these entrepreneurs established their enterprises it was seen that entrepreneurs in both countries did exploit their personal relations with friends, colleagues and family members and to a substantial degree. It is in this context, the author argues, that the network perspective which emphasises the role of individual relations as social capital presents a more accurate image of entrepreneurs and their enterprises. Although many similarities were found between Tanzanian and Indonesian entrepreneurs regarding their utilisation of these networks, some basic differences were also noted. This paper is based on a qualitative case study approach. (11) What Young Entrepreneurs Think and Do: A Study of Second-Generation Business Entrepreneurs, Azhar Kazmi, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Mar 1999; vol. 8: pp. 6777. Enquiries inspired by an urge to know and comprehend more about the entrepreneurial qualities and manifestations of different types of individuals form the bulk of research in the area of entrepreneurship. This paper too falls in this tradition of research as it presents a demographic and psychographic profile of, and the type of business strategies formulated and implemented by, the young second-generation entrepreneurs in India. It goes a step further by comparing these with their first generation counterparts to draw more generalised conclusions. The findings reinforce the point that entrepreneurs in general possess certain special characteristics that sustain their need for high achievement. (12) Cognitive Style and the Management of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises, Eugene Sadler-Smith, Organisation Studies, Feb 2004; vol. 25: pp. 155181. A long-standing dilemma in theories of management surrounds the question of whether effective managerial action is better served by rational analysis or creative intuition. In the present article, analysis and intuition are conceived within a framework of

cognitive style in which a distinction is drawn between the processing of information (rational and intuitive) and the organising of information in memory (local and global). Such styles are thought to affect a range of management behaviours (including decisionmaking). The relationship between managers cognitive styles and firm performance was examined from a contingency perspective in which environmental instability was hypothesised as moderating the relationship between style and performance. The study was based upon data obtained from owner-managers and managing directors of small and medium-sized firms in two contrasting sectors. There was a positive relationship between intuitive decision style and contemporaneous financial and non-financial performance that did not appear to be moderated by environmental instability. Furthermore, a statistically significant relationship between intuitive decision style and subsequent financial performance was observed. The implications of these findings for theories of cognitive style, the management of small and medium-sized enterprises, and for the practice of management development in such firms are discussed. (13) Effects of Self-concept Traits and Entrepreneurial Orientation on Firm Performance, June M. L. Poon, Raja Azimah Ainuddin, and SaOdah Haji Junit, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2006; vol. 24: pp. 6182. This study examined relationships among three self-concept traits, entrepreneurial orientation, and firm performance using survey data from 96 entrepreneurs. The study used path analysis to test the direct and indirect effects of the trait variables on perceptual measures of firm performance. Entrepreneurial orientation operationalised to reflect the dimensions of innovativeness, proactiveness, and propensity to take risks was used as the mediating variable for explaining the relationship between self-concept traits and firm performance. The results indicated that internal locus of control was positively related to firm performance, and entrepreneurial orientation did not play a mediating role in this relationship. In contrast, generalised self-efficacy had no direct effect on firm performance; however, it influenced firm performance positively through its effect on entrepreneurial orientation. Finally, self-attributed achievement motive was not significantly related to entrepreneurial orientation or firm performance. (14) A Scale to Assess Entrepreneurial Motivation, V. Vijaya and T.J. Kamalanabhan, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 1998; vol. 7: pp. 183198. Much of the research conducted in India in the area of entrepreneurship considers personality characteristics and motivation interchangeably. This article argues that there is a need to treat entrepreneurial motivation as a separate entity and objectively measure and classify different types of motivation to draw meaningful inferences. The authors attempt here to develop a scale relevant to the Indian context to measure entrepreneurial motivation. The sample for the study was drawn from 195 potential women entrepreneurs. Five core motivations the entrepreneurial core motivation, the work core motivation, the social core motivation, the individual core motivation and the economic core motivation are identified with the help of factor analysis by the principal components method. (15) Entrepreneurial Orientation and Family Forces in the New Germany: Similarities and Differences Between East and West German Entrepreneurs, David Pistrui, Harold P. Welsch, Oliver Wintermantel, Jianwen Liao, and H.J. Pohl, Family Business Review, Sep 2000; vol. 13: pp. 251263.

The new Germany provides a once-in-a-lifetime living laboratory in which to explore entrepreneurship and family business. On one hand, established West German familyled firms are responding to generational change and the need for new entrepreneurial leadership. On the other hand, the East must rely on entrepreneurship and new venture creation to rebuild this region of Germany. Thus, this study poses the following general research question: How similar or different are the entrepreneurial orientations and family forces of East German and West German entrepreneurs? The study explores three dimensions shaping entrepreneurial characteristics and orientations: (a) sociocultural forces (principally the family and personal alliance networks, capturing characteristics associated with demographics, family involvement, and enterprise profiles); (b) personality characteristics associated with entrepreneurial intensity, sacrifice, and achievement motives, which shape entrepreneurial orientation; and (c) environmental perceptions related to infrastructure obstacles confronting entrepreneurial-led family enterprises. The study draws from a sample of 160 East and West German entrepreneurs. The data isolate the differences and identify similarities between East and West German entrepreneurs, as well as provide valuable insights into the family forces shaping SMEs in the new Germany. (16) The Role of Cognitive Style and Risk Preference on Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intentions, Saulo Dubard Barbosa, Megan W. Gerhardt, and Jill Richard Kickul, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, May 2007; vol. 13: pp. 86104. The purpose of the current study is to address the distinctive roles of cognitive style and risk preference on four types of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. More specifically, we examine how both cognitive style and risk preference separately and interactively contribute to an individuals assessment of his/her own skills and abilities as well as to his/her own entrepreneurial intentions. This study investigated these relationships using an international sample of 528 entrepreneurial students across three universities. Results indicated that individuals with a high risk preference had higher levels of entrepreneurial intentions and opportunity-identification efficacy, whereas individuals with a low risk preference had higher levels of relationship efficacy, and tolerance efficacy. Individuals with an intuitive cognitive style were also found to have lower perceived self-efficacy concerning the establishment of relationship with investors, the economic management of the new venture, and their capacity to tolerate ambiguity. However, intuitive individuals who had a high preference for risk exhibited higher levels of opportunity identification efficacy. SMALL BUSINESS POLICY (17) Does More Mean Worse? Three Decades of Enterprise Policy in the Tees Valley, Francis J. Greene, Kevin F. Mole, and David J. Storey, Urban Studies, Jun 2004; vol. 41: pp. 12071228. This paper argues that there have been three distinct phases of enterprise policy in the UK in the past 30 years: the 1970s saw no effective enterprise policy (policy off); the 1980s witnessed an attempt to increase the number of start-ups; and the 1990s saw a concentration on business quality. This paper looks at how enterprise has evolved in Cleveland/Tees Valley over the past three decades. It suggests and finds that businesses in the 1980s were more numerous but of

lower quality (even if the influence of unemployment is accounted for) than those from the 1970s and 1990s. This implies that we should be cautious about the value of policy attempts to increase business formation rates in areas such as Cleveland/Tees Valley. (18) Philip Cooke, Life Sciences Clusters and Regional Science Policy, Urban Studies, May 2004; vol. 41: pp. 11131131. This paper focuses upon Life Sciences and the manner in which R&D-led clustering concentrates key resources such as basic research funding, research infrastructure and innovative businesses in a few clusters where even large pharmaceuticals firms are nowadays often learners (from academia) rather than research leaders, as in the past. Because Life Sciences and healthcare are strongly intertwined, and huge increases in healthcare R&D and general expenditure mean that some 20 per cent of GDP is accounted for by the broad sector, regions that have missed out on this future knowledge economy bonanza are desperately seeking to remedy things. Examples are provided of new regional science policy instruments for redistribution of such knowledge economy advantages that moves beyond mere innovation support. (19) Tackling Youth Unemployment through Entrepreneurship, Sunday L Owualah, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1999; vol. 17: pp. 4959. This paper presents evidence that promoting entrepreneurship consciously among youths can be an effective way of tackling unemployment within this group. This conclusion is drawn from the analysis of survey data collected from a stratified sample of loan beneficiaries of the Smallscale Industries and Graduate Employment Programme in Nigeria. This programme is one of four programmes of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) set up in Nigeria in 1987 to encourage and assist unemployed youths to establish and operate their own small-scale firms. The analysis shows that an average of four new jobs were created by each of the respondent firms in the first four years of the programme. It further reveals that the firms achieved an appreciable growth in their assets, while previous training, experience and personal inclinations of their owners largely influenced the choice of types of small-scale firms that were established. (20) Entrepreneurship in Regional and Local Development, Edward J. Malecki, International Regional Science Review, Apr 1993; vol. 16: pp. 119153. This article surveys the topic of entrepreneurship within the processes of regional and local development. The issue of entrepreneurship is complex, and the interest in it shown by researchers and politicians over the past decade has not made it less so. Definitional issues which often mark discussions of entrepreneurship are discussed, as are networks of interaction, culture, and local environments. Policies which attempt to alter regional or local conditions and to promote entrepreneurship and continuing innovation are given attention in the second half of the paper. (21) Federal Credit Programs and Local Economic Performance, Sherrill Shaffer and Robert N. Collender, Economic Development Quarterly, Feb 2009; vol. 23: pp. 2843.

Several theories of externalities and asymmetric information suggest a positive role for government programmes to assist credit markets, though potential distortions by special interests carry attendant dangers. The authors examine the empirical association between funding by several federal government programmes and subsequent economic performance, measured six ways, for U.S. metropolitan areas during the 1990s. Significant differences are found across programmes and performance measures. Observed trade-offs suggest a need to compare policy objectives with acceptable costs in many cases. Overall, the results are consistent with theoretical predictions and with some standard policy objectives. (22) Old Industrial Regions and Employability, Mike Danson, Urban Studies, Feb 2005; vol. 42: pp. 285300. Inactivity has been growing across the developed world and is especially high in old industrial areas. A general move towards more flexible labour markets and the restructuring in these regions over the past quarter of a century have led to a change in the supply and demand conditions for employment. There is an increasing dependence on school and higher education qualifications and associated transferable skills and competencies, while the decline of traditional occupations has left many without jobs and facing multiple barriers to regaining employment. Often lacking demonstrable and accredited human capital and work experience, individuals with such employability problems have been concentrated in particular households and communities, polarising society. Policy interventions are required to address these obstacles and social exclusion, but central government appears reluctant to face the full direct costs of implementation. More radical innovative solutions are now being proposed at the metropolitan level. CHAPTER 2 The topics for which specific articles are identified include the small business support services within a country, planning behaviour in large versus small firms, owner/manager adopting a formalised planning orientation, the role of intuition in business decision making and the planning process in start up versus existing small firms. BUSINESS PLANNING (1) Owner-managers and Business Planning in the Small Firm, Suzanne M. Richbell, H. Doug Watts, and Perry Wardle, International Small Business Journal, Oct 2006; vol. 24: pp. 496514. This article explores the ways in which the characteristics of the owner-managers of small firms influence whether or not those firms have a business plan. The focus is primarily on antecedent influences on owner-managers such as education and prior experience. Data are drawn from a survey of the owner-managers of small metalworking firms in Sheffield, UK. Around half the sample of owner-managers possess a business plan. Antecedent influences on owner-managers showing a significant association with the possession of a business plan include an above average level of education, previous work experience in a large firm immediately before setting up their firm and running firms in sectors outside their previous experience. Not surprisingly, possession of a business plan showed a positive association with those 8

owner-managers with a growth orientation. It is concluded that owner-manager characteristics can be important in explaining the presence/absence of a business plan within the small firm. (2) Uncertainty, Planning Sophistication and Performance in Small New Zealand Firms, Attahir Yusuf and Robert O. Nyomori, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Mar 2002; vol. 11: pp. 119. Environmental uncertainty is unavoidable. Business organisations, hence, have to develop ways and means to cultivate the opportunities and contain the menace that result from uncertainty. It has been argued that firms can address both the opportunity and menace questions of uncertainty through systematic planning which, in turn, help them enhance their performance. Using data from a sample of small firms in New Zealand, this study tries to examine the relationship between environmental uncertainty, planning and performance. The results of the enquiry suggest that small firms do not respond to uncertainty with increased planning. However, when they plan, their performance does record some improvement. (3) Pre-Startup Planning and the Survival of New Small Businesses: Theoretical Linkages, Gary J. Castrogiovanni, Journal of Management, Dec 1996; vol. 22: pp. 801822. Although evidence is equivocal and often contradictory, prospective business founders are generally advised to develop formal plans of their proposed ventures. Consistent with this advice, some scholars have suggested that the high mortality of new small businesses could be reduced through greater pre-startup planning. However, there is an emerging view that the value of planning is context-dependent. This view is elaborated here as it applies to new small businesses. First, ways in which pre-startup planning can facilitate survival are delineated. Then, contextual conditions that can limit these impacts are described. Finally, suggestions are offered which show how this view can be used to guide future research and extend the body of knowledge. (4) Australian Tourist Attractions: The Links between Organisational Characteristics and Planning, Pierre J. Benckendorff and Philip L. Pearce, Journal of Travel Research, Aug 2003; vol. 42: pp. 2435. An exploration of the links between the characteristics of Australian tourist attractions and the amount of planning undertaken by attraction managers was conducted. Using a detailed mail survey (N = 407, response rate = 26.7%), a categorisation indicating four planning levels was devised: nonplanners, short-term planners, short- and long-term planners, and long-term planners. Attractions with greater levels of planning were shown to have higher levels of perceived performance and faced the future with better growth prospects and business confidence. They also reported higher management turnover. Attraction research, it was argued, needs to develop with studies from different regions and histories to test the value of specific findings. In addition, multimethod approaches are needed to disentangle causality issues linking planning and attraction characteristics. (5) Motivations and Aspirations of Business Founders, R. T. Hamilton, International Small Business Journal, Nov 1987; vol. 6: pp. 7078. 9

The main purpose of this paper is to present a retrospective analysis which assesses the extent to which the characteristics of business founders are stable over time. It finds that there is an apparent stability over time but the evidence does show that with unemployment rising over time this is becoming a push factor in an increasing proportion of new business formations. On firm size the evidence is that businesses which have been pushed into existence and survived are not significantly different from those which are not subject to this particular pressure. (6) Family FIRO Model: An Application to Family Business, Sharon M. Danes, Martha A. Rueter, Hee-Kyung Kwon, and William Doherty, Family Business Review, Mar 2002; vol. 15: pp. 3143. This study applies the Family FIRO model, one of interpersonal dynamics and change, to family businesses (specifically, to family farming couples). It empirically tests the developmental sequence of three dimensions of the model: inclusion, control, and integration. Findings indicate that both a sense of inclusion in a family business and the manner in which control issues are managed have important influences on family business integration. Because inclusion predicts control dynamics, effective control may not be diminished without adequate levels of inclusion. The study offers practitioners a theory-based approach to working with the complex dynamics within family businesses. (7) Measuring Organisational Growth: Issues, Consequences and Guidelines, Laurence G. Weinzimmer, Paul C. Nystrom, and Sarah J. Freeman, Journal of Management, Apr 1998; vol. 24: pp. 235262. Although the literature contains an impressive volume of studies attempting to identify determinants of organisational growth, researchers have recently noted important inconsistencies in findings. They may be explained, in part, by the variety of approaches used to measure growth. This study provides a critical review of the literature to identify issues regarding the measurement of growth. It examines alternative approaches in order to assess the consequences of using inappropriate measures. Consequently, three concepts are considered as well as three different measurement formulas. Based on comprehensive data from 193 firms in 48 industries for 20 periods, results from comparative regression analyses reveal that the significance of relationships between determinants and organisational growth, as well as amount of explained variance, depend on the specific approaches used to measure growth. Finally, we provide some guidelines to help researchers select appropriate techniques for measuring organisational growth. (8) An Assessment of the Psychological Determinants of Planning in Small Businesses, James W. Carland, Jo Ann C. Carland, and Carroll D. Abhy, Jr., International Small Business Journal, Jul 1989; vol. 7: pp. 2334. A sample of 368 small business owners/managers was divided into three groups: those who use formal, written plans; those who employ informal, unwritten plans; and nonplanners. The groups were compared on their need for achievement, innovative preferences and risk-taking propensity as well as education level, sales, management structure, and number of employees. The group employing written plans was found to have significantly higher need for achievement, innovative preference and risk-taking propensity than the group employing unwritten plans and non-planners.

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(9) Institutional Forces and the Written Business Plan, Benson Honig and Tomas Karlsson, Journal of Management, Feb 2004; vol. 30: pp. 2948. In this study, factors were examined that led nascent organisations to write business plans, following 396 nascent entrepreneurs during a two-year period. The study examined both the production and the outcomes of written business plans produced in nascent organisations. Findings show that institutional variables, such as coercion and mimetic forces, are important predictors influencing the propensity of new organisations to write business plans. The results are contrary to rationalist predictions of planningperformance, and are more in line with institutional predictions. Interestingly there was no evidence to support positive outcomes, in terms of profitability, for those nascent organisations that produced business plans during a two-year initial period. The study discusses the implications for institutional theory and studies of nascent businesses, as well as for the literature on business planning CHAPTER 3 The topics for which specific articles are identified include small firms use of market research, primary research, how market segmentation can be exploited, utilising quantitative data and the problems associated with assessing the scale of opportunity. DECISION MAKING (1) Purchase Decision-making within Professional Consumer Services: Organisational or Consumer Buying Behaviour?, Elina Jaakkola, Marketing Theory, Mar 2007; vol. 7: pp. 93108. This article analyses purchase decision-making for products and services that are acquired and used by consumers, but chosen by professional service providers. This is done by comparing the distinct characteristics of purchase decision-making in the contexts of professional consumer services and organisational and consumer buying. Three aspects are elaborated on: the actors involved, the purchase-decision task, and the nature of the decision-making process. It is concluded that professional consumer services represent a unique setting for purchase decision-making and cannot be considered equivalent to the organisational or consumer setting. The article proposes a theoretical framework incorporating the typical characteristics of professional services as a decision-making context, specified in a set of propositions regarding the relative influence of the parties on the purchase decision. Practical and research implications are also presented. (2) What is Enterprise Partnership?, Paul Teague, Organisation, Jul 2005; vol. 12: pp. 567589. This paper develops analytical arguments to highlight three distinctive attributes of enterprise partnership. First of all, the literature on the theory of the firm is used to suggest that enterprise partnership represents a credible alternative to the dominant leadership model of organisational change. Second, it highlights the organisational features of enterprise partnerships that transcend particular national or economic settings and suggests that these allow partnerships to be interpreted as a procedural consensus between management and employees to develop pathways to advance fairness and 11

performance at work. Third, it suggests that the diffusion of enterprise partnership requires the support of extra-firm institutional frameworks. The paper is both a literature review and theory-building exercise. MARKET RESEARCH (3) A Community Survey of Restaurant Dining Habits, Harry Gildea and David E. Labson, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Aug 1963; vol. 4: pp. 1516. A recent market research survey was performed for the Hotel Corporation of America which has many hotel and motor hotel restaurant facilities. The surveys general objective was to obtain, by means of telephone and personal interview, information on patterns in restaurant dining. It was further sought to learn the motivation for such dining patterns and also to obtain information useful in evaluating the market potential for a given community. The questions selected for the interview covered aspects of restaurant selection and use, as well as opinions about restaurants. The focus was upon the better quality restaurants, particularly those located in hotels, and directed at dinner meals in a non-business setting. (4) Relaunching Adult Diapers in India Has the Time Come?, Ajit Patil and Rahul Srinivasan, Asian Journal of Management Cases, Mar 2006; vol. 3: pp. 85100. This case is about the dilemma faced by Supriya, the product manager at Kimberly Clark Lever Private Ltd, India (KCLL). She has to prepare a business plan for the relaunch of adult diapers called Depend. The same product was introduced into the market in the late 1990s but was later revoked because of poor performance. The case discusses details of demand forecasting and marketing strategy during the initial product launch along with an analysis of the failure. Novelty in the marketing strategy is necessary because in India personal hygiene is not discussed openly either within the family or publicly. The retailers feel that the market for adult diapers had begun to evolve in 2004. This is also indicated by an increase in the number of new brands introduced in 200405. Due to the positive changes in the environment, KCLL conducts a market research survey with an aim to estimate demand and gather competitive intelligence. The picture projected by the market research is very positive. The question that needs to be answered is how to make Depend commercially viable. (5) Discovering the Consumer: Market Research, Product Innovation, and the Creation of Brand Loyalty in Britain and the United States in the Interwar Years, Stefan Schwarzkopf, Journal of Macromarketing, Mar 2009; vol. 29: pp. 820. This article discusses the use of market and consumer research at Lever/Unilever and its advertising agency in Britain and the United States, J. Walter Thompson (JWT), in the interwar period. Research surveys conducted by JWT in the 1920s and 1930s helped Lever reposition its international soap brand Lux. The case demonstrates that Lever deployed qualitative market research techniques much earlier than usually acknowledged. Qualitative and quantitative consumer research methods allowed marketers at Lever and JWT to take account of autonomous consumer practices that limited the scope of management.

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(6) Identifying, Measuring and Responding to Different Market Segments: Price Determination in Air Transport, Arianna di Vittorio, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jan 1996; vol. 2: pp. 315325. Nowadays price determination is quite complex: in fact two passengers on the same flight may have paid different prices and this discrepancy is due to the fact that users are different and, generally speaking, the markets to which the service is applied are different. The price varies not only because of the different distances travelled, but also according to the different services which the passenger wishes to receive on board and on the ground. The additional flight services (which represent the so-called extended product) are many today and they satisfy the consumers every possible need. Obviously, for this reason, the prices vary. Through market segmentation it is possible to identify various categories of consumers and to offer them the service they require, which varies depending on numerous factors, both social and economic. Moreover, in the last decade, the effects of deregulation have been decisive, as removing controls from flights and air fares has also gained ground in those countries which were once against liberalisation. Among these are those countries of Europe (UK, Scandinavia) which, following the American example, have lobbied for the introduction of deregulation in Europe. At this time deregulation is not present everywhere and this creates considerable difficulties in negotiating tariffs. Finally, this paper indicates customer satisfaction as a fundamental factor in building customer loyalty, since customers really determine the success or the failure of an initiative, a service or even a whole organisational structure. (7) Travel and Tourism Data in the UK, David Tucker, Business Information Review, Apr 1995; vol. 11: pp. 218. Describes and evaluates the most commonly used sources of statistics and other market information on the travel and tourism industries in the UK. Differentiates sources for inbound and outbound tourism and internal (domestic) travel. Also covers main international sources. Topics include forms of transport, purpose of travel, use of accommodation while travelling and origin/destination data. MARKET SEGMENTATION (8) A Clustering Method for Categorical Data in Tourism Market Segmentation Research, George Arimond and Abdulaziz Elfessi, Journal of Travel Research, May 2001; vol. 39: pp. 391397. One challenge in tourism market segmentation research is finding a statistical clustering method that can use data from the commonly used qualitative (categorical scale) survey instrument. Current proven methods require the use of quantitative (ratio or interval scale) data. However, quantitative survey instruments are seldom used. Many quantitative clustering methods severely restrict the number of attributes measured despite the fact that segmentation analysis works best when it measures all the multistate attributes that visitors identify as influencing their tourist experience. This study demonstrated that multistate categorical survey data could be successfully used. Using data from a bed-and-breakfast survey (229 guests), a two-stage analysis method was employed. First, multiple correspondence analysis was used to spatially map each

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of the attributes, and then cluster analysis was used to identify market segments. It is believed this method can be more practical in the field of applied tourism research. (9) Family Traveler Segmentation by Vacation Decision-Making Patterns, Soo K. Kang, Cathy H.C. Hsu, and Kara Wolfe, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Nov 2003; vol. 27: pp. 448469. The purposes of this study were to extend the scope of family vacation decision-making research by profiling various family vacation segments based on decision-making patterns, and to provide a systematic evaluation of the segments based on their profitability (i.e., expenditure per travel party and per person), accessibility (i.e., the degree to which a segment can be effectively contacted and served), and reachability (i.e., the extent to which a segment can be attracted by products/services offered). A total of 297 travellers, who visited one of the three Travel Information Centres (TIC) on the borders of Kansas and who considered themselves travelling as a family unit, participated in the study. Results of the study generated three market segments, including intergenerational (ITG) travellers, business-mixed-with-pleasure (BMP) travellers, and visiting friends and relatives (VFR) travellers. Based on the evaluation criteria, the VFR segment was identified as the most viable market for Kansas to pursue. (10) Segmenting Travel Markets with the International Tourism Role (ITR) Scale, Chul-Min Mo, Mark E. Havitz, and Dennis R. Howard, Journal of Travel Research, Jul 1994; vol. 33: pp. 2431. Although many attempts have been made to segment travel markets, few studies have used conceptually based, standardised instrumentation. This study illustrates how the International Tourism Role (ITR) scale by Mo, Howard, and Havitz (1994), developed using the conceptual framework of Cohens tourist role typology, can be used to segment international tourist markets. Cluster analysis of ITR factor scores indicated the 461 respondents could be classified into four distinct clusters. The clusters were confirmed by selected sociodemographic and behavioural trip characteristic variables. The composition of the clusters partially supported Cohens classification scheme, but also revealed nuances resulting from the ITR scales multidimensional interpretation of novelty in international tourism. Although results cannot be generalised beyond the study population, this study shows the potential for segmenting international travel markets with the ITR scale. (11) Targeting Multicultural Purchase and Consumption Segments in the Leather Handbag Market: Product Development and Merchandising Implications, Jinhwa Lee, Shelley S. Harp, Patricia E. Horridge, and Randall R. Russ, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Mar 2003; vol. 31: pp. 297330. The purpose of this study was to segment a nationwide sample of the Korean American (n = 115) and White American (n = 139) leather handbag market for business wear. Data were collected using survey methods and analysed using classification decision trees. Results indicated four purchase criteria (brand, handbags in wardrobe, country of origin, and organisational features) and six consumption patterns (quantity versus usage, quantity versus quality, colour versus style, function versus fashion, quantity versus price, and durable versus versatile) segmented the two consumer groups. Segment

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characteristics indicated handbag purchase criteria of Korean Americans included brand and country of origin, whereas their handbag consumption patterns included quantity, quality, price, and a combination of durability and versatility. For White Americans, the handbag purchase criterion was organisational features, and consumption patterns included usage, colour and style, quality, and durability and versatility. Implications suggest opportunities for product development and merchandise assortment planning. (12) Positioning Analysis with Self-Organizing Maps: An Exploratory Study on Luxury Hotels, Josef A. Mazanec, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Dec 1995; vol. 36: pp. 8095. The central proposal of the paper is that activities are important items in these motive boxes. The authors argue that activities are the critical link between tourist motivation and destination choice and develop a model in which travel motivations are related through activity preferences to vacation destination choice. These proposed relationships were tested through a secondary analysis of survey data collected from 1503 Australian outbound travellers. These analyses did reveal consistent relationships between travel motivation and activities and between activities and features of preferred destinations. (13) A Benefit-based Segmentation of a Nonresident Summer Travel Market, Laurie E. Loker and Richard R. Perdue, Journal of Travel Research, Jan 1992; vol. 31: pp. 3035. This study examined the feasibility of segmenting a nonresident tourist market on the basis of vacation benefits sought. Six distinct benefit-based market segments were found using factor and cluster analysis procedures. The resulting segments were compared on the basis of specific dependent variables organised under the following framework: travel party leader characteristics, travel party composition, trip planning and trip characteristics, and post-trip evaluation. Finally, marketing strategy implications were addressed. The following evaluation criteria were used in target market selection: profitability, accessibility, and reachability. Benefit-based market segmentation studies were found to be a viable means of determining vacation market segments. The importance of the development of objective and quantifiable means of evaluating market Effects of Opportunity Discovery Strategies of Entrepreneurs on Performance of New Ventures. OPPORTUNITY DISCOVERY (14) Effects of Opportunity Discovery Strategies of Entrepreneurs on Performance of New Ventures, Vesa Puhakka, Journa of Entrepreneurship, Mar 2007; vol. 16: pp. 19 51. Opportunity discovery process is one of the main topics of interest in entrepreneurship research. However, the effects of opportunity discovery strategies of entrepreneurs on performance of new ventures have been neglected. The reason for this appears to be the claim that opportunity discovery as behaviour of entrepreneurs takes place before the venture is established and, thus, should not be connected to the later phases of the entrepreneurial process. This is not an established consideration as it inherently holds 15

the idea that research should study how entrepreneurs create value which should not be connected to the value they have created. The present study examined how opportunity discovery strategies of entrepreneurs affect performance of the ventures established. The results illustrate that the performance of new ventures is strongly influenced by opportunity discovery strategies used by entrepreneurs. More specifically, growth of new ventures showed significant increase by proactive opportunity discovery strategy. In addition, the opportunity discovery strategies of proactive searching, competitive scanning and collective action increased the newness value of the ventures. These results suggest that the strategies entrepreneurs use to discover opportunities have much impact on creating high performance levels of new ventures. (15) The Problem of Creating and Capturing Value, Jackson A. Nickerson, Brian S. Silverman, and Todd R. Zenger, Strategic Organisation, Aug 2007; vol. 5: pp. 211225. Venture creation is at the heart of entrepreneurship. Enterprising individuals or groups start new ventures and, thus, the role of individuals must be understood if venture creation is to be understood. This article reviews and critiques the venture creation literature that has examined the role of the individual, with an eye toward identifying under-researched topics and improving research designs. Individual judgment is highlighted as a particularly important future direction for research on the role of enterprising individuals in venture creation. Techniques for accessing entrepreneurs and for evaluating entrepreneurial judgments are also discussed. (16) Organisational Entrepreneurship: With de Certeau on Creating Heterotopias (or Spaces for Play), Daniel Hjorth, Journal of Management Inquiry, Dec 2005; vol. 14: pp. 386398. Focusing on the relation between work as a managerially ordered place and conditions for creativity within such an order, this article uses a number of spatial concepts to elaborate on organisational entrepreneurship as creation of space for play/invention. Organisational entrepreneurship is understood as constituting a silent history of organisation and management theory. In crafting a history of the present of entrepreneurship, the author distances it from how it has become represented in management (enterprise) discourse. Michel de Certeaus concepts of space and place and of strategy and tactics together with Michel Foucaults concept of heterotopia allow the author to describe and analyse a case where an artist-company collaboration resulted in an entrepreneurial event, transforming work and surprising management. (17) Virtual Teams and the Rise of e-Entrepreneurship in Europe, Harry Matlay and Paul Westhead, International Small Business Journal, Jun 2005; vol. 23: pp. 279302. In recent years new forms of entrepreneurship have begun to emerge from the synergies between Information and Communication Technology (ICT) developments and changing paradigms of economic transactions. The resulting turbulence within the international small business community has facilitated the evolution of innovative organisational forms that are structured dynamically to ensure sustainable competitive advantage in local, national or global markets. Virtual Teams consist of groups of geographically distributed individuals (entrepreneurs) who interact through

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interdependent tasks and are led by common (entrepreneurial) interests and/or goals. This article focuses upon the emergence of virtual teams that increasingly form the competitive core of successful e-Entrepreneurship in Europe. Based upon the results of 15 longitudinal case studies from the European tourism and hospitality industry, it identifies and considers the stages and processes specific to virtual teams, from formation to the fulfilment or adjournment of specific tasks and projects. The advantages and disadvantages of virtual teams of e-entrepreneurs are additionally documented and discussed. (18) Entrepreneurs Decisions to Exploit Opportunities, Young Rok Choi and Dean A. Shepherd, Journal of Management, Jun 2004; vol. 30: pp. 377395. Opportunity exploitation is a necessary step in creating a successful business in the entrepreneurial process, yet there has been little conceptual and empirical development of this issue in the literature. This study examines the decisions of entrepreneurs to begin exploiting business opportunities from a resource-based view. The analysis of a sample of entrepreneurs whose businesses are located in incubators suggests that entrepreneurs are more likely to exploit opportunities when they perceive more knowledge of customer demand for the new product, more fully developed necessary technologies, greater managerial capability, and greater stakeholder support. Moreover, the findings of this study shed a light on a less emphasised aspect of the resource-based view: the new products anticipated lead time acts as an enhancing moderator in entrepreneurs exploitation decision policies. Implications for future research on opportunity exploitation are discussed. (19) Entrepreneurship Research in Emergence: Past Trends and Future Directions, Lowell W. Busenitz, G. Page West, III, Dean Shepherd, Teresa Nelson, Gaylen N. Chandler, and Andrew Zacharakis, Journal of Management, Jun 2003; vol. 29: pp. 285308. This article evaluates the emergent academic field of entrepreneurship to better understand its progress and potential. Boundary and exchange concepts were applied to examine 97 entrepreneurship articles published in leading management journals from 1985 to 1999. Some evidence was found of an upward trend in the number of published entrepreneurship articles, although the percentage of entrepreneurship articles remains low. The highly permeable boundaries of entrepreneurship facilitate intellectual exchange with other management areas but sometimes discourage the development of entrepreneurship theory and hinder legitimacy. It is argued that focusing entrepreneurship research at the intersection of the constructs of individuals, opportunities, modes of organising, and the environment will define the field and enhance legitimacy. Decision theory, start-up factors of production, information processing and network theory, and temporal dynamics are put forward for entrepreneurship scholars to explore important research questions in these intersections. CHAPTER 4 The topics for which specific articles are identified include managing business growth, small business support services, cash flow management, managing high-tech firms and raising external funds from different lending sources.

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BUSINESS LIFE CYCLES (1) Food-Service Strategy: An Integrated, Business-Life-Cycle Approach, Jeffrey P. Shay, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Jun 1997; vol. 38: pp. 3649. Strategic models designed to help managers understand and effectively compete in their industries have been developed, used, and superseded for more than 30 years. Most models have employed one of three approaches: portfolio analysis, competitive advantage and competitor analysis, and internal-resources and -competencies analysis. Although each approach offers valuable insights into the competitive environment, each new model seems to disregard the conceptual contributions made by its predecessors. Seeking to remedy that oversight, the model developed in this article integrates four widely used strategic models, Boston Consulting Groups growth-share matrix, Richard DAvenis hypercompetition model, Kenichi Ohmaes four-basic-strategies matrix, and Gary Hamel and C.K. Prahalads core-competency-agenda matrix. The new integrated model introduces the time element, which was missing from prior models, by connecting them with a modified life-cycle curve. Applied to the case of Outback Steakhouse, the hybrid model shows how Outbacks management took early advantage of its strengths but may have squandered its lead in the casual theme segment by taking a strategic wrong turn when it made an alliance with Carrabbas, an Italian-style restaurant. (2) The Small Firm Information Cycle: A Reappraisal, Scott Holmes, Gary Kelly, and Ross Cunningham, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1991; vol. 9: pp. 4153. Prior research has identified various stages in the life of a small enterprise. These states are commonly combined to produce a business life cycle. This paper proposed that small enterprise consists of a series of interrelated cycles and as such, the presentation of an overall life cycle provides an over-simplified view of the firm. The concept of the information sub-cycle is introduced, which in itself can take many forms. Logistics regression modelling techniques incorporating those variables which appear to be significant in influencing the level of accounting information prepared or acquired are applied to the development of an information cycle. The result obtained indicates that the acquisition and/or preparation of a relatively detailed level of accounting information is dependent on firm age, size, industry membership and level of ownermanager education. The pattern which emerges from these results supports the revision of traditional life cycle concepts. In particular, the need to segment the firm into several sub-cycles is recommended. (3) Managing the Communitys Pipeline of Entrepreneurs and Enterprises: A New Way of Thinking About Business Assets, Gregg A. Lichtenstein and Thomas S. Lyons, Economic Development Quarterly, Nov 2006; vol. 20: pp. 377386. The purpose of this article is to offer a methodical approach to deciding when, where, and how to invest in entrepreneurship as a crosscutting economic development strategy. To accomplish this, the authors present and operationalise the concept of a pipeline of entrepreneurs and enterprises in order to effectively segment the marketplace of businesses and differentiate among potential economic development clients within the

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community. They then describe three options for managing and intervening in a communitys pipeline of entrepreneurs and enterprises performance-enhancement strategies, incubation strategies, and selective attraction strategies and discuss how the pipeline can help policy makers and practitioners make informed decisions about where to invest (in what segment) and which strategies to use. (4) Latino Self-Employment and Entrepreneurship in the United States: An Overview of the Literature and Data Sources, Brbara J. Robles and Hctor CorderoGuzmn, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sep 2007; vol. 613: pp. 1831. While significant attention has been paid to the growth of the Latino population and its contribution to the U.S. labour market, less scholarly and popular media attention has focused on Latino self-employment, entrepreneurship, and business growth. A review of interdisciplinary research literature on Latino entrepreneurship over the past 25 years indicates a gap in our knowledge about the accelerated growth in Latino small business ownership across the United States. The authors provide an overview of the current state of research on Latino entrepreneurial activities and recommend a broader research agenda that includes community-based organisations as part of the entrepreneurship landscape in urban and rural high-density Latino communities. (5) Profiling Micro Apparel Enterprises in Botswana: Motivations, Practices, Challenges, and Success, Marina R. Gobagoba and Mary A. Littrell, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Jun 2003; vol. 21: pp. 130141. The purpose of this research was to develop a profile of micro apparel enterprises in Botswana and to examine the profile for cross-cultural applicability in relation to small business scholarship. Field interviews with 24 businesswomen revealed that the women employed an average of three workers and had operated their firms for three to five years. The profile identified motivations for initiating a business; business practices related to employees, product development, and marketing; challenges faced as the business was initiated and expanded; and factors used in defining success. The businesswomen integrated a broad range of motivational stimuli for business start-up; engaged in rigorous marketing, often through personal networks; faced marketing, finance, and management challenges; and defined success using extrinsic criteria, including improving lives for the people of Botswana. Research findings contributed to a first stage for development of technical assistance that can guide Botswana entrepreneurs in business start-up and growth.

BUSINESS SUPPORT SERVICES (6) Market for Business Development Services in India: A Study of Calcutta, Dinesh N. Awasthi and Sanjay Pal, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 2000; vol. 9: pp. 155184 This article analyses the demand and supply of business development services (BDS) in the twin cities of Calcutta and Howrah in India. It argues that with the advent of liberalisation, small entrepreneurs will need timely and relevant counselling and 19

consultancy support, as most of them lack adequate managerial and technical competencies to face the emerging competition. Based on a field survey, the study observes that there is a glaring mismatch between demand for and supply of BDS due to market imperfections and price distortions. Once this mismatch is removed, the small enterprises will be in a better position to derive the benefit of professional advice to improve their performance, even in the face of increased competition. (7) The Job Creation Effects of Small and Large Firm Interaction, Geoff Robson and Colin Gallagher, International Small Business Journal, Oct 1993; vol. 12: pp. 2337. The effect of the interaction between small and large firms on the creation of jobs in the United Kingdom over the period 1971 to 1989 is examined in detail. Results of four recent studies are used to assess the contribution of different size of firms to aggregate employment change. Small firms have a greater ability and potential to create jobs than do large firms. The advantages which account for this extra ability, both due to the nature of small firms themselves and to the nature of the interaction which takes place between small and large firms, are identified and evaluated. Government funding for small firms should be directed in that manner by which the nation will gain the most. It would therefore be wise to target those firms which are based in the wealth creating parts of both manufacturing and service sectors, which have either grown independently of large firms or whose growth would not adversely affect large firm growth. In particular, those small firms in which new innovations and technologies are likely to be developed should have priority for aid. The practical problem to date is that of our inability to identify successfully those firms. However there is a danger that by viewing the small firm sector in isolation from large firms, sub-optimal economic and political decision may be reached. Although small firms in job generation terms are inherently advantaged and their performance numerically dominant, it is important that small meaningful changes in large firm performance should not as a result be overlooked. BUSINESS FAILURE (8) The Problems Experienced by Young Firms, Stanley Cromie, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1991; vol. 9: pp. 4361. In this paper Cromie surveys the literature on the failure of small firms and argues that there is a need to focus attention on those factors which contribute to the demise of male and female owned firms in the demarrage phase of the development. To add to knowledge of this topic he interviewed 34 male and 34 female proprietors of four year old firms and questioned them on the problems they encountered in their early years. Results indicate that problems occur principally in the areas of finance, marketing and the management of human resources. In addition, entrepreneurs experience some difficult personal problems. Women incur a few gender specific problems during the launch of their firms but thereafter gender ceases to be a specific issue; both sexes face the same kind of problems. The paper concludes by noting that while training interventions, which focus on finance, marketing and the management of people, may well improve the chances of survival of young organisations, attention must focus on organisational diagnosis to determine where interventions are likely to succeed and on the process by which trainers assist entrepreneurs.

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(9) Small Business Failure Rates: Choice of Definition and Industry Effects, John Watson and Jim Everett, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1999; vol. 17: pp. 3147. Results from previous studies examining the incidence of small business failure have reported significant variations in failure rates between industry sectors. Indeed, the results from some studies are in direct conflict. The significant variations in reported failure rates and the apparent conflict between the findings of some studies must surely be a source of some confusion for policy makers and others with an interest in the small business sector. The results of this study suggest that reported failure rates may depend heavily on the definition of failure adopted. A better understanding of the effect that choice of failure definitions may have on reported failure rates should lead to improved policy decisions. (10) Small Business Failure and Survey of the Literature, Joyce Berryman, International Small Business Journal, Aug 1983; vol. 1: pp. 4759. The failure of small businesses has serious implications for employment in many countries and much is said and written about small business failure and bankruptcy. Authors and speakers are usually interested therefore in suggesting means of avoiding such disasters. They are bad for the economy because they mean lost jobs and a drop in the gross national product as well as promoting a lack of confidence in the small business sector; for the small businessman they may be degrading and disappointing in addition to the personal hardship involved. This survey of the literature on bankruptcy and failure has been undertaken to bring together what has been said so far. (11) Defining Small Business Failure, John Watson and Jim Everett, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1993; vol. 11: pp. 3548 In examining small business mortality researchers have used, or suggested, a variety of definitions (or proxies) for failure. It has been argued that a lack of a reliable measure of failure is a major obstacle to understanding and alleviating the causes of small business mortality. The objective of this study is to examine various definitions (or proxies) for failure identified in the literature and to assess these definitions against a set of criteria that have been developed for this purpose. The history of 333 small businesses that began in the period 19731988 in six managed shopping centres in Western Australia are analysed to illustrate the variation in reported failure rates that result from using the various definitions. The results show that the reported average annual failure rate ranged from less than 1 per cent through to 14 per cent, depending on which definition of failure is adopted. The results also indicate the possibility for using modelling to estimate potentially more relevant failure rates using readily available data such as bankruptcy statistics. (12) Franchise Versus Conventional Small Business Failure Rates in the US and UK: More Similarities than Differences, John Stanworth, David Purdy, Stuart Price, and Nicos Zafiris, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1998; vol. 16: pp. 5669.

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At its best, franchising is an avenue into self-employment offered by franchisors (owners of a tried and tested business format) to franchisees (typically aspiring small businessmen and women), in exchange for payment of a once-off frontend fee followed by an on-going royalty. Based on the principle of cloning success, a principal tenet of the franchise fraternity is that franchise failure rates are low. From the viewpoint of small business researchers, franchising has been argued to be of particular importance, since most franchisors still are, or recently have been, small businesses themselves and most of their royalty-paying franchisees are also small businesses. Thus, in principle, franchising offers a route to growth for the would-be franchisor and small businesses opportunities with limited risk for would-be franchisees. Debates on franchise failure rates, compared with conventional business failure rates, have historically been dogged by problems of definition and measurement. However, recent developments have improved the situation here and what emerges is a striking similarity of failure. (13) Success and Failure in Northern California: Critical Success Factors for Independent Restaurants, Angelo A. Camillo, Daniel J. Connolly, and Woo Gon Kim, Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, Nov 2008; vol. 49: pp. 364380. This study examines the success factors for independent restaurant operators in the San Francisco Bay Area. Through interviews and questionnaires, the cases of nine successful restaurants and nine failed restaurants were studied from 2003 to 2007. The findings reinforce past studies by emphasising the internal factors, such as overconfidence and emotional unfitness, that led to failure. Augmenting an earlier model, this study seeks to help future entrepreneurs and those who invest in restaurants. (14) Competitive Advantage and Management Development in Small Hospitality Firms: The need for an Imaginative Approach, Graham Beaver and Conrad Lashley, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jan 1998; vol. 4: pp. 145160. In theory, the small hospitality enterprise, located close to its market and in personal contact with its customers, has considerable advantage in being able to respond quickly to customer needs and demands. These firms, owned and managed by individuals intimately involved in creating the hospitality experience with customers, should enjoy considerable competitive advantage over larger organisations, that perhaps as a consequence of their organisational formality, have more remote and less personal relationships with customers. There are many small hospitality firms which do successfully compete in their local market, yet small firms in general are losing market share to the bigger operators. Some commentators go so far as dismiss the future existence of the small firm in hospitality provision! While the economic might of large firms to establish brands and operate at lower costs because of scale advantages goes some way to explain the loss of market share to small firms, the level of skills and talents together with the limited aims and objectives of those who own and manage small hospitality firms are also significant factors.

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(15) Pre-Startup Planning and the Survival of New Small Businesses: Theoretical Linkages, Gary J. Castrogiovanni, Journal of Management, Dec 1996; vol. 22: pp. 801822. Although evidence is equivocal and often contradictory, prospective business founders are generally advised to develop formal plans of their proposed ventures. Consistent with this advice, some scholars have suggested that the high mortality of new small businesses could be reduced through greater pre-start up planning. However, there is an emerging view that the value of planning is context-dependent. This view is elaborated here as it applies to new small businesses. First, ways in which pre-startup planning can facilitate survival are delineated. Then, contextual conditions that can limit these impacts are described. (16) Bankruptcy in Strategic Studies: Past and Promise, Catherine M. Daily, Journal of Management, Apr 1994; vol. 20: pp. 263295. Organisational research has historically been dominated by a focus on those factors associated with organisational growth and survival. Yet, in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of organisations, researchers must also examine an alternative outcome organisational failure. Filing for bankruptcy protection provides an explicit case of formal organisational failure; consequently, bankruptcy offers what may be the definitive organisational performance indicator. Unlike alternative performance measures which are more readily manipulated by management, a bankruptcy filing is a discrete event. This paper explores the contributions of the behavioural, environmental, financial/accounting, and legal approaches to bankruptcy. The challenge currently facing organisational researchers is the integration of these diverse perspectives, particularly as they apply to strategic studies. (17) A Constructivist Framework for Understanding Entrepreneurship Performance, Hamid Bouchikhi, Organisation Studies, Jan 1993; vol. 14: pp. 549570. This paper outlines a constructivist framework for understanding the outcomes of the entrepreneurial process. The core thesis of the paper is that, taken alone, neither the personality of the entrepreneur nor the structural characteristics of the environment determine the outcome. Rather, it is argued that the outcome of the entrepreneurial process is emergent from a complex interaction between the entrepreneur, the environment, chance events and prior performance. The framework is illustrated with evidence from biographies of six entrepreneurs involved in successful processes. BUSINESS FINANCE (18) Late Payment and Credit Management in the Small Firm Sector: Some Empirical Evidence, Michael J. Peel, Nicholas Wilson, and Carole Howorth, International Small Business Journal, Jan 2000; vol. 18: pp. 1737. The amount of working capital management undertaken was found to be related to the severity of the problem for individual firms (i.e. necessity was driving action). 23

Responses from the sample firms were found to differ significantly with respect to firm size; larger small firms had a worse late payment problem and consequently had to do more in the way of back-end credit management (i.e. collection, analysis of late payment and debtor days). However, there was barely any support for credit management training among this sub-group. The smaller (micro) firms had a lesser late payment problem and subsequently did less back-end credit management but were more concerned with various aspects of institutional finance. It was posited that the problems faced by small firms are at least partly associated with business size and with the life cycle of the firm. (19) Working Capital and Financial Management Practices in the Small Firm Sector, Michael J. Peel and Nicholas Wilson, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1996; vol. 14: pp. 5268. Very little research has been conducted on the capital budgeting and working capital practices of small firms. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a preliminary study on the working capital and financial management practices of a sample of small firms located in the north of England. In general, the results of the survey indicated that a relatively high proportion of small firms in the sample claimed to use quantitative capital budgeting and working capital techniques and to review various aspects of their companies working capital. In addition, the firms which claimed to use the more sophisticated discounted cash flow capital budgeting techniques, or which had been active in terms of reducing stock levels or the debtors credit period, on average tended to be more active in respect of working capital management practices. It is hoped that the issues raised will stimulate further theoretical and empirical contributions on this neglected and important area of small business research. (20) Financial Processes in Newly-Founded Firms, Erkki K. Laitinen, International Small Business Journal, Jul 1992; vol. 10: pp. 4754. The purpose of the study is to identify financial processes followed by Finnish newly founded firms in their first years of life. Special attention is paid to analysing the relationship between the type of process and the status of the firm (failing/nonfailing). The identification of the processes is made by factor analysis applied to selected financial variables in the first four years after foundation. This methodology is similar to that used to identify financial patterns but it is applied here to financial variables from several years simultaneously. The results of the study are tentative because of the small sample size. The results may, however, help new entrepreneurs, venture capitalists and financiers to identify and avoid risky financial processes in the early years. (21) The Problems Experienced by Young Firms, Stanley Cromie, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1991; vol. 9: pp. 4361. In this paper Cromie surveys the literature on the failure of small firms and argues that there is a need to focus attention on those factors which contribute to the demise of male and female owned firms in the demarrage phase of the development. To add to knowledge of this topic he interviewed 34 male and 34 female proprietors of four year old firms and questioned them on the problems they encountered in their early years.

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Results indicate that problems occur principally in the areas of finance, marketing and the management of human resources. In addition, entrepreneurs experience some difficult personal problems. Women incur a few gender specific problems during the launch of their firms but thereafter gender ceases to be a specific issue; both sexes face the same kind of problems. The paper concludes by noting that while training interventions, which focus on finance, marketing and the management of people, may well improve the chances of survival of young organisations, attention must focus on organisational diagnosis to determine where interventions are likely to succeed and on the process by which trainers assist entrepreneurs. SUPPORT SERVICES (22) Poverty, Sustainability, and the Culture of Despair: Can Sustainable Development Strategies Support Poverty Alleviation in Americas Most Environmentally Challenged Communities?, Amy K. Glasmeier and Tracey L. Farrigan, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Nov 2003; vol. 590: pp. 131149. Appalachia is considered one of the nations poorest areas. Many communities live in isolation. The material use of the natural landscape has affected citizens views of the viability of and potential for sustainable resource practices. In many resource dependent communities, land is externally owned and controlled. Despite living and working in areas with enormous natural resource wealth, residents have only limited access to these resources. Recognising the inability of conventional practice to resolve many of the development problems confronting communities in distress, a series of new policy initiatives are focusing on building sustainable community capacity from the ground up. Can notions of sustainability be used as a means of redistributing power and access to natural resources, or does the peculiar fate of a region, tied to massive natural resource extraction, eliminate such potential? (23) Integration of Micro/Small Business Support Agencies and Clients to Strengthen the Private Sector in the Dominican Republic, Alan Miller and John Masten, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1993; vol. 11: pp. 2636. This paper deals with the design and organisation of micro and small business support agencies in the Dominican Republic. Information for the paper was obtained in 13 indepth interviews. Attention is given to the degree of congruence between people, structure, and process of the assistance agency and the client enterprise. Special attention is given to examining divergences between client and agency characteristics. The authors then demonstrate that some of the agency activities reflect attempts by agencies to compensate for these divergences. These adjustments integrate client and agency performance in order that they better meet organisational objectives by expanding resources, providing more effective service, equating personal and organisational success, and providing a greater contribution to the economy. (24) What is Small Business Policy in the UK for? Evaluation and Assessing Small Business Policies, James Curran, International Small Business Journal, Apr 2000; vol. 18: pp. 3650.

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Since 1980 the United Kingdom small business population has increased greatly. Small businesses have also acquired a key role in UK economic policies paralleled by a huge development in support structures to promote them. Despite broad rhetorical claims that policies and support help develop a strong enterprise culture and promote UK economic prosperity, the precise outcomes of these policies have been difficult to pin down. As policies developed over the 20 years, the evaluation of their achievements has also proved difficult because of methodological problems. This paper examines the problems of evaluating small business policies and support and draws out some key implications for their future in the UK. It concludes that even allowing for the problems of evaluation, one of the best and clearest supported findings is of poor take-up of the support offered. In other words, although small businesses have become much more important in the UK economy, it is unlikely that this has been due to state intervention. Because of the well-entrenched unanimity on the value of small business support in the UK, little attention has been given to whether the support represents good value for public money. Small and medium-sized businesses now account for well over half of business turnover and jobs in the UK. Not only can there be doubts about whether the policies and support are cost effective but more importantly, the question can be asked whether such policies are needed at all any more. (25) Business Improvement Districts and Small Business Advocacy: The Case of San Diegos Citywide BID Program, Robert J. Stokes, Economic Development Quarterly, Aug 2007; vol. 21: pp. 278291. Urban analysts have pointed to the importance of neighbourhood commercial districts in enhancing amenities and providing low- to mid-skill-level employment and entrepreneurial opportunities for local residents. Business improvement districts (BIDs) offer an innovation to the problem of urban commercial decline. This work addresses one key policy question: How can cities use BIDs to assist their small business base? This work differs from previous examinations of BIDs in that it addresses localised policy and administration of a citywide BID programme, not collective assessments of larger BIDs nationally or theoretical issues of accountability or governance of BIDs. The case of one citywide BID programme in San Diego, California, is offered as an illustration of the prospects and issues related to the use of BIDs as a small business enhancement strategy. (26) Advising the Small Business Client, Linda M. Dyer and Christopher A. Ross, International Small Business Journal, Apr 2007; vol. 25: pp. 130151. The context of the professional business advisor is explored, with specific focus on the culture, communication preferences and learning styles they prefer. The advisors rational and analytic world-view is contrasted with the informal and idiosyncratic world of the typical small business owner. Interviews with ten professional advisors suggest that there is some truth to the assumption that advisors and owners have disparate world-views. Advisors do recognise this disparity, but recognition of the problem is only the first step. Even advisors who are motivated to improve the advice relationship by immersing themselves in the world of the small business owner can expect to face challenges because of the dynamic nature of the advisory relationship and of the firms development.

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(27) Small Business and Entrepreneurship Research: The Way Through Paradigm Incommensurability, Lorraine Watkins-Mathys and Sid Lowe, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2005; vol. 23: pp. 657677. There have been a number of debates recently around the development of paradigms and research methodologies in the field of small business and entrepreneurship research. This article focuses on paradigm commensurability by demonstrating how an interpretive framework can be used that eliminates walls between paradigms and enables paradigms to interpret other paradigms. The authors illustrate how a framework based on wisdom rather than knowledge alone provides strategic options for paradigm development in the field. The article acknowledges the systematic analysis of paradigms and indeed uses a thorough review of the literature as a basis to illustrate how the interpretive framework can be applied. (28) The Effectiveness of Training for New Business Creation: A Longitudinal Study, Colette Henry, Frances M. Hill, and Claire M. Leitch, International Small Business Journal, Jun 2004; vol. 22: pp. 249271. In the last couple of decades there has been a growing interest in the role that small and new businesses can play in economic development. Despite this growth there is still a relative paucity of rigorous empirical research that attempts to assess the impact of initiatives, including those education and training programmes designed to support new business creation. In particular, the lack of longitudinal studies and studies employing control groups, has been noted in the literature. The research reported in this article, which was conducted in Ireland, represents an attempt to overcome such methodological deficiencies. The study presents some evidence that a range of qualitative and quantitative outcomes may emanate from training programmes directed at aspiring new business owners, which are worthy of further investigation. The limitations of the study are acknowledged, recommendations for further research are made and implications for policy makers and training providers are highlighted. (29) Business Advisers Impact on SMEs: An Agency Theory Approach, Kevin Mole, International Small Business Journal, May 2002; vol. 20: pp. 139162. The broad focus of this article concerns the UK Business Link policy to target business advice to small and medium-sized firms. This policy, which operated between 19939, encouraged Business Link to provide advice to firms with the potential to grow. The article considers the targeted policy from the perspective of the Business Link personal business adviser (PBA). Overall, from a principal-agent perspective, the article examines the incentives and relationships between various business advisers and their SME (small to medium-sized enterprise) clients to explain the impact of business advice. The article draws on a qualitative-quantitative study of business advice conducted by the author. Twenty-nine business advisers participated in individual semistructured interviews and a focus group of ten public sector business advisers provided the qualitative element of the research. A survey of 175 Business Link personal business advisers (PBAs) provided the quantitative element to the research. The article suggests that Business Link PBAs advice is likely to impact less on SMEs than that of accountants and solicitors simply because of the basis of their relationship.

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(30) Specificity and Denaturing of Small Business, Olivier Torrs and Pierre-Andr Julien, International Small Business Journal, Aug 2005; vol. 23: pp. 355377. This article is based on a long consideration of the concept of small business after 30 years of conceptual development. Most, if not all, researchers in small business have accepted the idea that small business is specific (the preponderant role of the owner/manager, low level of functional breakdown, intuitive strategy, etc.). However, the somewhat excessive assertion of this idea may suggest that all small firms adopt a specific management method, with the result that management specificity becomes a universal principle. If we allow that small business management can be specific, we must also allow the corollary of this statement, namely the possibility of denaturing (loss of specificity). In other words, a small-sized firm does not necessarily have to adhere to the classical management method. The authors of this article advocate a contingency approach to small business managerial specificity that would allow for the definition of a validity framework for the thesis of small business managerial specificity. (31) Small Business and Entrepreneurial Research: Meta-theories, Paradigms and Prejudices, Paul Grant and Lew Perren, International Small Business Journal, May 2002; vol. 20: pp. 185211. Small business and entrepreneurship has emerged as an important area of research over the past 40 years. Much of this development has been achieved by drawing on and adapting the theoretical frameworks of disciplines from outside. However, such diversity of disciplinary foundation does not necessarily result in a diversity of underlying meta-theoretical assumptions within an area. Other areas of the social sciences have benefited from the consideration of the meta-theoretical foundations of their research and as a consequence they have been able to extend their research into new agendas. There has been some meta-theoretic discussion of small business and entrepreneurial research, yet the review conducted for this project found no recent articles that provided a systematic analysis of contemporary research. This article will address this gap by employing a paradigmatic taxonomy to conduct a systematic metatheoretical analysis of articles published in the year 2000 by leading authors in key small business and entrepreneurial journals. The analysis shows a dominance of the functionalist paradigm that pervades the elite discourse of research in leading journals and acts as a potential barrier to other perspectives. Whether a Hegelian or Kuhnian perspective on knowledge production is taken, it is clear that the health and future development of research in this area requires a broadening of perspectives to enable debate, friction, creativity and ultimately new theories and understandings. (32) Small Firms Training and Competitiveness. Building Upon the Small Business as a Learning Organisation, Allan A. Gibb, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1997; vol. 15: pp. 1329. This paper begins with a review of the present concerns to link training with competitiveness in the United Kingdom and Europe. It notes that many of the issues raised in this respect are over 20 years old. It suggests therefore a new way to approach the problems, namely by considering the learning needs that will reduce the transaction costs of the small firm operating its stakeholder environment. After defining the concept of learning it makes the distinction between contextual learning (via experience) and the associated tacit (subjective) knowledge that is gained by this, and objective and abstract

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knowledge frequently purveyed by teachers. It then explores the issue of the SME as a learning company and argues that the key to its learning is via the transactional and other relationship that it has with its immediate network environment. The concept of learning circles and learning partnerships is introduced as a basis for exploring in some detail the issue of who needs to learn. It is argued that the learning needs of those who effectively dictate the level of the playing field for achieving small business success are very high. The nature and importance of this learning need is then explored for key groups. It is argued that the benefits to society of this holistic approach to learning is a reduction in the discontinuities between the SME and its environment and therefore a lowering of transaction costs. (33) The Role of Government in SME Development in Transition Economies, David Smallbone and Friederike Welter, International Small Business Journal, Jul 2001; vol. 19: pp. 6377. The paper is concerned with the role of government in relation to SME development in economies at different stages of market reform. It demonstrates that, as in mature market economies, the state is a major factor influencing the nature and pace of SME development, although more through its influence on the external environment in which business activity can develop than through direct support measures or interventions. Survey evidence from the Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova suggests that many enterprises are set up, survive and sometimes even grow despite government, because of the creativity of individuals in mobilising resources and their flexibility in adapting to hostile external environments. The problem is that in these situations the number of firms remains small and their contribution to economic development rather limited. In such a context, government still has to create the framework conditions for private sector development to become embedded and sustaining. At the same time, in countries where market reforms are at a more advanced stage (such as Poland), current priorities for government with respect to the environment for SME development include bringing legislation and regulations in line with EU standards in preparation for EU accession, encouraging the banking system to adapt and recognise the SME sector as a potential market for a range of financial products, facilitating the development of venture capital funds for that minority of SMEs that seek external equity, and working in partnership with the private sector to establish an effective support infrastructure. Although there may be a case for selective interventions in both types of circumstances, direct support measures are not the main role for government in either case. BUSINESS FUNDING (34) Working Capital and Financial Management Practices in the Small Firm Sector, Michael J. Peel and Nicholas Wilson, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1996; vol. 14: pp. 5268. Very little research has been conducted on the capital budgeting and working capital practices of small firms. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a preliminary study on the working capital and financial management practices of a sample of small firms located in the north of England. In general, the results of the survey indicated that a relatively high proportion of small firms in the sample claimed to use quantitative capital budgeting and working capital techniques and to review various aspects of their companies working capital. In addition, the firms which

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claimed to use the more sophisticated discounted cash flow capital budgeting techniques, or which had been active in terms of reducing stock levels or the debtors credit period, on average tended to be more active in respect of working capital management practices. It is hoped that the issues raised will stimulate further theoretical and empirical contributions on this neglected and important area of small business research. (35) Improving Small Business Survival Rates via Franchising The Role of the Banks in Europe, Peter Stern and John Stanworth, International Small Business Journal, Jan 1994; vol. 12: pp. 1525. The paper examines issues such as the early origins of franchising and different manifestations of the concept. Some international statistics are presented and certain problems of measurement illustrated. Finally, a survey of specialist bank provision for franchising in Europe shows only British and Dutch banks as giving full support with French banks also displaying a good level of franchise knowledge. The article concludes that the banking sectors of both Western and Eastern Europe have much left to do if they are to assist the development of franchising to its full potential. (36) Small Business Loan Decisions: A Survey of Criteria in Japan and Nigeria, S. I. Owualah, International Small Business Journal, Oct 1988; vol. 7: pp. 2942. This paper reports the results of a survey of small business loan decision criteria in two countries at very different stages of development. Japan and Nigeria present striking contrasts, not only in terms of their levels of economic development but also in terms of socio-economic infrastructures enjoyed by their small businesses. On both counts Japan towers over Nigeria. Hence the perceptions of the banking institutions to small business lending in the former can be used to assess the perceptions of those in the latter. A major finding of this study is that although there is some degree of congruence on what banking institutions in both countries consider to be critical in their small business loan decisions, the observed divergences in their perceptions may be the consequence of institutional or promotional support inequalities between them. (37) Is there Any Specific Equity Route for Small and Medium-Sized Family Businesses? The French Experience, Loc Mahrault, Family Business Review, Sep 2004; vol. 17: pp. 221235. This article presents a precise typology of French initial public offerings (IPOs) with the underlying aim of suggesting that small and medium-sized family businesses could have a specific approach to capital dilution. The analysis breaks free from the traditional family versus nonfamily business methodology and is based first on a global cluster analysis. It aimed to prove that family businesses were not only different but also specific. Empirical results make it possible to consider that there is a specific attitude among family businesses aiming at quotation. The sample is composed of 131 IPOs. The study covers the period from January 1997 to May 1999 and includes all the IPOs that occurred during these two-and-a-half years. This period was probably the most active period for the French sections of the stock exchange dedicated to small and medium-sized companies. What inspired this study was the feeling that there was a new competition between venture capitalist companies and the stock exchange: recent experience on the financial markets clearly highlights the fact that many companies

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preferred to go public rather than to significantly open their equity structure to private investors. Consequently, the first aim of this research was to prove that the equity route of some small and medium enterprises (SMEs) no longer follows the linear process of dilution as supposed by the classical financial theory. The second aim was to demonstrate that the approach of small and medium-sized family businesses is closer to the classical equity route (regular process of dilution), whereas fast-growing and young companies prefer to go public. (38) The Influence of Going Public on Investment Policy: An Empirical Study of French Family-Owned Businesses, Loc Mahrault, Family Business Review, Mar 2000; vol. 13: pp. 7179. The study is carried out on two samples of small French family firms. The first is composed of 46 private companies, the second of 49 listed companies. All companies are SMEs (small and medium-size enterprises) and are nearly the same size. Empirical results are based on two cross-sectional analyses (1992, 1993). Linear regressions between investment and financial constraints are presented for the two samples separately. Results are very different, depending on whether the firm is listed. The description of private firms investment is consistent with the pecking order theory and financial constraints clearly appear. The description of listed family firms is more classical: investment and financing policies seem to be independent. Finally, quoted family-owned businesses do not seem to suffer from lack of capital. (39) Finance in Family Business, Miguel A. Gallo and Alvaro Vilaseca, Family Business Review, Dec 1996; vol. 9: pp. 387401. This article is an exploratory investigation of the financial issues of family business, such as capital structure, behaviour towards investments and risk, and dividend policy. The relation between these dimensions and performance is also analysed. The most important findings of this research are that family businesses have low debt equity levels, especially those family businesses that have an important market-share position in their industry. The family businesses that have leading market-share positions have lesser financial performance than the family businesses who are followers in market share. (40) What do Investors Look for in a Business Plan?: A Comparison of the Investment Criteria of Bankers, Venture Capitalists and Business Angels, Colin Mason and Matthew Stark, International Small Business Journal, Jun 2004; vol. 22: pp. 227248. Most potential funders wish to see a business plan as a first step in deciding whether or not to invest. However, much of the literature on how to write a business plan fails to emphasise that different types of funder look at business plans from different perspectives. Using a real time methodology this article highlights the different investment criteria of bankers, venture capital fund managers and business angels. Bankers stress the financial aspects of the proposal and give little emphasis to market, entrepreneur or other issues. As equity investors, venture capital fund managers and business angels have a very different approach, emphasising both market and finance issues. Business angels give more emphasis than venture capital fund managers to the entrepreneur and investor fit considerations. The implication for entrepreneurs is that

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they must customise their business plan according to whether they are seeking funding from a bank, venture capital fund or business angel. (41) The Contribution of Small Business Loan Guarantees to Economic Development, Ted K. Bradshaw, Economic Development Quarterly, Nov 2002; vol. 16: pp. 360369. Analysis of the outcome of economic development programmes is essential for improved public policy. This study reports on the California State Loan Guarantee Program, which guaranteed small business bank loans to carefully selected firms that could not otherwise obtain credit. The study tracked the actual change in employment at 1166 firms that received 1515 loan guarantees from 1990 to 1996 during the depths of the California recession. The study found that employment increased in firms receiving loan guarantees by 40% among all firms and 27% among non-agricultural firms. The programme also increased state tax revenues by $25.5 million, well in excess of the $13 million the state spent on the programme. Firms receiving loan guarantees had a default rate of only 2%. (42) The Valuation and Cost of Credit Insurance Schemes for SMEs: The Role of the Loan Guarantee Associations, David Camino and Clara Cardone, International Small Business Journal, Jul 1999; vol. 17: pp. 1331. Small and Medium enterprises (SMEs) have important limitations from the financial viewpoint. Their reduced capability to generate resources (self financing) and their high financial cost as compared with the profitability of investment, makes them highly dependent on short-term bank financing. Among the different mechanisms used to solve these financial problems are credit guarantee schemes such as Loan Guarantee Association (LGA). These (mutual or government granted) credit insurance systems were set up to ease the access of SMEs to the credit market by covering part of the loss incurred when borrowers defaulted on loans. (43) The Nature of the Banking Relationship: A Comparison of the Experiences of Male and Female Small Business Owners, Sally A. McKechnie, Christine T. Ennew, and Lauren H. Read, International Small Business Journal, Apr 1998; vol. 16: pp. 3955. The purpose of this paper is to shed new light on the issue of whether banks treat female and male small business owners differently, by exploring the nature of the banking relationship from the perspective of two groups of owner-managers differentiated only by gender. Following a review of the literature, which is predominantly North American-based, this paper goes on to report the findings of two empirical studies conducted in the UK, which focus on financing conditions and aspects of the overall relationship between the small business and the bank manager. The findings suggest that gender based differences in both the provision of finance and the nature of the banking relationship are less substantial than might have been expected. (44) Venture Capitalists and Closely Held IPOs: Lessons for Family-Controlled Firms, Joseph H. Astrachan and Daniel L. McConaughy, Family Business Review, Dec 2001; vol. 14: pp. 295311.

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This study examines how the presence of venture capitalists (VCs) in closely held IPOs relates to their performance. It also identifies other factors that are related to the performance of closely held IPOs. Closely held firms in this study had an average of 88% insider ownership before the IPO. In general, we find that closely held IPOs benefit from associations with VCs. This finding suggests that VCs outside expertise and connections are valuable assets. Because it takes time for VCs to effect changes and because beneficial changes generally occur gradually, firms contemplating IPOs must plan well in advance to maximise firm value. Family-controlled firms contemplating growth or liquidity options through the IPO, VCs, or other outside capital should consider the findings of this study because it identifies factors that are associated with more successful IPO outcomes. (45) Government as Venture Capital Catalyst: Pitfalls and Promising Approaches, Timothy Bates, Economic Development Quarterly, Feb 2002; vol. 16: pp. 49 59. Former President Bill Clintons New Markets Initiative includes a proposal to create companies that will invest venture capital into small firms that operate in low-income areas. Important elements of this proposal are essentially recycled ideas that worked badly when implemented back in the 1970s by the U.S. Small Business Administration. This study identifies failed concepts being built into present and proposed venturecapital community development financial institutions. Concrete suggestions are offered that may circumvent building structural deficiencies into the emerging generation of community development financial institutions. In particular, these community development financial institutions need to avoid the debt financing that government is offering as an incentive to promote venture-capital financing in small businesses. (46) Strategies for Expanding the Informal Venture Capital Market, Colin Mason and Richard Harrison, International Small Business Journal, Jul 1993; vol. 11: pp. 2338. Research in a number of countries has established that informal venture capital is a major source of risk capital for entrepreneurial companies, substantially exceeding the size of the formal venture capital market. The informal venture capital market comprises individuals commonly termed business angels who provide risk capital directly to entrepreneurial businesses. Demand for informal venture capital is increasing in Britain as a result of the tightening in lending to small businesses by banks and the shift of institutional venture capital funds even further away from start-up and early stage investments. This paper argues that there is considerable scope to expand the supply of informal venture capital. First, most active informal investors are unable to find sufficient investment opportunities. As a result, they have substantial uncommitted sums available for informal investments. Second, active investors represent only a fraction of self-made, high net worth individuals. The establishment of business introduction services can play a key role in enabling active investors to identify appropriate investment opportunities and also provide virgin angels with a source of investment opportunities, thereby removing a major constraint to their participation in the informal venture capital market. However, business introduction services are still at the experimental stage and have had only a limited impact on the flow of informal venture capital. Key determinants in the success of business introduction services appear to be marketing effort to build a critical mass.

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(47) Influences on the Supply of Informal Venture Capital in the UK: An Exploratory Study of Investor Attitudes, Colin M. Mason and Richard T. Harrison, International Small Business Journal, Jul 2000; vol. 18: pp. 1128. The need to increase the availability of small-scale early stage venture capital has been recognised as a key factor in the development of an entrepreneurial economy. Informal venture capital plays a key role in financing the earliest stages of entrepreneurial growth ventures. This paper is an exploratory attempt to identify the factors that influence the supply of informal venture capital. A questionnaire survey of business angels sought to examine the macro-economic factors that influence the proportion of their personal investment portfolio allocated to investments in unquoted small businesses. The findings indicate that tax is the most significant influence on the willingness of business angels to make such investments whereas the economic environment the rate of economic growth, interest rates and the rate of inflation exerts a much more modest influence. (48) Short-term Debt in Spanish SMEs, Pedro J. Garca-Teruel and Pedro MartnezSolano, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2007; vol. 25: pp. 579602. This article analyses the debt maturity structure of small and medium-sized firms in terms of the risk and return trade-off associated with the use of short-term loans. The sample covers 11,533 small and medium-sized Spanish manufacturing firms over the period from 1997 to 2001.The results show that short-term loans are more common in firms with greater financial strength, greater financial flexibility, and major growth options, and when the interest cost differential between short- and long-term loans is more pronounced. Additionally, the size of the firm seems to have an influence on the level of short-term loans; short-term borrowing levels are higher in the smaller firms. (49) The Views of Family Companies on Venture Capital: Empirical Evidence from the UK Small to Medium-Size Enterprising Economy, Panikkos Zata Poutziouris, Family Business Review, Sep 2001; vol. 14: pp. 277291. This explorative research paper draws evidence from a database of small to mediumsize unquoted private companies (n = 240) in the UK and reports on the family business and venture capital relationship from the demand side. Following the review of literature relating to financial affairs of private companies, the main research inquiries are outlined and a set of generic hypotheses is elicited based on the pecking order theory that is, private companies, including family-controlled ventures, have a propensity to finance their operations in a hierarchical fashion, first using internally available funds, followed by debt and, finally, external equity. Univariate statistical analyses confirm that family companies adhere strongly to the pecking order principles of financial development. The paper explores factors governing the rationale of owner-managing directors of private and family companies for considering venture capital dealings as well as main areas of concern about the deal structures. The paper then concludes with a discussion of the policy implications from the perspective of the owner-manager, financier, and enterprise policy maker. To encourage equity development of smaller privately held companies, particularly family firms, there is room for policy initiatives that respect the financial philosophy of private companies.

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(50) The Evaluation Criteria used by Venture Capitalists: Evidence from a UK Venture Fund, Grahame Boocock and Margaret Woods, International Small Business Journal, Oct 1997; vol. 16: pp. 3657. The paper examines how venture fund managers select their investee companies, by exploring the evaluation criteria and the decision-making process adopted at one United Kingdom regional venture fund (henceforth referred to as the Fund). The analysis confirms that relatively consistent evaluation criteria are applied across the industry and corroborates previous models which suggest that the venture capitalists decisionmaking consists of several stages. With the benefit of access to the Funds internal records, however, this paper adds to the current literature by differentiating the evaluation criteria used at each successive stage of the decision-making process. The paper presents a model of the Funds activities which demonstrates that the relative importance attached to the evaluation criteria changes as applications are systematically processed. Proposals have to satisfy different criteria at each stage of the decisionmaking process before they receive funding. In the vast majority of cases, applications are rejected by the fund managers. In addition, the length of time taken by the fund managers in appraising propositions can lead to withdrawal of applications at an advanced stage. CHAPTER 5 The topics for which specific articles are identified include market analysis, business strategy, competitive mapping to determine an appropriate positioning and macroenvironmental factors of influence. MARKET SIZE (1) Compiling Market Reports: The Value of Online Databases, David Tucker, Business Information Review, Oct 1994; vol. 11: pp. 216. Evaluates the importance of online business databases to the compiler and writer of market reports. Analyses the types of information source needed for market reports and their availability online. Compares information search and retrieval costs of online and conventional methods. Gives specific examples of market reports being prepared for publication. (2) International Market Entry by U.S. Internet Firms: An Empirical Analysis of Country Risk, National Culture, and Market Size, Frank T. Rothaermel, Suresh Kotha, and H. Kevin Steensma, Journal of Management, Feb 2006; vol. 32: pp. 5682. Internet firms face somewhat unique challenges when expanding abroad. On what basis do U.S. Internet firms choose the international markets they enter? The authors posit that international market entry decisions are based on balancing perceived risks and returns inherent in a foreign target market. Drawing on a sample of almost 7000 country entry decisions by 179 U.S. Internet firms, they find that country risk, cultural distance, and uncertainty avoidance reduce the likelihood of international market entry, whereas individualism and masculinity increase it. International market size, however,

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moderates these relationships by weakening the negative effects, while strengthening the positive effects. (3) Product Portfolio Analysis and Market Share Objectives: An Exposition of Certain Underlying Relationships, P. Rajan Varadarajan, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 1990; vol. 18: pp. 1729. Market share plays a central role in a number of portfolio planning models. This article presents an exposition of the underlying relationship between market share, market size, market growth rate, product sales volume and product sales growth rate. Three constructs the market share multiplier, the physical volume multiplier, and the dollar volume multiplier which aid in the strategic analysis of the product portfolio are proposed. The linkages between inter-related growth constructs such as the volumetric and dollar sales growth rate, and the nominal and real dollar sales growth rate are discussed. Certain generalisations regarding market share and its sensitivity to various environmental conditions are highlighted. (4) Foreign Market Entry Mode Choice of Service Firms: A Contingency Perspective, Ikechi Ekeledo and K. Sivakumar, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 1998; vol. 26: pp. 274292. Research on how service firms choose their initial mode of operation in foreign markets appears to have led to two contradictory conclusions. Findings from one group of studies suggest that factors determining entry mode choice by manufacturing firms are generalisable to service firms. Findings from another group of studies contradict that view. The authors reconcile the two views by means of a classification scheme that allows some services to be grouped with manufactured goods in terms of entry mode choice. A conceptual model of factors affecting the entry mode choice of service firms is proposed, research propositions are developed, and managerial implications and future research directions are discussed. (5) Issues and Perspectives in Global Customer Relationship Management, B. Ramaseshan, David Bejou, Subhash C. Jain, Charlotte Mason, and Joseph Pancras, Journal of Service Research, Nov 2006; vol. 9: pp. 195207. Over the past few decades, cross-border business has experienced unparalleled growth. This growth is due to advances in communication and information technologies, privatisation and deregulation in emerging economies, and emergence of the global consumer. As the era of globalisation continues to manifest through the emergence of global companies, the importance of customer relationship management (CRM) in these companies has become increasingly significant. Global CRM (GCRM) is the strategic application of the processes and practices of CRM by firms operating in multiple countries or by firms serving customers who span multiple countries, which incorporates relevant differences in business practices, competition, regulatory characteristics, country characteristics, and consumer characteristics to CRM strategies to maximise customer value across the global customer portfolio of the firm. In this article, the authors present an overview of the GCRM environment and the challenges in formulation and implementation of CRM across national boundaries as a source of sustained advantage. The authors also provide a conceptual framework for GCRM and recommendations for future research.

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(6) Marketing, Market Growth, and Endogenous Growth Theory: An Inquiry Into the Causes of Market Growth, Sundar Bharadwaj, Terry Clark, and Songpol Kulviwat, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jul 2005; vol. 33: pp. 347359. Market growth plays a central role in virtually all strategic marketing models developed in the past 30 years. Although marketing scholars seem implicitly to assume that marketing efforts contribute in some way to market growth, market growth per se remains a conceptual black box in marketing. Using new developments in endogenous growth theory, this article explores the link between marketing actions and market growth. In particular, the authors develop a conceptual model arguing that the effect of endogenous actions on market growth is mediated by knowledge creation, matching, and diffusion. Propositions are proposed to guide future research. The authors discuss the implications for marketing strategy at both business discipline and public policy levels. (7) Canadian Domestic Travel Behaviour: A Market Segmentation Study of Rural Shoppers, Barbara A. Carmichael and Wayne W. Smith, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Oct 2004; vol. 10: pp. 333347. Rural shopping is emerging as a tourism market that is under-researched and offers potential for the economic development of rural regions. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the role and importance of the domestic rural shopping market in Canada as a niche market in rural tourism, and to provide a description of the characteristics of rural shoppers. Secondary data analysis of the domestic Canadian Travel Survey (19982001) reveals that there are many rural visitors who also participate in shopping, and that rural shoppers display different characteristics from average Canadian domestic travellers. Market segmentation using cluster analysis identifies five activity-based groups that differ on the basis of demographics and trip characteristics. (8) UK Business Information Market: Sources of Statistics and Market Data, Fred Hitchins and David Mort, Business Information Review, Dec 1999; vol. 16: pp. 203209. Indications are given of the current availability of key sources of statistical data and other information on the UK business information market, the largest market in Europe, its general coverage and the problems posed by its rapidly changing nature. Focuses on the market for published information, mainly books, reports, directories, newspapers, periodicals and legal documents, in either hard copy format or via electronic formats such as the Web, other online sources and CD-ROMs. Lists and briefly describes, Web sites, selected surveys, including those from the DTI; EPS Ltd; Frost & Sullivan Ltd; Key Note Ltd; Headland Business Information; Information Market Observatory (IMO); Marketing Strategies for Industry (MSI); and Learned Information Europe Ltd. Lists and describes some of the sources of regular surveys of specific publishing and information sectors: Directory and Database Publishers Association; Periodical Publishers Association; Publishers Association; and market research publishers. Sources of price data (Library and Information Statistics Unit (LISU)), and market research (British Market Research Association (BMRA)) are included.

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(9) International Marketing Information: UK Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Perceptions of Different Sources and Types, Dave Crick, Business Information Review, Jun 2005; vol. 22: pp. 114122. Studies have shown that lack of information can provide an obstacle in firms endeavour to be competitive in overseas markets. This study provides empirical data that examines how managers of internationalising UK firms perceive the usefulness of overseas market information sources, their level of utilisation, plus perceptions of the types of data required. Findings are primarily based on a postal survey of 446 firms. Also reported are selected findings from 20 in-depth interviews. Results establish that a high percentage of firms actively utilise internal staff, agents, social contacts and the Internet in comparison with other data sources in finding various types of information. Furthermore, the interviews found that firms own websites provide reference points for other businesses and this has resulted in many enquiries and orders for a relatively large percentage of firms. (10) An Experimental Study of Managers and Researchers Use of Consumer Market Research, Michael Y Hu, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Sep 1986; vol. 14: pp. 4451. Little work has been done to experimentally measure the impact of information on new product decisions. The author reports on both manager and researcher use of information in assessing sales estimates. Findings indicate that the two groups differ widely in their decision-making style and research use. FORECAST ERROR (11) An Assessment of Combining Tourism Demand Forecasts over Different Time Horizons, Shujie Shen, Gang Li, and Haiyan Song, Journal of Travel Research, Nov 2008; vol. 47: pp. 197207. This study investigates the performance of combination forecasts in comparison to individual forecasts. The empirical study focuses on the U.K. outbound leisure tourism demand for the United States. The combination forecasts are based on the competing forecasts generated from seven individual forecasting techniques. The three combination methods examined in this study are the simple average combination method, the variancecovariance combination method, and the discounted mean square forecast error method. The empirical results suggest that combination forecasts overall play an important role in the improvement of forecasting accuracy in that they are superior to the best of the individual forecasts over different forecasting horizons. The variance covariance combination method turns out to be the best among the three combination methods. Another finding is that the encompassing test does not significantly contribute to the improved accuracy of combination forecasts. This study provides robust evidence for the efficiency of combination forecasts. (12) An Integrative Approach to Tourism Forecasting: A Glance in the Rearview Mirror, Carmen Tideswell, Trevor Mules, and Bill Faulkner, Journal of Travel Research, Nov 2001; vol. 40: pp. 162171.

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In 1996, the South Australian Tourism Commission initiated a tourism forecasting and economic impact study to assess their future tourism industry potential. The integrative forecasting approach adopted advocates a combination of quantitative top-down and bottom-up approaches, along with a qualitative delphi survey to gather key industry input to the forecasting process. The article provides a retrospective assessment of the forecast accuracy for South Australias domestic and international tourism markets. Consideration of the most appropriate methods for updating existing state tourism forecasts, based on the South Australian experience, is also made. The findings suggest that the forecast accuracy for both international and domestic visitors was quite high overall. However, this apparent accuracy disguises some significant inaccuracies for particular segments, such as New Zealand and Other Asia, illustrating the difficulty of using time-series-type approaches to tourism forecasting in situations where the numbers are quite small and subject to significant volatility. (13) Comparing Forecasting Models in Tourism, Rachel J. C. Chen, Peter Bloomfield, and Frederick W. Cubbage, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Feb 2008; vol. 32: pp. 321. This study uses three major U.S. national parks as applications of statistically selecting appropriate methods to forecast attendance. Forecasting methods assessed include Nave 1, Nave 2, single moving average (SMA), single exponential smoothing (SES), Browns, Holts, autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), derived time series cross-section regression (TSCSREG), and time series analysis with explanatory variable models. The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is used to measure the accuracy of forecasting methods. Based on the MAPE values, SMA produces the most accurate forecasting, followed closely by ARIMA, Browns, and Nave 1 models. Holts and TSCSREG models produce the next most accurate forecasting, followed by SES, time series analysis with explanatory variable model, and Nave 2. Methods used in this article are readily transferable to other hospitality and tourism data sets with annual visitation figures. Merits and limits of the proposed forecasting methods are discussed. NEW PRODUCT FAILURES (14) Perceived Environmental Turbulence and Its Effect on Selected Entrepreneurship, Marketing, and Organisational Characteristics in Industrial Firms, Duane Davis, Michael Morris, and Jeff Allen, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 1991; vol. 19: pp. 4351. Entrepreneurship and marketing are approached as pro-active corporate responses to an increasingly dynamic, threatening, and complex external environment. Both represent organisational orientations built around creativity, innovativeness, flexibility, and risktaking. A conceptual model is proposed relating the levels of entrepreneurship, marketing activity, and marketing-related structure of a firm to the degree of perceived environmental turbulence confronting the firm. Results of a survey involving personal interviews with managers in 93 firms representing six industries are reported. Turbulence is found to have a significant causal impact on both the levels of entrepreneurship and the marketing orientation of the firm, but not on structural variables.

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(15) The Role of Market Orientation in the Relationship between Entrepreneurial Proactiveness and Performance, Andreu Blesa and Maria Ripolls, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Mar 2003; vol. 12: pp. 119. The relationship between entrepreneurial proactiveness and business performance has often been implicitly assumed to be positive. The thrust in this argument is the firms ability to anticipate needs in the marketplace and also to anticipate the action of its competitors. However, very little research has been done to examine this relationship. The present study makes an attempt to examine this relationship. The study makes an attempt to identify the role of market orientation as a moderating factor between entrepreneurial proactiveness and business performance. The paper presents the results of the study carried out in the Spanish ceramic tile sector. The study used validated scales to measure the entrepreneurial proactiveness and market orientation. The statistical technique used is path analysis. The research concluded that entrepreneurial proactiveness has a positive effect on market orientation, which again in turn has a positive effect on business profitability and sales growth. (16) Acceleration and Extension of Opportunity Recognition for Nanotechnologies and Other Emerging Technologies, Jonathan D. Linton and Steven T. Walsh, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2008; vol. 26: pp. 8399. Commercialisation and transfer of technology from laboratories in academe, government, and industry has only met a fraction of its potential. Many suggest that the processes used are currently more of an art than a science. Here we provide a plausible normative model that is used for idea generation and opportunity recognition developed for and used at Sandia National Laboratories. The resultant research value-added process integrates technology description, the dual process model of innovation and a product introduction model. The model and process are presented as is the application of the model to technology developments from a research laboratory that are either potentially disruptive or sustaining. The generalisability of research value-added process to both disruptive and sustaining technologies is key to the success of the model and process. Consequently, it is of value in considering alternative uses for existing products, such as simulation software, or applications or research findings that are disruptive and/or emerging technologies, such as nanotechnologies. MACRO-ENVIRONMENT (17) Impact of the Macro Environment: An Examination of the Economic Propensity of UK Regional Markets for Tourism to Scotland, Colin Munro and Ian Yeoman, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Oct 2005; vol. 11: pp. 370381. Forecasting UK domestic tourists to Scotland is never an exact science, but in order to see into the future it is important to understand the correlation between economic performance and tourism revenues. In order to do this, VisitScotland, the national tourism agency for Scotland, uses econometrics (the Moffat model). VisitScotland is projecting a robust performance for UK tourism in Scotland up to 2008, based upon a stable housing market, a tight labour market and low interest rates. Therefore Scottish tourism domestic revenues should rise from 4.1bn in 2005 to 4.4bn in 2008 in terms of real expenditure (excluding inflation). This paper sets out to explain this forecast. The forecasts are based upon economic conditions and represent the opportunity for

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tourism; they do not account for shocks such as 9/11 or extreme weather conditions. Such projections are used as a guide to the future, rather than the exact future. (18) Marketing Strategy and the Internet: An Organizing Framework, P. Rajan Varadarajan and Manjit S. Yadav, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2002; vol. 30: pp. 296312. Competitive strategy is primarily concerned with how a business should deploy resources at its disposal to achieve and maintain defensible competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. Competitive marketing strategy focuses on how a business should deploy marketing resources at its disposal to facilitate the achievement and maintenance of competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. In a growing number of product-markets, the competitive landscape has evolved from a predominantly physical marketplace to one encompassing both the physical and the electronic marketplace. This article presents a conceptual framework delineating the drivers and outcomes of marketing strategy in the context of competing in this broader, evolving marketplace. The proposed framework provides insights into changes in the nature and scope of marketing strategy; specific industry, product, buyer, and buying environment characteristics; and the unique skills and resources of the firm that assume added relevance in the context of competing in the evolving marketplace. (19) Market-Focused Strategic Flexibility: Conceptual Advances and an Integrative Model, Jean L. Johnson, Ruby Pui-Wan Lee, Amit Saini, and Bianca Grohmann, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2003; vol. 31: pp. 7489. This article develops the concept of market-focused strategic flexibility. It begins with a review of the historical perspectives of strategic flexibility. To support the conceptualisation, the authors offer a theoretical schema that considers market-focused strategic flexibility as conceptually rooted in capabilities theory, resource-based views of the firm, and options. With the conceptualisation in place, the authors propose an integrative model that explicates the mediating role of market-focused strategic flexibility in marketing strategy frameworks. Propositions are developed relating market-driven and driving orientations to market-focused strategic flexibility with consideration for how turbulent macro environments modify the relationship. In addition, the authors offer propositions regarding outcomes of market-focused strategic flexibility under conditions of macro-environmental turbulence. (20) Portuguese Charter Tourists to Long-Haul Destinations: A Travel Motive Segmentation, Antnia Correia, Joo Albino Silva, and Cludia Moo, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, May 2008; vol. 32: pp. 169186. This article presents an empirical study of tourist segmentation based on motivations. The present study, exploratory by nature, aims to provide a deeper insight into profiles of Portuguese tourists travelling to Latin American and African destinations. The research was conducted with 1097 tourists travelling on Air Luxor to long-haul destinations, by means of factor-cluster analysis, followed by a discriminate analysis. Three market segments were found: adventure, leisure, and social tourism. The research reveals that each of these segments presents a different profile in terms of motivations and in terms of vacation patterns. However, in terms of sociodemographic

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characteristics, the differences are not so evident. The managerial implications of these findings are highlighted. (21) Information Technology (IT) and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) Management: The Concept of Firm Impact Sphere, Adli Abouzeedan and Michael Busler, Global Business Review, Aug 2006; vol. 7: pp. 243257. Globalisation and e-globalisation are terminologies of high significance when focusing on smaller firm mechanisms of survival and growth. Studying the way firms are using bridging tactics, including strategic alliances, to increase their chance of survival and growth is an important issue. This is certainly true for the smaller enterprises. There are different tools in literature that are used to analyse the strategic partnership within the international context. One of the new approaches to understand the interaction between the firms activity and its environment is the concept of the Firm Impact Sphere. In this article important existing knowledge about Information Technologys (IT) impact on the management and other functional aspects of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) are reviewed. The concept of the Firm Impact Sphere is re-introduced and related to the structure of strategic alliances, as an example of an effective bridging tactic used by firms to expand into global markets. According to this concept, there are three types of Firm Impact Spheres: Localised, Semi-globalised and Globalised. Firm performance has different distinct characteristics in each of these types. Using this differentiation, the article analyses the way the concept of Firm Impact Sphere would be used in understanding bridging tactics between functionality, with a concentration on international strategic alliances structuring and building. (22) A Conceptualization of the Determinants of Small Business Website Adoption: Setting the Research Agenda, Geoff Simmons, Gillian A. Armstrong, and Mark G. Durkin, International Small Business Journal, Jun 2008; vol. 26: pp. 351 389. As evidence mounts on the importance of small businesses and the opportunities presented by website adoption globally, it becomes important to understand the key issues that determine website adoption. However, the extant literature relating to small business website adoption is fragmented and fails to provide an understanding of what determines adoption. Therefore the key contribution of this article to current knowledge is the development of a conceptualisation, supported by the literature, that will provide an interpretation of what determines small business website adoption. Critically, this is the first article to incorporate the important role that the small business marketing context plays within Internet technology adoption. The article develops nine hypotheses, which relate to the critical interactions and integration, within and between four determinant groupings underpinning the conceptualisation. The nine hypotheses will guide and direct future research towards generating an empirically based understanding of what determines small business website adoption.

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHICS

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(23) An Investigation of Tourists Patterns of Obligation to Protect the Environment, Sara Dolnicar and Friedrich Leisch, Journal of Travel Research, May 2008; vol. 46: pp. 381391. The environmental sustainability of the local tourism industry is increasingly a concern. Authors have proposed a demand-driven approach to sustainable destination management as complementary to traditional supply-side interventions. However, little empirical evidence supports the feasibility of such a demand-driven approach. This study contributes to this gap by investigating whether individuals who feel morally obliged to behave in an environmentally friendly manner represent useful target segments for destination management aiming to improve the ecological sustainability of the local tourism industry. Results indicate that distinctly different moral obligation segments exist that differ in pro-environmental behaviour and attitudes. These segments are associated with distinctly different vacation preferences and can consequently be used by destination management for target marketing. Gaps between peoples proenvironmental behaviour at home and at the destination systematically differ across segments, leading to the conclusion that different combinations of demand and supplyside measures may be suitable to reduce the environmental footprint of different segments. (24) The Influence of Consumer Identity on Perceptions of Store Atmospherics and Store Patronage at a Spectacular and Sustainable Retail Site, Karen H. Hyllegard, Jennifer Paff Ogle, and Brian H. Dunbar, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Oct 2006; vol. 24: pp. 316334. The Recreational Equipment Incorporated (REI) Denver flagship store represents a spectacular consumption site that builds REIs brand identity and corporate image as an environmentally responsible business while contributing a unique combination of lifestyle retailing and sustainable development to the community. This study explored the relationship between consumers identities and their responses to spectacular and sustainable retail design at REI Denver. The research was guided by an integrative conceptual framework proposing that consumer identity may shape responses to a spectacular consumption site, including perceptions about store atmospherics and intent to patronise that site. A store intercept survey approach was used to collect data from 186 consumers. Findings indicated that consumer identity as an outdoor enthusiast and/or an environmentally responsible citizen had little impact on consumers perceptions about the importance of selected store atmospherics in the decision to shop at REI Denver but did influence some of their intended REI patronage behaviours. (25) Catering to the Healthy-living Vacationer, Zaher Hallab, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jan 2006; vol. 12: pp. 7191. An essential function that is recommended for destinations and tourism and hospitality organisations to undertake is to learn about developments in the external environment that may have a substantial impact on the competitiveness of their business. The healthy-living lifestyle has been gaining momentum in the USA and in various parts of the world; more than ever, programmes, products, and regulations are being developed and implemented to cater to members of the mentioned lifestyle and to support the overall wellbeing of societies. In the field of travel and tourism, health has been approached from the angle of tourism experiences effects on an individuals wellbeing.

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There has been no attempt to explore the characteristics of a healthy-living market segment and its travel motivational characteristics. This article presents the findings of a research project that aimed at unveiling the travel motivational characteristics of the healthy-living market segment along with its socio-demographic characteristics. In todays competitive environment, it has become a must to learn about a specific segments characteristics. Destinations as well as tourism/hospitality organisations cannot afford to waste their resources on decisions taken based on personal opinions and not hard intelligence on specific markets of interest. Using the findings as guidelines, recommendations are presented on possible public and private sectors roles in supporting the development and marketing of hospitality and tourism products and services positioned to cater to vacationers who have a healthy-living oriented lifestyle. (26) Beyond the Digital Divide: Internet Diffusion and Inequality in Australia, Suzanne Willis and Bruce Tranter, Journal of Sociology, Mar 2006; vol. 42: pp. 4359. The increasing potential of the Internet to widen access to information and enhance communication capacity has brought opposing arguments about the social consequences of Internet use. Advocates of the digital divide thesis argue that the Internet advantages privileged groups while further marginalising disadvantaged social categories. Critics of the thesis see the expansion of the Internet as enabling and egalitarian, promoting social inclusion and facilitating democratic participation. In order to assess which view is more plausible, we examine the social barriers to Internet use in Australia over a five-year period, using multivariate analyses of national survey data. The notion of a digital divide is too simplistic to capture the complexity of social barriers to Internet use. Although the Internet has become more accessible to all social categories, and further technological diffusion should widen this accessibility, household income, age, education and occupational class location remain as key dimensions of differential Internet use. (27) Modeling Psychographic Profiles: A Study of the U.S. and Australian Student Travel Market, Yvette Reisinger and Felix Mavondo, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Feb 2004; vol. 28: pp. 4465. The primary purpose of this article is to use a multiple group comparison in covariance structure to test the equivalence of a psychographic model of the student travel market across the two markets: the Australian and U.S. Path modelling is used to achieve this objective. The relationships between major psychographic factors such as cultural values, personality, travel motivation, preferences for activities and lifestyle are examined. A self-administered personally handed questionnaire received responses from 528 U.S. and 424 Australian undergraduate students. Several models are investigated to compare the regression coefficients across the two student groups to test the significance of differences. Significant differences were found in eight out of nine hypothesised paths. Thus, despite the model being conceptually equivalent for the two student groups, the strengths of relationships among the variables are different. The article concludes with a discussion of the research and marketing implications of the study. CHAPTER 6

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The topics for which specific articles are identified include niche-based business strategy, productivity, the role of HRM, financial resources, quality management and exploiting IT. MARKET LEADERSHIP (1) Micro-Level Product-Market Dynamics: Shared Knowledge and Its Relationship to Market Development, Jos Antonio Rosa and Jelena Spanjol, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2005; vol. 33: pp. 197216. This work draws on consumer and psychology research to explain sociocognitive aspects of product-market dynamics at a higher level of specificity than prior research. The authors extend the fields understanding of market-shaping shared knowledge through a theory-informed discussion of how shared product knowledge comes to exist and how it changes as product markets develop. They define shared knowledge as the aspects of product representations that are common across the minds of market actors, making it possible for them to understand one another. The authors also discuss ways to track shared knowledge content that is expressed in market narratives. As the characteristics of shared knowledge are explained and linked to stages of productmarket development, the authors develop a set of researchable propositions to guide future research. The theoretical arguments and propositions in this article complement extant marketing strategy research by integrating individual-level consumer theory with market evolution models. (2) Technology Absorption in Large and Small Enterprises: A Proposal for Comparative Research 1, Anjan Roy and Arijit Sikdar, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 2003; vol. 12: pp. 183199. It is hypothesised that small enterprises have certain learning characteristics which enable them to adopt new technologies faster than large enterprises. The entrepreneurial work structure of small enterprises is exemplary for large enterprises where cognitive and goal dissonance amongst members act as impediments to technology absorption. Several other factors point to superior absorption performance of the small enterprises. This position contrasts the view that large enterprises, owing to their higher R&D spending have higher absorptive capacity, and therefore are expected to learn quicker than small enterprises. The paper proposes an empirical research for ascertaining this hypothesis. (3) Corporate Entrepreneurship: Changing Perspectives, Vinayshil Gautam and Vinnie Verma, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 1997; vol. 6: pp. 233244. Corporate entrepreneurship is an evolving area of research. Different scholars have approached the concept differently. Some have viewed it as a process and others as a set of activities. The importance of assuming an entrepreneurial stance, nevertheless, is being widely recognised by firms irrespective of their scale of operation. The authors attempt in this paper to bring together the varying perceptions about corporate entrepreneurship and critically analyse each of them. They argue that despite the realisation that entrepreneurship occurs at various levels within an organisation, no attempt has so far been made to derive any coherent framework of analysis. Using the insights from an exhaustive review of writings, they propose a conceptual model of 45

corporate entrepreneurship that integrates the influences of individual, organisational and environmental factors. (4) Determining the Relevant Factors in the Success Strategies of Small Enterprises, John H. Kelmar and Dianne L.W. Wingham, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 1995; vol. 4: pp. 215236. The methods used to gauge the performance of large companies may not be relevant to assess the success strategies of small enterprises. Researchers differ a great deal in this respect. Collating a number of research studies cutting across several countries, the authors of this paper have attempted to develop a framework, centred around three classifications of strategies: firm characteristics, firm competencies, and growth strategies. (5) Strategy Clusters in Japanese Markets: Firm Performance Implications, Masaaki Kotabe and Dale F. Duhan, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 1993; vol. 21: pp. 2131. This study identifies generic Japanese strategy clusters and explores their performance implications. It is based on Japanese executives perceptions of the veracity of various PIMS strategy principles in Japan. Three distinct strategy clusters are identified around market position and product strategy dimensions. These Japanese strategy clusters, when moderated by such contingency factors as strategic orientation and product life cycle stage, offer unique performance implications for the Japanese market. (6) Institutional Strategy, Thomas B. Lawrence. Journal of Management, Apr 1999; vol. 25: pp. 161187. The ability of organisations to strategically influence their environments has become a central concern in organisational research. In this article, the concept of institutional strategy is developed to describe patterns of organisational action that are directed toward managing the institutional structures within which firms compete for resources, either through the reproduction or transformation of those structures. Drawing on a study of the Canadian forensic accounting industry, two types of institutional strategy are described: (1) membership strategies that involve the definition of rules of membership and their meaning for an institutional community; and (2) standardisation strategies that are concerned with the establishment of technical legal or market standards that define the normal processes involved in the production of some good or service. LEADERSHIP (7) Leadership Over the Long Run, Darrell Cooper, Joseph Kryska, and Stewart L. Tubbs, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Oct 1996; vol. 3: pp. 2336. This article describes a seven year attempt to systematically improve a company using such modern leadership tools as employee involvement, empowerment, teamwork, and total quality management. The methodology is explained along with the results. It also includes generalisations that can be used in other organisations. 46

(8) The Five Lenses of Leadership, David H. Arnott, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Jan 1995; vol. 2: pp. 137141. Leadership is explained by five lenses which top management teams may adopt for use in viewing leadership in their particular organisation. From macro to micro in dimension, they are: the strategist, who sees leadership as a pair of binoculars; the organisational theorist, who sees leadership as a pair of glasses which are designed in the correct shape; the organisational behaviourist, who sees leadership as contact lenses; the human resource person who sees leadership as a microscope; and lastly, are people who see organisations as not needing leadership at all, so they see leadership as having perfect vision. (9) Charismatic Leadership; A State of the Art, Deanne N. Den Hartog, Paul L. Koopman, and Jaap J. Van Muijen, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Oct 1995; vol. 2: pp. 3549. In the last decade there has been a substantial increase in the attention given to charismatic leadership both in science and practice. This trend is often called the New Leadership. Central to the New Leadership is the notion that leaders need vision. The New leaders, charismatic leaders, are also referred to as transformational, inspirational or visionary leaders. In this paper several views of charismatic leadership in business organisations rather than charismatic leadership in political arenas or religious movements are the focus. Charismatic leadership is a controversial topic. Many questions are encountered when discussing charisma. Examples are: Is charisma an exceptional phenomenon or is there such a thing as everyday charisma? Is charisma only to be found in the eye of the beholder, in other words merely an idea in the heads of followers? How does the process of motivating followers work? What is the role of the leaders vision? Can charisma be learned? Are there situations that help or hinder the occurrence of charisma? What about the dark side of charisma; is charisma always beneficial? The various theories give different answers to these questions. Aside from these questions there are also some research problems relating to the measurement of charismatic leadership and its effects it is not inconceivable that other types of leadership or other circumstances could have the same effects. In this paper similarities and differences in the numerous available views of charismatic leadership in business organisations will be explored and several controversial issues and measurement problems will be addressed. (10) Leadership Styles for the New Millennium: Creating New Paradigms, Kenneth Culp, III and Kathryn J. Cox, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Jan 1997; vol. 4: pp. 317. As the second millennium draws to a close, leadership educators should examine what can be learned from the evolution of leadership as modern societies have developed, and participate in creating new leadership paradigms for the future. Changes in government, families, knowledge/technology, business, health-care, social activism and religion will necessitate new leadership approaches in Millennium 2000. To begin discussion among leadership educators in preparing for these new paradigms, this article reviews the evolution of leadership, projects changes which may occur during the next century, and proposes alternative administrative, catalytic, collegial,

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humanitarian/activist, innovative, religiosity, and visionary leadership paradigms which may evolve. (11) Charisma and the Archetypes of Leadership, Johannes Steyrer, Organisation Studies, Sep 1998; vol. 19: pp. 807828. The following contribution attempts to develop a charisma model in the context of business organisations, based on a social-cognitive information processing approach in the perception of leadership. It tries to operationalise charisma, departing from prototypical attributes that are inherent in the cognitive category of leadership. In contrast to the New Leadership Approach, the article departs from a polymorphous phenotype of charisma. This position is derived from the concept of charisma as Max Weber understands it. Based on the concept of archetypes of leadership, four different phenotypes are then defined: the hero (heroic charisma), the father (paternalistic charisma), the saviour (missionary charisma) and the king (majestic charisma). The main idea of this model is the correlation that is brought out clearly between charisma and stigma, and thus also the idea that both hyper-representativity and antirepresentativity as well as social dramatisation and social reversion can occasion the allocation of charisma. (12) Myth and Leadership Vision: Rhetorical Manifestations of Cultural Force, Andrew Douglas, John O. Burtis, and L. Kristine Pond-Burtis, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Jan 2001; vol. 7: pp. 5569. The nature of myth is such that it may be involved in any personally significant or group-significant attempt to change behaviour or attitudes. Second, in one sense at least, vision has a force to it that requires further exploration; one explanation for such force is that myth may be involved as a rhetorical resource or as a cultural imperative in effective vision. Third, the article argues that considering myth and vision as an amalgam enhances our understanding. In short, myth and vision are described as symbiotic, co-activated, co-authorising constructs. (13) Leadership and Organisations for the New Millennium, Roger Gill, Niall Levine, and Douglas C. Pitt, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Jan 1999; vol. 5: pp. 4659. The development of leadership theory has paralleled the development of organisational theory. The models of laissez-faire, transactional and transformational leadership both explain the old paradigm of the bureaucratic organisation and reinforce the new organisational paradigm for the twenty-first century. The bureaucratic organisation is analysed in terms of laissez-faire leadership and the transactional leadership elements of management-by-exception and contingent reward. The new post-bureaucratic organisation is analysed in terms of the four Is of transformational leadership: individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealised influence. Inferences are drawn for the required roles and behaviour of future leaders. (14) Leaders, Followers, and the Visioning Process, Laurence R. Marcus and Richard R. Smith, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Jan 1998; vol. 4: pp. 3242. 48

Transformational leadership is emerging as the operational leadership paradigm for twenty-first century leaders. Additionally, the concept of leadership as a relationship between leaders and collaborators is being accepted and understood as a significant framework for leadership education. This paper addresses the problem of how transformational leadership is best developed in the collegiate population for both leaders and collaborators. A description is provided of an educational methodology that utilises collaborator feedback to assist both leaders and collaborators in the development of transformational leadership in a relational context. Additionally, student assessments are provided regarding their perspectives of leadership education that actively engages leaders and collaborators in sharing and receiving feedback. This observation/reflection dynamic adds a strategic component to experiential, leadership education. (15) Strategic Leadership: The Art of Balancing Organisational Mission with Policy, Procedures, and External Environment, Ray Maghroori and Erik Rolland, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Apr 1997; vol. 4: pp. 6281. In this paper we present a general framework for strategic leadership. We define strategic leadership as the art of creating a balance between external environment, corporate mission and its corresponding system of implementation. We argue that newly chosen leaders of organisations must make choices regarding the best leadership strategy for their organisations. This choice, we suggest, should be based on the leaders evaluation of the organisations total conditions. We provide a methodology for assessing organisational conditions based upon the concept of effectiveness. We then propose a number of leadership strategies associated with various types of organisational effectiveness. RESOURCE BASED VIEW (16) Antecedents of New Service Development Effectiveness: An Exploratory Examination of Strategic Operations Choices, Craig M. Froehle, Aleda V. Roth, Richard B. Chase, and Christopher A. Voss, Journal of Service Research, Aug 2000; vol. 3: pp. 317. This article examines the strategic process of new service development (NSD). The authors empirically explore the strategic influence of team-based organisational structure, NSD process design, and information technology (IT) choices on the speed and effectiveness of NSD efforts. Several literature-based relationships are tested with a recursive path model using a multi-industry sample of U.S. service organisations. Most results for the service sector are similar to those found in manufacturing: (a) NSD crossfunctional team structures directly influence the effectiveness of the firms NSD efforts, (b) more formalised NSD processes indirectly influence the firms ability to develop new services by increasing the speed of NSD, and (c) IT choices directly affect both the speed of the NSD process and the general effectiveness of the firms NSD activities. Contrary to expectations, no direct relationship between the use of cross-functional team structures and the speed of NSD was found. (17) Expert Systems, Knowledge Development and Utilization, and Sustained Competitive Advantage: A Resource-Based Model, Augustine A. Lado and Michael J. Zhang, Journal of Management, Aug 1998; vol. 24: pp. 489509.

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This paper proposes a resource-based model to explain how expert systems generate sustained competitive advantage for a firm. Specifically, the extent to which expert systems (ESs) exhibit the attributes of value, rareness, imperfect imitability, and nonsubstitutability associated with a rent-generating resource are analysed. Then, the article discusses how expert systems yield sustainable competitive advantage through fostering organisational knowledge development and utilisation. Finally, the role of ESs in engendering a reciprocal, mutually enhancing relationship with organisational competencies is examined, leading to sustained competitive advantage. Propositions are offered to facilitate future research. (18) Competitive Strategies and Organisational Change, Alan McKinlay and Ken Starkey, Organisation Studies, Jan 1988; vol. 9: pp. 555571. The debates about organisational responses to economic crisis have focussed on the need for strategic and structural realignment. Work organisation is rarely considered as an integral element of competitive strategy. Current shifts in the contours of previously stable mass markets and product and process innovation demand equally profound organisational change to maintain competitiveness. In this context maintaining or regaining competitive advantage is critically dependent upon striking an optimal balance between maximising the productivity and versatility of work organisation. We examine the impetus, dynamics and impact of pervasive change processes in three contrasting organisations, Pilkingtons, Rank Xerox and Ford U.K. While Pilkingtons relied entirely upon existing managerial expertise, the latter two companies were distinctive in that they drew vital conceptual elements of their change agendas from their organisational links with, respectively, a Japanese and American company. From these case studies we conclude that significant business turnarounds were achieved by these companies because strategic choice, work organisation, company culture and organisational realignment were conceived of and operationalised as complementary elements of their competitive strategy. (19) The Resource-Based View of the Firm: Ten Years after 1991, Jay Barney, Mike Wright, and David J. Ketchen, Jr., Journal of Management, Dec 2001; vol. 27: pp. 625641. At present, the resource-based view of the firm is perhaps the most influential framework for understanding strategic management. The article briefly describes the contributions to knowledge provided by the commentaries and articles contained in the whole issue. In addition, some additional areas of research wherein the resource-based view can be gainfully deployed are outlined. (20) The Resource-based view and Marketing: The Role of Market-based Assets in Gaining Competitive Advantage, Rajendra K. Srivastava, Liam Fahey, and H. Kurt Christensen, Journal of Management, Dec 2001; vol. 27: pp. 777802. This article posits a framework that shows how market-based assets and capabilities are leveraged via market-facing or core business processes to deliver superior customer value and competitive advantages. These value elements and competitive advantages can be leveraged to result in superior corporate performance and shareholder value and reinvested to nurture market-based assets and capabilities in the future. The article also illustrates how resource-based view (RBV) and marketing considerations in the context

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of generating and sustaining customer value can refine and extend each others traditional frames of analysis. Finally, the article posits a set of research directions designed to enable scholars to further advance the integration of RBV and marketing from both theory-driven practice management as well as a problem-driven theory development perspective. (21) Franchising as a Small Business Growth Strategy: A Resource-Based View of Organisational Development, John Stanworth, Celia Stanworth, Anna Watson, David Purdy, and Simon Healeas, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2004; vol. 22: pp. 539559 Over the last two decades, the resource-based view (RBV) has become dominant in the strategic management field. It has often been observed that the RBV is lacking in the dynamic dimension. For example, processes of building competitive advantages by means of combining existing complementary resources in novel ways are not inquired into. This article argues that the RBV may profitably draw on insights in entrepreneurship and capital theory, drawn from Austrian economists as well as Frank Knight, in order to strengthen its dynamic dimension. It links the RBV and Austrian ideas in the context of the theory of complex systems pioneered by Herbert Simon. We draw a number of implications for strategic Franchising as a Small Business Growth Strategy: A Resource-Based View of Organisational Development management from this synthesis, notably into resource value and sustainability of competitive advantage. Not only are most franchisees themselves small businesses, but so are many franchisors, particularly in the formative years of their franchise businesses. High turbulence and attrition rates in the formative years of franchise businesses result in an industry profile whereby, at any one time, around half of all franchise systems are less than five years old with less than 10 outlets. The question arises: how do successful franchise organisations plan their human capital development in order to accomplish successful growth? An adjunct to this question is the role of franchisees who, while not totally independent in the sense of the conventional small business person, certainly do not see themselves as conventional employees either, and have certain expectations of participation in the process of which they are an integral part. This exploratory article uses case study material from a number of exemplar franchise companies in the development of a resource-based view of organisational development. The article should hold considerable interest, not only for academics interested in franchising, but also for those examining fields such as small business strategic management, innovation and intangible asset growth. (22) Customers and Customer Relationships in Service Firms: The Perspective of the Resource-based View, Matthias Gouthier and Stefan Schmid, Marketing Theory, Mar 2003; vol. 3: pp. 119143. In many publications on service management and marketing, the customer is said to be an important resource of the service firm. This is not surprising, since a basic characteristic of services is the participation of the customer in the production process. However, up to now, there has been no theoretical discussion as to whether and why customers as well as relationships with customers are really important resources of

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the service firm. The present paper draws on the resource-based view within strategic management. It explores the potential of the resource-based view for analysing customer roles and customer relationships within service firms, and it discusses managerial implications for customer relationship management. (23) Resource-based Theories of Competitive Advantage: A Ten-year Retrospective on the Resource-based View, Jay B. Barney, Journal of Management, Dec 2001; vol. 27: pp. 643650. The resource-based view can be positioned relative to at least three theoretical traditions: SCP-based theories of industry determinants of firm performance, neoclassical microeconomics, and evolutionary economics. This article briefly discusses some of the implications of positioning the resource-based view relative to these other two literatures; it also discusses some of the empirical implications of each of these different resource-based theories. (24) Creating a Firm-Level Dynamic Capability through Capitalizing on Market Orientation and Innovativeness, Bulent Menguc and Seigyoung Auh, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2006; vol. 34: pp. 6373. Drawing on the resource-based view of the firm, this study addresses the dynamic capabilitygenerating capacity of market orientation on firm performance. Whereas prior literature has examined environmental turbulence as a contextual condition shaping the market orientationfirm performance relationship, this study takes an internal approach by focusing on existing stocks of resources within the firm while controlling for environmental conditions. A conceptual model is developed that explains how market orientation can be transformed into dynamic capability when complemented by transformational (reconfigurational) constructs, such as innovativeness. The empirical results support the authors theory that the effect of market orientation on firm performance is strengthened when market orientation is bundled together with internal complementary resources, such as innovativeness. The authors discuss the findings in the context of varying stages of the product life cycle and at different levels of market development. (25) Resource Mobilization and Performance in Family and Nonfamily Businesses in the United Kingdom, Jonathan Levie and Miri Lerner, Family Business Review, Mar 2009; vol. 22: pp. 2538. This study draws on agency theory and the resource-based view to hypothesise that family and nonfamily businesses differ in the capital that they deploy and the way that they deploy it. It tests this hypothesis in a large U.K.-based sample of 319 family business and 258 nonfamily business owner/managers. The analysis revealed that adverse selection, opportunism, and niche marginalisation are more prevalent among family business owner/managers. Yet, their businesses are similar to those of their nonfamily business peers in performance outcomes such as size and growth, which suggests that weaknesses in human and financial capital choice are offset by strengths in the social capital of family firms. (26) Entrepreneurs Decisions to Exploit Opportunities, Young Rok Choi and Dean A. Shepherd, Journal of Management, Jun 2004; vol. 30: pp. 377395. 52

Opportunity exploitation is a necessary step in creating a successful business in the entrepreneurial process, yet there has been little conceptual and empirical development of this issue in the literature. This study examines the decisions of entrepreneurs to begin exploiting business opportunities from a resource-based view. Our analysis of a sample of entrepreneurs whose businesses are located in incubators suggests that entrepreneurs are more likely to exploit opportunities when they perceive more knowledge of customer demand for the new product, more fully developed necessary technologies, greater managerial capability, and greater stakeholder support. Moreover, the findings of this study shed a light on a less emphasised aspect of the resource-based view: the new products anticipated lead time acts as an enhancing moderator in entrepreneurs exploitation decision policies. Implications for future research on opportunity exploitation are discussed. (27) Theory and Research in Strategic Management: Swings of a Pendulum, Robert E. Hoskisson, Michael A. Hitt, William P. Wan, and Daphne Yiu, Journal of Management, Jun 1999; vol. 25: pp. 417456. The development of the field of strategic management within the last two decades has been dramatic. While its roots have been in a more applied area, often referred to as business policy, the current field of strategic management is strongly theory based, with substantial empirical research, and is eclectic in nature. This review of the development of the field and its current position examines the fields early development and the primary theoretical and methodological bases through its history. Early developments include Chandlers (1962) Strategy and Structure and Ansoffs (1965) Corporate Strategy. These early works took on a contingency perspective (fit between strategy and structure) and a resource-based framework emphasising internal strengths and weaknesses. Perhaps one of the more significant contributions to the development of strategic management came from industrial organisation (IO) economics, specifically the work of Michael Porter. The structure-conduct-performance framework and the notion of strategic groups, as well as providing a foundation for research on competitive dynamics, are flourishing currently. The IO paradigm also brought econometric tools to the research on strategic management. Building on the IO economics framework, the organisational economics perspective contributed transaction costs economics and agency theory to strategic management. More recent theoretical contributions focus on the resource-based view of the firm. While it has its roots in Edith Penroses work in the late 1950s, the resource-based view was largely introduced to the field of strategic management in the 1980s and became a dominant framework in the 1990s. Based on the resource-based view, developing concurrently were research on strategic leadership, strategic decision theory (process research) and knowledge-based view of the firm. The research methodologies are becoming increasingly sophisticated and now frequently combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches and unique and new statistical tools. Finally, this review examines the future directions, both in terms of theory and methodologies, as the study of strategic management evolves. (28) Testing a Framework of the Organisation of Small Firms: Fast-growth, High-tech SMEs, Mark W. Gilman and Paul K. Edwards, International Small Business Journal, Oct 2008; vol. 26: pp. 531558. Studies of small firms tend to assume either that models derived from large firms can be applied directly or that small firms are uniformly distinct from large ones. A recent

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framework, based mainly on low-wage family-owned firms, has identified an analytical space to identify different types of small firm. This article tests out that framework in a different context: four high-tech and non-family-owned firms. The framework identified market conditions and strategic choice as key measures, and was useful in capturing practice, though it also needed further refinement. Key substantive implications were: apparently similar firms in fact behaved differently, for reasons to do with their market situations and the choices they made; and the firms displayed tensions between modern business strategies and traditional and informal employment practices, tensions that the framework helps to capture. (29) Conceptualizing a Relationship Management Capability, Denise Jarratt, Marketing Theory, Dec 2004; vol. 4: pp. 287309. The call for marketing practitioners and academics alike to move relationship marketings dyadic perspective into a multi-firm network context is building momentum. As network forms of organising work expand, organisations will need to build their capability to leverage not only their customer assets but also the valuecreating knowledge and innovation assets spanning multiple relationships within their business network form. Drawing on theories of evolutionary economics, resource advantage, organisational learning, and organisational capabilities, a model of a relationship management capability is conceptualised. The relationship management capability, combining both functional and integrative capabilities, is represented through second order constructs of relationship infrastructure capability, relationship learning capability and relationship behavioural capability. (30) A Resource-Based Perspective on the Dynamic Strategy-Performance Relationship: An Empirical Examination of the Focus and Differentiation Strategies in Entrepreneurial Firms, Elaine Mosakowski, Journal of Management, Aug 1993; vol. 19: pp. 819839. This research applies a resource-based perspective, which emphasises a firms specialised or unique resources, to the question of how the focus and differentiation strategies affect the economic performance of entrepreneurial firms. We develop dynamic models that separate the period of creating or acquiring these resources from subsequent periods. With longitudinal data on entrepreneurial software firms, we examine the dynamic effects of multiple forms of these strategies on a firms performance. The results generally support the hypotheses that, when the focus and differentiation strategies are established, performance is higher than for other firms. The results fail to support the hypothesis that firm performance will decrease when these strategies are adopted. (31) The Entrepreneurship of Resource-based Theory, Sharon A. Alvarez and Lowell W. Busenitz, Journal of Management, Dec 2001; vol. 27: pp. 755775. This paper examines the relationship between resource-based theory and entrepreneurship and develops insights that advance the boundaries of resource-based theory and begin to address important questions in entrepreneurship. We extend the boundaries of resource-based theory to include the cognitive ability of individual entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs have individual-specific resources that facilitate the recognition of new opportunities and the assembling of resources for the venture. By

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focusing on resources, from opportunity recognition to the ability to organise these resources into a firm and then to the creation of heterogeneous outputs through the firm that are superior to the market, issues can be identified that begin to address the distinctive domain of entrepreneurship. (32) The Strategic Imperative and Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Public Policy Implications of Resource-Advantage Theory, Shelby D. Hunt, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 1999; vol. 27: pp. 144159. Strategy theorists share (1) the view that the strategic imperative of a firm should be sustained, superior financial performance and (2) the belief that this goal can be achieved through a sustainable competitive advantage in the marketplace. Neoclassical perfect competition and traditional industrial organisation economics, however, imply that the sustained performance goal advocated by strategy theorists is anticompetitive and its achievement presumptively detrimental to social welfare. This article addresses the strategy-is-anticompetitive thesis with the goal of grounding strategy in a theory of competition resource-advantage theory that does not imply that the strategic imperative and its achievement are presumptively anticompetitive and antisocial. As such, this article initiates a discussion of the public policy implications of resourceadvantage theory. CHAPTER 7 The topics for which specific articles are identified include alternative business strategies, market positioning, mass versus a niche-based marketing strategy, organisational culture and the effective operation of a team. MASS MARKETING (1) The Beginning of Mass Marketing in America: George Eastman and Photography as a Case Study, Richard S. Tedlow, Journal of Macromarketing, Dec 1997; vol. 17: pp. 6781. This article offers an interpretation of the birth of mass marketing through an intensive study of one case: George Eastman and the photographic industry. Eastman transformed picture-taking from an expensive, technologically complex craft into a very simple process, making it accessible to a mass market. He was both a leader in his field and an example of what was happening as mass marketing swept through numerous U.S. industries late in the nineteenth century. (2) The Antecedents and Consequences of Customer-Centric Marketing, Jagdish N. Sheth, Rajendra S. Sisodia, and Arun Sharma, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2000; vol. 28: pp. 5566. As we enter the twenty-first century, the marketing function remains concerned with serving customers and consumers effectively. The authors propose that just as the marketing function gradually shifted from mass marketing to segmented marketing in the twentieth century, it will increasingly move toward customer-centric marketing in the next century. In the practice of customer-centric marketing, the marketing function seeks to fulfil the needs and wants of each individual customer. The antecedents of 55

customer-centric marketing are the increasing pressure on firms to improve marketing productivity, increasing market diversity in household and business markets, and technology applicability. On the basis of the shift toward customer-centric marketing, the authors expect increased importance of marketing as a supply management function, customer outsourcing, cocreation marketing, fixed-cost marketing, and customer-centric organisations. This article highlights the implications of customercentric marketing as well as the boundary conditions that will affect its adoption. (3) Understanding the Relationships among Brands, Consumers, and Resellers, Frederick E. Webster, Jr., Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2000; vol. 28: pp. 1723. This article examines the historical evolution of the relationships among brands, consumers, and resellers in a world increasingly dominated by very large retail organisations with substantial power within the marketing channel. It is widely believed that manufacturers brands are becoming less important as major retailers are becoming more powerful. This view is based on the mistaken assumption that brands are relationships with consumers, not resellers. Arguments about the decline of brands are often confused with arguments about changes in the brand management function. As major firms redefine their customer as the reseller, not the consumer, there are substantial implications for brand management and the role of the brand manager. Marketing strategy implementation will require increasingly careful coordination of marketing programmes with sales strategy to achieve the necessary coordination of reseller- and consumer-targeted communications to maximise the value of the brand to both the retailer and the end user. NICHE MARKETING (4) Competitive Strategies and Organisational Change, Alan McKinlay and Ken Starkey, Organisation Studies, Jan 1988; vol. 9: pp. 555571. The debates about organisational responses to economic crisis have focussed on the need for strategic and structural realignment. Work organisation is rarely considered as an integral element of competitive strategy. Current shifts in the contours of previously stable mass markets and product and process innovation demand equally profound organisational change to maintain competitiveness. In this context maintaining or regaining competitive advantage is critically dependent upon striking an optimal balance between maximising the productivity and versatility of work organisation. We examine the impetus, dynamics and impact of pervasive change processes in three contrasting organisations, Pilkingtons, Rank Xerox and Ford U.K. While Pilkingtons relied entirely upon existing managerial expertise, the latter two companies were distinctive in that they drew vital conceptual elements of their change agendas from their organisational links with, respectively, a Japanese and American company. From these case studies we conclude that significant business turnarounds were achieved by these companies because strategic choice, work organisation, company culture and organisational realignment were conceived of and operationalised as complementary elements of their competitive strategy.

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(5) The Relationships between Culture and Service Quality Perceptions: Basis for Cross-Cultural Market Segmentation and Resource Allocation, Olivier Furrer, Ben Shaw-Ching Liu, and D. Sudharshan, Journal of Service Research, May 2000; vol. 2: pp. 355371. The authors argue that perceptions of service quality vary across cultural groups, as defined by each cultures position on Hofstedes dimensions. They explicitly map the relationship between service quality perceptions and cultural dimension positions and draw the implications for international service market segmentation. They also test the hypotheses constituting their theoretical analysis. They show that the importance of SERVQUAL dimensions is correlated with Hofstedes cultural dimensions. They also used the correlation coefficients to compute a Cultural Service Quality Index that could be used to segment international service markets and allocate resources across segments. (6) Marketing a Resort-based Spa, Patricia A. Monteson and Judith Singer, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jul 2004; vol. 10: pp. 282287. The purpose of this paper is to provide information for owners and operators of resortbased spas who want to increase and expand their market share of people who use spas. It profiles spa-goers in the USA and examines who they are, what spa services they use, why they go to spas and how they feel after their spa experience. It also examines how to connect with guests who use spas and how to increase market share of this group. (7) Consuming the Countryside: Marketing for Rural Tourism, Lesley Roberts and Derek Hall, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jul 2004; vol. 10: pp. 253263. Common perceptions of rural tourism industries are influenced by a range of terms (such as green, nature, eco-) that position them as small-scale, low-impact activities offering an alternative to mass tourism. Their perception as niche markets further reinforces such views. This paper explores the nature of niche markets and argues that the application of niche marketing may have a place for some traditional activities that are pure forms of rural tourism but not for the greater part of rural visiting, better described as tourism in rural areas, and characterised by large numbers of visitors and contemporary consumption patterns that render the rural location far less important than the activity and sometimes almost irrelevant to it. This is more than a question of semantics because the labels used influence perceptions that shape the nature of policy issues and management practices. The paper concludes that both the rural environment and the small tourism businesses that depend on it will benefit from a better understanding of contemporary rural tourism consumption and marketing. (8) Niche Publishing on the Web: Using Online Communities to Change the Economics of Niche Publishing, Andrew Gray, Business Information Review, Mar 1998; vol. 15: pp. 5057. Discusses the characteristics of community-oriented Web sites, tightly focused on the needs of particular professional communities, as a way of overcoming these problems and considers how they can impact the Internet strategies of niche publishers. Options for this type of Internet publishing are seen to be: migration strategies; new product 57

strategies; new market strategies; and community strategies. Outlines briefly the common issues associated with the first three options then details the attractive features of the community-oriented approach in terms of: real-time news; database content; information wizards; local area search engines; Internet links; directories; discussion boards (forums); Web sites; alerts; and sector-specific malls. STRATEGY (9) A Model of Strategic Entrepreneurship: The Construct and its Dimensions, R. Duane Ireland, Michael A. Hitt, and David G. Sirmon, Journal of Management, Dec 2003; vol. 29: pp. 963989. Strategic entrepreneurship (SE) involves simultaneous opportunity-seeking and advantage-seeking behaviours and results in superior firm performance. On a relative basis, small, entrepreneurial ventures are effective in identifying opportunities but are less successful in developing competitive advantages needed to appropriate value from those opportunities. In contrast, large, established firms often are relatively more effective in establishing competitive advantages but are less able to identify new opportunities. We argue that SE is a unique, distinctive construct through which firms are able to create wealth. An entrepreneurial mindset, an entrepreneurial culture and entrepreneurial leadership, the strategic management of resources and applying creativity to develop innovations are important dimensions of SE. Herein we develop a model of SE that explains how these dimensions are integrated to create wealth. (10) Management Strategies of Venture Capital Funded Firms, K. Ramachandran, Journal of Entrepreneurship, Sep 2001; vol. 10: pp. 129141. Most studies on venture capital have focused on the strategies and criteria followed by venture capitalists (VCs), and there have been only a few efforts made to study hightechnology firms funded by VCs. This article reports the findings from a study of the strategies of venture capital-supported firms particularly in areas such as technology, people, marketing, finance and organisational growth. It is concluded that in the case of technology intensive firms, their strategies are naturally driven by technology, but along with this, it is their appreciation for and application of the other functional strategies that makes them winners. The result is the creation of a unique supply of complex resources within each organisation. Many of the entrepreneurs have been able to create and sustain market pull for their products because of the synergistic effect of their resources and strategies. (11) Entrepreneurship, Emerging Technologies, Emerging Markets, Inderpreet S. Thukral, James Von Ehr, Steven Walsh, Aard J. Groen, Peter Van Der Sijde, and Khairul Akmaliah Adham, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2008; vol. 26: pp. 101116. Academics and practitioners alike have long understood the benefits, if not the risks, of both emerging markets and emerging technologies. Yet it is only recently that foresighted firms have embraced emerging technologies and emerging markets through entrepreneurial activity. Emerging technologies and emerging markets present both unique challenges and tremendous opportunities for those firms and individuals who focus their search for competitive advantage on them. Here, we provide examples of 58

effective commercial pathways for both intra- and entrepreneurial ventures embracing these phenomena. First, we describe how one intrapreneurial large firm is investigating emerging markets such as India and China (emerging economies) with emerging technologies to create a worldwide business solution power. Then the investigation of an emerging technology is provided, that of nanotechnology, by a small entrepreneurial firm utilising emerging market skill sets to define and enable worldwide business solutions. Interestingly, both of the respective commercialisation strategies are based on competency theory, albeit used differently. Finally, we discuss the ability of large and small firm competency-based strategies to wrest value from the opportunities inherent in emerging markets and technologies. (12) Environmental Marketing Strategy and Firm Performance: Effects on New Product Performance and Market Share, William E. Baker and James M. Sinkula, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2005; vol. 33: pp. 461475. Recent studies on marketing and the natural environment have called for research that links environmental marketing strategies to the performance of the firm. This research operationalises the enviropreneurial marketing (EM) construct and examines its relationship with firm performance. It is the first empirical research to operationalise the EM construct. The new scale, albeit a first attempt, demonstrates encouraging psychometric properties. According to the resource-based view of the firm, a resource such as EM should directly influence firms capabilities (e.g., new product development success) but not competitive advantage (e.g., change in market share). A nationwide study of top-level marketing managers supports this perspective. In addition, although market turbulence also affects new product development success, it does not have an impact on EM. This suggests that EM formation is driven by internal rather than external forces. (13) Market-Focused Strategic Flexibility: Conceptual Advances and an Integrative Model, Jean L. Johnson, Ruby Pui-Wan Lee, Amit Saini, and Bianca Grohmann, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2003; vol. 31: pp. 7489. This article develops the concept of market-focused strategic flexibility. It begins with a review of the historical perspectives of strategic flexibility. To support the conceptualisation, the authors offer a theoretical schema that considers market-focused strategic flexibility as conceptually rooted in capabilities theory, resource-based views of the firm. With the conceptualisation in place, the authors propose an integrative model that explicates the mediating role of market-focused strategic flexibility in marketing strategy frameworks. Propositions are developed relating market-driven and driving orientations to market-focused strategic flexibility with consideration for how turbulent macro environments modify the relationship. In addition, the authors offer propositions regarding outcomes of market-focused strategic flexibility under conditions of macro environmental turbulence. (14) Product Portfolio Analysis and Market Share Objectives: An Exposition of Certain Underlying Relationships, P. Rajan Varadarajan, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 1990; vol. 18: pp. 1729.

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Market share plays a central role in a number of portfolio planning models. This article presents an exposition of the underlying relationship between market share, market size, market growth rate, product sales volume and product sales growth rate. Three constructs the market share multiplier, the physical volume multiplier, and the dollar volume multiplier which aid in the strategic analysis of the product portfolio are proposed. The linkages between inter-related growth constructs such as the volumetric and dollar sales growth rate, and the nominal and real dollar sales growth rate are discussed. Certain generalisations regarding market share and its sensitivity to various environmental conditions are highlighted. SUSTAINED INNOVATION (15) Relationships, Layoffs, and Organisational Resilience: Airline Industry Responses to September 11, Jody Hoffer Gittell, Kim Cameron, Sandy Lim, and Victor Rivas, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Sep 2006; vol. 42: pp. 300329. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, affected the U.S. airline industry more than almost any other industry. Certain airlines emerged successful and demonstrated remarkable resilience while others languished. This investigation identifies reasons why some airline companies recovered successfully after the attacks while others struggled. Evidence is provided that layoffs after the crisis, although intended to foster recovery, instead inhibited recovery throughout the 4 years after the crisis. But, layoffs after the crisis were strongly correlated with lack of financial reserves and lack of a viable business model prior to the crisis. Digging deeper, the authors find that having a viable business model itself depended on the development and preservation of relational reserves over time. Our model shows that the maintenance of adequate financial reserves enables the preservation of relational reserves and vice versa, contributing to organisational resilience in times of crisis. (16) The Geography of Innovation Commercialization in the United States During the 1990s, Joshua L. Rosenbloom, Economic Development Quarterly, Feb 2007; vol. 21: pp. 316. This article analyses the geographic distribution and interrelationship of three measures of innovation commercialisation across the 50 largest metropolitan areas in the United States and estimates a model of the factors explaining variations in the location of innovation commercialisation. Innovation commercialisation tends to be highly concentrated geographically, suggesting the presence of substantial external economies in these functions. Beyond these scale effects, however, the author finds that university science and engineering capacity and local patenting activity both help to account for intercity differences in the level of innovation commercialisation activity. (17) New Sources of Radical Innovation: Research Technologies, Transversality and Distributed Learning in a Post-industrial Order, Terry Shinn, Social Science Information, Dec 2005; vol. 44: pp. 731764. It is shown that throughout the twentieth century many radical technological innovations originated with and developed around generic instrumentation, the practitioners and artefacts of which are characterised by selective and intermittent boundary crossing between academia, industry, state technical and metrological 60

services, the military, etc. However, this mobility is not to be confused with mode 2-like anti-differentiation between science and engineering and between academia and enterprise. The innovative feats of what are here labelled research-technologies derive from the capacity to reconcile differentiation and integration, and to secure the division of labour embedded in speciality domains, while simultaneously promoting transverse communication and interaction between actors located in multiple and heterogeneous environments and linked to diverse interests. Research technologies breed a new constellation of intellectual and institutional transverse dynamics which selectively accommodate both stability and change. (18) Marketing Strategy and the Internet: An Organizing Framework, P. Rajan Varadarajan and Manjit S. Yadav, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2002; vol. 30: pp. 296312. Competitive strategy is primarily concerned with how a business should deploy resources at its disposal to achieve and maintain defensible competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. Competitive marketing strategy focuses on how a business should deploy marketing resources at its disposal to facilitate the achievement and maintenance of competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. In a growing number of product-markets, the competitive landscape has evolved from a predominantly physical marketplace to one encompassing both the physical and the electronic marketplace. This article presents a conceptual framework delineating the drivers and outcomes of marketing strategy in the context of competing in this broader, evolving marketplace. The proposed framework provides insights into changes in the nature and scope of marketing strategy; specific industry, product, buyer, and buying environment characteristics; and the unique skills and resources of the firm that assume added relevance in the context of competing in the evolving marketplace. COMPANY CULTURE (19) Organisational Culture: Elements in its Portraiture and Some Implications for Organisation Functioning, Judi Marshall, Group & Organisation Management, Sep 1982; vol. 7: pp. 367384. Following a cross-company research study of managers perceptions of potential freedom in their jobs and subsequent behaviour, the author arrived at a framework for charting significant elements of organisational culture. This centred on four dimensions of difference: a companys stock of managers, the conceptual job model managers used, significant influences on job performance, and managers perceptions of freedom. In this article, two of the organisations studied are portrayed in these terms, exploring factors that appear to have influenced their cultures development. The companies are markedly different in their attitudes toward change, one being particularly optimistic and adaptive, the other typified by feelings of constraint and relative powerlessness. The implications for each organisations ability to cope with change are considered. (20) From Leaders to Leadership: Managing Change, Mark J. Ahn, John S.A. Adamson, and Daniel Dornbusch, Journal of Leadership & Organisational Studies, 2004; vol. 10, no. 4: pp. 112 124.

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The accelerating pace of change in globalisation, communications, disruptive technologies, capital flows and alliances have created fundamental shifts in business operations. Where many popular leadership models may provide formulae to help solve some business problems, they are insufficient to deal with the pace and polyvalent character of constant, rapid change. Managing change its impact on organisational structure, group culture, and personal management styles is one of the most fundamental and enduring aspects of leadership. Paradoxically, while the relative value of the once-celebrated individual leader as superman or woman is being questioned, great leadership has never been more urgent or more difficult. (21) Corporate Culture and Economic Performance: A French Study, Roland Calori and Philippe Sarnin, Organisation Studies, Jan 1991; vol. 12: pp. 4974. This paper is based on an exploratory field study of the relations between corporate culture and economic performance. The method of assessing a companys culture is presented, and then hypotheses on relations between values, management practices and economic performance are proposed and discussed. (22) Integrating Professional Management into a Family Owned Business, W. Gibb Dyer, Family Business Review, Sep 1989; vol. 2: pp. 221235. This article investigates under which conditions can professional knowledge and values be integrated successfully into the organisation and management of a family firm. (23) Testing a Framework of the Organisation of Small Firms: Fast-growth, High-tech SMEs, Mark W. Gilman and Paul K. Edwards, International Small Business Journal, Oct 2008; vol. 26: pp. 531558. Studies of small firms tend to assume either that models derived from large firms can be applied directly or that small firms are uniformly distinct from large ones. A recent framework, based mainly on low-wage family-owned firms, has identified an analytical space to identify different types of small firm. This article tests out that framework in a different context: four high-tech and non-family-owned firms. The framework identified market conditions and strategic choice as key measures, and was useful in capturing practice, though it also needed further refinement. Key substantive implications were: apparently similar firms in fact behaved differently, for reasons to do with their market situations and the choices they made; and the firms displayed tensions between modern business strategies and traditional and informal employment practices, tensions that the framework helps to capture. (24) Culture in Family-Owned Enterprises: Recognizing and Leveraging Unique Strengths, Daniel Denison, Colleen Lief, and John L. Ward, Family Business Review, Mar 2004; vol. 17: pp. 6170. Through years of consulting experience and culture research, a fuller picture of family firms began to emerge. It became increasingly clear that family business sustainability and accomplishment were rooted in something deeper, something beyond superficial explanation. Belief in the innate value and uniqueness of family business culture drove collaboration on this project between the disciplines of family business and organisational behaviour. The goal was to critically examine family business culture 62

and performance relative to non-family firms. The Denison Organisational Culture Survey, a cultural assessment tool that has linked corporate culture to financial performance, was administered to a sample of 20 family businesses and 389 non-family businesses, allowing us to compare their cultures. The results showed that the corporate cultures of family enterprises were more positive than the culture of firms without a family affiliation. Family enterprises scored higher on all 12 dimensions of the assessment tool. Despite the small sample, several of these differences were statistically significant. This suggests that family firms perform better because of who they are. In addition, recent research shows that they also perform better because of what they do strategically. TEAMS (25) Follower Behavior and Organisational Performance: The Impact of Transformational Leaders, Sabine Boerner, Silke Astrid Eisenbeiss, and Daniel Griesser, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Feb 2007; vol. 13: pp. 1526. This study sheds light on the mediating processes by which transformational leadership influences follower performance and innovation, respectively. We hypothesise that transformational leaders boost follower performance by stimulating organisational citizenship behaviour, whereas they enhance follower innovation by triggering controversial discussion of task related issues (debate). On the contrary, we do not expect these mediating effects to hold for the relationship between transactional leadership and follower performance and innovation, respectively. Our hypotheses were confirmed in an empirical study of N = 91 leaders from 91 German companies. Conclusions for leadership research are drawn. Key words: debate, innovation, organisational citizenship behaviour, transactional leadership, transformational leadership. (26) Implementing Process Innovations: The Benefits of Combining DelegativeParticipative With Consultative-Advisory Leadership, Diana E. Krause, Diether Gebert, and Eric Kearney, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Aug 2007; vol. 14: pp. 1625. Previous research leaves open which facets of leadership foster the implementation of process innovations. In this study, the authors analyse the effects of delegativeparticipative and consultative-advisory leadership, respectively, on the implementation success of process innovations. They argue that each of these leadership behaviours entails specific advantages and risks and that therefore the two patterns complement each other. The sample consisted of managers from different organisations. Although the posited main effects of both delegative-participative and consultative-advisory leadership are confirmed, the significant interaction between these two leadership styles has a different direction than the authors hypothesised. (27) The Effects of Leadership Style and Team Process on Performance and Innovation in Functionally Heterogeneous Teams, Anit Somech, Journal of Management, Feb 2006; vol. 32: pp. 132157.

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This study focused on leadership style (participative leadership/directive leadership) as a key factor, which has an intervening impact on a functionally heterogeneous teams process and outcomes. In a study of 136 primary care teams, the author found that in high functionally heterogeneous teams, participative leadership style was positively associated with team reflection, which in turn fostered team innovation; however, this leadership style decreased team in-role performance. The impact of directive leadership was in promoting team reflection under the condition of low functional heterogeneity, whereas no such impact was found under the condition of high functional heterogeneity. (28) The Role of Networks in Fundamental Organisational Change: A Grounded Analysis, Susan Albers Mohrman, Ramkrishnan V. Tenkasi, and Allan M. Mohrman, Jr., Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Sep 2003; vol. 39: pp. 301323. Utilising a grounded-theory approach, this study examines eight organisations and finds that social networks make a difference in the capability of organisations to implement fundamental organisational change. Specifically, this study examines whether networks enable the learning required for local units to develop the new schemata understandings, behaviours, and interaction patterns required to adopt and appropriate planned organisation-wide change. A mixture of organisation-wide and local learning networks in organisations successfully implemented change, whereas the unsuccessful organisations relied primarily on hierarchical change implementation networks. In accelerated change units compared to those that are lagging, a greater abundance and diversity of networks, strong and weak, internal and external, and across system levels were found. These network connections facilitate change implementation not only by sharing information but also by providing the capabilities to exchange and combine knowledge and by enabling local self-design. (29) The Application of Team Building, S. Jay Liebowitz and Kenneth P. de Meuse, Human Relations, Jan 1982; vol. 35: pp. 118. This paper reviews the literature on the organisation development strategy known as team building. Included are a definition and conceptualisation of team building, a comparison of team building with laboratory training, a series of assumptions underlying the strategy, the major purposes of team building, and a description of several models of team building. In addition, the process of team building is presented; the steps in the team building process are outlined, a variety of techniques for problem diagnosis and solution generation are listed, and the roles played by the team-building consultant are reviewed. Further, several important prerequisites to enhance the probability of success of team building interventions are considered. Finally, the utility of team building is discussed.

CHAPTER 8

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The topics for which specific articles are identified include entrepreneurial leadership, business networks, innovation to generate new revenue, implementing innovation project and assessing the Stage Gate model for the management of innovation. DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION (1) Developing Radical Technology for Sustainable Energy Markets: The Role of New Small Firms, James Brown, Chris Hendry, and Paul Harborne, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2007; vol. 25: pp. 603629. Electricity supply is a mature industry that is characterised by centralised generation from fossil fuels and the dominant presence of large companies. However, with the advent of liberalised energy markets and global concerns about greenhouse gas emissions, there is now an opportunity for small high technology firms to introduce products that generate electricity from renewable sources. A key technology in this context is the fuel cell, which can be configured to generate electricity and heat for an individual house or a group of buildings. This article looks at the development of fuel cells in this market space and compares the experience of two leading fuel cell companies. We highlight the potential for small firms to play a significant role as creators of technology specific advocacy coalitions and promoters of a new technology in multiple experimental situations. (2) Organisational Ambidexterity: Antecedents, Outcomes, and Moderators, Sebastian Raisch and Julian Birkinshaw, Journal of Management, Jun 2008; vol. 34: pp. 375409. Organisational ambidexterity, defined as an organisations ability to be aligned and efficient in its management of todays business demands while simultaneously being adaptive to changes in the environment, has gained increasing interest in recent years. In this article, the authors review various literature streams to develop a comprehensive model that covers research into the antecedents, moderators, and outcomes of organisational ambidexterity. They indicate gaps within and across different research domains and point to important avenues for future research. (3) Research on Competitive Dynamics: Recent Accomplishments and Future Challenges, David J. Ketchen, Jr., Charles C. Snow, and Vera L. Hoover, Journal of Management, Dec 2004; vol. 30: pp. 779804. Understanding the nature and consequences of the competitive dynamics among firms is a key objective of the strategic management field. We review recent developments in six research streams relevant to competitive dynamics: competitive action and response, first-mover advantage, multipoint competition, strategic groups, and regional clusters. As a first step toward filling gaps in knowledge identified in our review, we provide suggestions for future inquiry within each research stream. We also describe opportunities for conceptual integration across the streams that could significantly advance the understanding of competitive dynamics.

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(4) Implementing Process Innovations: The Benefits of Combining DelegativeParticipative With Consultative-Advisory Leadership, Diana E. Krause, Diether Gebert, and Eric Kearney, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, Aug 2007; vol. 14: pp. 1625. Previous research leaves open which facets of leadership foster the implementation of process innovations. In this study, the authors analyse the effects of delegativeparticipative and consultative-advisory leadership, respectively, on the implementation success of process innovations. They argue that each of these leadership behaviours entails specific advantages and risks and that therefore the two patterns complement each other. The sample consisted of managers from different organisations. Although the posited main effects of both delegative-participative and consultative-advisory leadership are confirmed, the significant interaction between these two leadership styles has a different direction than the authors hypothesised. (5) Small Firm Innovation, Growth and Performance: Evidence from Scotland and Northern England, Mark S. Freel and Paul J. A. Robson, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2004; vol. 22: pp. 561575. This article uses Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) estimation techniques of a large-scale survey to examine the effect of firms innovation activities on their growth performance. The survey, covering 1347 respondents, is the largest and most definitive assessment of enterprise in Scotland and Northern England. This article employs four measures of growth: growth in employment; growth in turnover; growth in productivity; change in the profit margin. These measures of growth are analysed separately for manufacturing and service firms. The models are re-estimated with the current sales and profit levels adjusted for the number of employees. The most emphatic findings highlight a positive relationship between novel product innovation and employment growth and, for manufacturing firms, at least in the short term, a negative relationship between product innovation (both incremental and novel) and growth in sales or productivity. By contrast, growing sales and productivity appear positively associated with incremental process introductions in service firms. STAGE GATE MODEL (6) Technologizing Discourse to Standardize Projects in Multi-Project Organisations: Hegemony by Consensus?, Christine Risnen and Anneli Linde, Organisation, Jan 2004; vol. 11: pp. 101121. A project-management model is a powerful, but little researched, discursive tool in the new bureaucratisation process of multi-project organisations. It is a means of creating hegemony by consensus and can be seen as an example of the process of technologisation of discourse. Through this process, discourse technologists redesign organisational discourses and work processes, turning them into representations of consensual praxis. This article traces this redesign process in a major telecom organisation and shows how the new practices are disseminated within the organisation. (7) Complex Incremental Product Innovation in Established Service Firms: A Micro Institutional Perspective, Patrick A. M. Vermeulen, Frans A. J. Van Den Bosch, 66

and Henk W. Volberda, Organisation Studies, Oct 2007; vol. 28: pp. 1523 1546. Many product innovation studies have described key determinants that should lead to successful incremental product innovation. Despite numerous studies suggesting how incremental product innovation should be successfully undertaken, many firms still struggle with this type of innovation. This paper uses an institutional perspective to investigate why established firms in the financial services industry struggle with their complex incremental product innovation efforts. It argues that although the impact of micro institutional forces is often overlooked in innovation studies, these forces matter for innovation success. The study complements the existing innovation literature and provides an additional explanation why incremental product innovation is highly complex and suffers from several liabilities in established firms. Using qualitative data from the Dutch financial services sector collected over the period 19972002, the paper illustrates how micro institutional forces at the business unit level affect complex incremental product innovation and how the interaction of these forces delivers their impact. (8) Revolution or Evolution?: The Role of Knowledge and Organisation in the Establishment and Growth of R & D at Corning, W. Bernard Carlson and Stuart K. Sammis, Management & Organisational History, Feb 2009; vol. 4: pp. 37 65. The rise of R & D, as it is usually told, is a story of revolution: that the coming of science to industry wiped away the irrational patterns of invention and ruthless competition and ushered in a new rational scientific order. However, the history of Corning Incorporated suggests a different view. Rather than being a revolution, R & D evolved over two decades at Corning. During this evolution, Arthur and Alanson Houghton relied on different kinds of knowledge direct experience, craft skills, as well as science to create new products and processes. To provide an overview of how different kinds of knowledge can be leveraged for innovation, the study draws on Six Sigma methodology to create a SIPOC (Supplier-Input-Process-Output-Customer) diagram of the innovation process. Moreover, to promote innovation, the Houghtons also employed different organisational arrangements including using consultants, employing experts, creating separate companies, and establishing departments inside the company. Eventually, the company did hire scientists and establish a Chemical Department in 1908, but the authors argue that this tradition of using different forms of knowledge and experimenting with organisational arrangements preceded the Chemical Department and continues to inform how R & D is practised today at Corning. (9) A Model for Selecting Product Ideas in Fuzzy Front End, Houn-Wen Chang, ChiuChi Wei, and Ru-Jen Lin, Concurrent Engineering, Jun 2008; vol. 16: pp. 121 128. The most decisive determinant that can create an enterprises competitive advantage and core strength is the development of new products, and the extraction of the most potential product ideas in the fuzzy front end that can generate significant profits has become the vital concerns of research and development managers. However, the front end of the new product development project is composed of uncertainties, fuzziness, and complexities, which greatly hinder the success of product development and

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commercialisation. This study proposes a rational and effective fuzzy multiple attribute group decision-making approach called product idea screening model for selecting new product ideas in the fuzzy front end, and aims to increase the possibility of successful product launch within limited resources and time pressure, especially, in this dramatic global changing environment. PROCESS MANAGEMENT (10) Developing Radical Technology for Sustainable Energy Markets: The Role of New Small Firms, James Brown, Chris Hendry, and Paul Harborne, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2007; vol. 25: pp. 603629. Answering the question of how enabling technology-based firms manage tensions in their development process, we focus on tensions related to balancing the need to explore new developments for future performance, with the need to exploit existing capabilities to generate sufficient value in the short term. Based on social system theory, we suggest that entrepreneurs use four types of functions to develop their business: goal attainment, pattern maintenance, social networking and economic optimisation. Building sustainable firms requires the development of all four functions and the related types of capital (strategic, cultural, economic and social) up to a certain minimum; they must then be balanced in such a way that the exploration exploitation tension can be dealt with adequately. Through a case study of the development of a sound measuring sensor, the authors illustrate the four types of functions and the accumulation of capitals by exploring a set of three propositions. (11) The Relationship of Stakeholder Salience, Organisational Posture, and Entrepreneurial Intensity to Corporate Entrepreneurship, Donald F. Kuratko, Jeffrey S. Hornsby, and Michael G. Goldsby, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, May 2007; vol. 13: pp. 5672. There is a dearth of literature on stakeholder relationships and organisational posture as they affect entrepreneurial intensity inside established organisations. Corporate entrepreneurs are depicted as those managers or employees who do not follow the status quo and increase the entrepreneurial intensity of a firm. A stakeholder theory framework is presented as a guideline for exploring the relationship between stakeholder salience, organisational posture, and entrepreneurial intensity. This paper presents the view that if a company is to be more entrepreneurial, it must first consider its stakeholders as a source of opportunity and acceptance of new ideas. (12) Stakeholder Perceptions of Age and Other Dimensions of Newness, Young Rok Choi and Dean A. Shepherd, Journal of Management, Aug 2005; vol. 31: pp. 573596. Using verbal protocol and conjoint analyses, this study examines how stakeholders assess an organisation in deciding whether to provide their support to it. The authors find that stakeholders support depends on their perceptions of an organisations age and other dimensions of newness related to addressing management challenges of adaptation the entrepreneurial problem, the engineering problem, and the administrative problem. Stakeholder support is more likely for those organisations that are old, cognitively legitimate, affectively congruent, reliable, accountable, and 68

strategically flexible. The authors conclude with theoretical implications for scholars and practical implications for resource acquisition in various contexts of entrepreneurship. (13) The Myth of the Entrepreneurial Economy: Employment and Innovation in Small Firms, Rachel Parker, Work, Employment & Society, Jun 2001; vol. 15: pp. 373384. Over the last three decades, modern capitalist economies have experienced significant changes in the structure of industry, the nature of production and the organisation of work. There has been a decline in traditional industries such as manufacturing, construction and mining and a growth in social, personal, financial and commercial services, as well as a stabilisation or decline in public employment. Technological changes have transformed production in modern economies by expanding the possibilities for flexible and decentralised production techniques. There has been an associated increase in the role of knowledge and the importance of product and process innovation. A set of strategies for managing the workforce has emerged in response to perceived changes in the structure of industry and the organisation of production including reengineering and de-layering, which are thought to reflect the increased need for worker participation and autonomy in the new production regime. (14) Escalation of Commitment during New Product Development, Jeffrey B. Schmidt and Roger J. Calantone, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2002; vol. 30: pp. 103118. Although periodic review is a prominent feature of new product development (NPD) processes, important questions about how managers make critical continuation/termination decisions in risky NPD projects remain unanswered. The authors test whether factors unrelated to a new products forecasted performance cause managers to continue NPD projects into subsequent stages of development at rapidly accelerating costs. The results show that managers who initiate a project are less likely to perceive it is failing, are more committed to it, and are more likely to continue funding it than managers who assume leadership after a project is started. There is also the tendency toward increased commitment for more innovative products compared with less innovative ones. The results suggest that simply giving managers better information will not necessarily lead to better decisions. Finally, the results show that escalation of commitment is a more serious problem during NPD than after the product is commercialised. (15) Innovation Generation in Supply Chain Relationships: A Conceptual Model and Research Propositions, Subroto Roy, K. Sivakumar, and Ian F. Wilkinson, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2004; vol. 32: pp. 6179. Innovation generation has increasingly been recognised as an outcome of interaction between a firm and various outside entities. According to this view, supplier involvement and alliances are routes to innovation generation. Despite this realisation, there is a dearth of research, both conceptual and empirical, focusing on innovation generation in buyerseller relationships in supply chains. In an attempt to fill this void, this article develops a conceptual model of innovation generation in buyerseller relationships in upstream supply chains. The authors propose that innovation generation

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in supply chain relationships, both incremental and radical, is a consequence of interactions between buyers and sellers. They also delineate factors internal and external to the relationship that moderate the link between interaction and innovation generation. Finally, the authors discuss managerial implications of their research and offer guidelines for future empirical research. (16) The New Products Process: Effective Knowledge Capture and Utilisation, Jenny Poolton, Hossam S. Ismail, and S.M.M. Shahidipour, Concurrent Engineering, Jun 2000; vol. 8: pp. 133143. This paper describes a method of knowledge capture and utilisation in new product development that can be used to improve firms existing performance. The method is intended to provide an effective bridge between expert knowledge generated internally, and the incorporation of best practice knowledge in the field. Past development projects (both successful and unsuccessful) provide the basis for analysis, allowing key success factors to be teased-out from the data. To supplement internally generated expertise, a large database of new products knowledge from the past literature is used to complement the analysis. From this data, a risk assessment frame work is developed that can be used to alert managers to the dangers of overlooking key activities and processes, and their likely effects on the new products process as a whole. (17) The Effect of Market Orientation on Product Innovation, Bryan A. Lukas and O. C. Ferrell, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2000; vol. 28: pp. 239247. Numerous scholars have debated whether marketing fosters or stifles innovation. The discussions, however, have been inconclusive due to limited empirical evidence. The authors investigate the relationship between two focal constructs in the debate: market orientation and product innovation. On the basis of a sample of U.S. manufacturing companies, the authors analysis shows that product innovation varies with market orientation. Specifically, (1) customer orientation increases the introduction of new-tothe-world products and reduces the launching of me-too products, (2) competitor orientation increases the introduction of me-too products and reduces the launching of line extensions and new-to-the-world products, and (3) interfunctional coordination increases the launching of line extensions and reduces the introduction of me-too products. (18) Generating New Product Ideas: An Initial Investigation of the Role of Market Information and Organisational Characteristics, Lisa C. Troy, David M. Szymanski, and P. Rajan Varadarajan, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2001; vol. 29: pp. 89101. Although product innovation is widely recognised as crucial to the success of organisations, the literature still contains certain gaps that limit our understanding of successful product innovation. These gaps include a lack of research employing a decompositional approach (i.e., analysis of the drivers at each stage of the process) to studying product innovation and a related lack of research investigating the effect of organisational characteristics on specific stages of the product innovation process. The authors attempt to close these gaps by developing and testing a model examining the moderating effects of organisational characteristics on the relationship between the

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amount of market information gathered and the number of new product ideas generated by work groups in organisations. The studys findings provide insights into the types of organisational structure and climate characteristics that can have an impact on the relationship between amount of market information and new product idea generation. (19) The Impact of Sales Management Changes on New Product Success, Linda Rochford and Thomas R. Wotruba, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jun 1996; vol. 24: pp. 263270. Although the role of the sales force and sales management mix can be significant in influencing successful new product launch, the impact of specific sales management programmes and tactics has not been examined in detail. This study explores whether firms that introduce new products were more successful in achieving their objectives when the new product introduction was accompanied by associated changes in sales management mix variables. Firms that were more successful in achieving their new product objectives accompanied their new product launches with significantly more changes in sales force quotas than did firms whose achievement of new product objectives was less successful. However, no significant differences in the number of changes in sales force structure, training, or sales support were found between firms with more successful versus less successful new products. TEAM-BASED INNOVATION (20) The Determinants of Team-Based Innovation in Organisations: The Role of Social Influence, David F. Caldwell and Charles A. OReilly, III, Small Group Research, Aug 2003; vol. 34: pp. 497517. This study investigates the role of work group norms in promoting innovation in hightechnology organisations. Through structured discussions, samples of senior executives identified organisational patterns and norms associated with successful innovation. Based on the results, a survey was developed and administered to a set of managers. Results show four norms associated with increased group innovation: support for risk taking, tolerance of mistakes, teamwork, and speed of action. An instrument to assess these norms is developed. (21) Conflict Management and Innovation Performance: An Integrated Contingency Perspective, Michael Song, Barbara Dyer, and R. Jeffrey Thieme, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jul 2006; vol. 34: pp. 341356. In recent years, many of the basic assumptions underlying organisational conflict research have changed, drawing into question the validity of some previous research findings. Operating from the perspective that conflict is complex, multidimensional, and context specific, this research takes a fresh look at key conflict antecedents, mediators, and consequences in the context of the innovation process. The study investigates the relationships among five behavioural conflict-handling strategies, destructive and constructive conflict, and innovation performance as perceived by 290 R&D and marketing department managers. Empirical results both support and question some of the previous findings in conflict research. The results indicate that integrating, accommodating, compromising, forcing, and avoiding conflict-handling strategies can have different impacts on constructive and destructive conflict in an innovation context. 71

(22) Organisational Cultures Influence on Creativity and Innovation: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Human Resource Development, Laird D. McLean, Advances in Developing Human Resources, May 2005; vol. 7: pp. 226246. The majority of the literature on creativity has focused on the individual, yet the social environment can influence both the level and frequency of creative behaviour. This article reviews the literature for factors related to organisational culture and climate that act as supports and impediments to organisational creativity and innovation. The work of Amabile, Kanter, Van de Ven, Angle, and others is reviewed and synthesised to provide an integrative understanding of the existing literature. Implications for human resource development research and practice are discussed. (23) Goal Setting And Team Performance In Innovative Projects: On the Moderating Role of Teamwork Quality, Martin Hoegl and K. Praveen Parboteeah, Small Group Research, Feb 2003; vol. 34: pp. 319. Previous research has identified goal setting as an important determinant of the performance of teams with innovative tasks. This study aims to further the understanding of how teams successfully perform goal setting given the collaborative nature of innovative projects. The authors argue that the quality of teamwork serves as an important facilitator to the successful enactment of goal setting in team projects. Using data from 575 members, leaders, and managers of 145 software development teams, they test direct and moderated relationships between goal setting and effectiveness (quality) and efficiency (schedule, budget). Results indicate that goal setting is directly related to both effectiveness and efficiency. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analyses show that teamwork quality moderates these relationships. Implications for research and practice are discussed. (24) Top Management Influence on Innovations: Effects of Executive Characteristics and Social Culture, Richard C. Hoffman and W. Harvey Hegarty, Journal of Management, Jun 1993; vol. 19: pp. 549574. Innovation is a growing source of strategic advantage across a variety of industrialised cultures. Top managers often seek to influence or champion strategic innovations. This study examined the extent to which executive characteristics explains top management influence on product/market (PM) and administrative (ADM) innovations in four Western cultures. The results support the proposition that different executive characteristics explain influence on each type of innovation. The influence process differed across cultures for ADM but not for PM innovations. The implications of this study for practice and research are discussed.

INNOVATION NETWORKS

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(25) Are Industrial Districts Formed by Networks Without Technologies?: The Diffusion of Internet Applications in Three Italian Clusters, Fiorenza Belussi, European Urban and Regional Studies, Jul 2005; vol. 12: pp. 247268. It is widely acknowledged that there has been a technological revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT), centred on Internet applications, in recent years. However, there is still a great controversy about the extent to which ICT are transforming the competitiveness of individual firms, clusters and large economic regions. On the one hand, the use of ICT could undermine those economic systems that are very distant from the strategic motors where these developments are taking place, re-establishing a re-centralisation pattern in both functional (size) and geographical (space) dimensions. On the other hand, the virtualisation of the spatial economic relations could offer economic agents located in peripheral areas a better access to the development of distance relationships. In this perspective, the assumptions of the vanishing of physical distance could represent a fascinating utopia. This paper analyses how industrial districts (IDs), which may be considered special forms of clusters, have managed the absorption of ICT (information and communication technologies). Are they formed by networks without technologies? In order to answer this question the authors organised an empirical research in three selected Italian clusters. They chose three cases which are representative of the empirical variation. The investigation presented here is based on a selected sample of 42 firms interviewed (all SMEs). Their behaviours in terms of ICT technology adoption were found to be quite similar in the three IDs studied. The article reached the conclusion that neither size nor the entrepreneurial cognitive frame matters in hindering diffusion. The results seem to demonstrate that firms adopted ICT technologies with respect to end customers while they were reluctant to use B2B linkages with subcontractors and suppliers (EDI and ERP technologies). However, this should not be interpreted as a lock-in phenomenon, but as a sign that they rely on flexible and trustful informal communication that cannot easily and efficiently be virtualised in electronic form. (26) Knowledge Networks and Technological Capabilities in the African Manufacturing Cluster, Banji Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, Science Technology & Society, Mar 2003; vol. 8: pp. 123. Clusters are characterised by two dynamic elements: the rates and types of technological learning, and the nature and intensity of networking. Firms in early industrialisation are largely imitative innovators drawing on a variety of formal and informal sources such as licensing and reverse engineering. There is, therefore, a significant correlation between firm-level technological capabilities and external knowledge networks. The authors define a knowledge network as a structure of interlinked actors that facilitate the process of learning in firms and institutions in the process of innovation. This paper identifies emerging knowledge networks in African clusters, illustrating with new empirical data front clusters in Nigeria. (27) Outsider Initiatives in the Reconstruction of the Car: The Case of Lightweight Vehicle Milieus in Switzerland, Bernhard Truffer and Gregor Drrenberger, Science, Technology & Human Values, Apr 1997; vol. 22: pp. 207234. This article analyses the relevance of a specific form of social network, so-called innovative milieus, for the development of radical innovations. Two Swiss initiatives

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which developed highly energy-efficient means of individual transport in the past ten years are analysed in terms of the resources they could mobilise and the risks they run. To assess the milieus potential for radical innovation, the authors examine the construction of a lightweight safety system, the social construction of the product category lightweight vehicle, and the (mis)management of the interface between prototype development and large-scale manufacturing. (28) Technology Policies and Acquisition of Technological Capabilities in the Industrial Sector: A Comparative Analysis of the Indian and Korean Experiences, Aradhna Aggarwal, Science Technology & Society, Sep 2001; vol. 6: pp. 255304. This paper reviews the science and technology policy of India and Korea in a comparative perspective to draw relevant lessons for India. It shows that policies, strategies and structures of science and technology evolved under a planned development approach in both Korea and India. However, while Korea created a strong national innovation system and acquired phenomenal technological capabilities, India had vital links missing that weakened the performance of this system and resulted in a poor R&D performance of firms in the industrial sector. Four conditions need to be satisfied for building an effective national innovation system: (a) strong competitive pressures on domestic firms; (b) the presence of high-quality human capital; (c) welldeveloped industryinstitutesacademia links; and (d) access to foreign technologies. While Korea tailored its policies to accommodate these conditions in each stage of its development, India failed to evolve an appropriate mix of these critical ingredients. The paper proposes to adopt a more focused but a multidimensional integrated approach to create technological dynamism within the country. (29) Technological Life-Cycles: Lessons from a Cluster Facing Disruption, Bent Dalum, Christian .R. Pedersen, and Gert Villumsen, European Urban and Regional Studies, Jul 2005; vol. 12: pp. 229246. New disruptive technological life-cycles may initiate the emergence of new regional industrial clusters or create opportunities for further development of existing ones. They may, however, also result in stagnation and decline. For clusters in many of the fast developing technologies, the evolution is closely related to shifts in technological lifecycles. During the 1980s and 1990s new mobile communications technologies have emerged as a series of distinct life-cycles, which have caused major disruptions in the industry. The paper examines the key features of a cluster in wireless communications technologies, where the economic evolution has been quite closely related to the emergence of new key technologies. The analysis is focused on the strategy and policy issues involved in the specific phase where one technological life-cycle may (or may not?) be succeeded by the next. When facing disruption the actors in the cluster have discussed various strategies for how to cope with shifts in the technological life-cycles. The article finds that there is room and need for policy and collective action in periods of uncertainty created by new disruptive technological life-cycles. (30) Like Phoenix from the Ashes? The Renewal of Clusters in Old Industrial Areas, Franz Todtling and Michaela Trippl, Urban Studies, May 2004; vol. 41: pp. 11751195.

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Many cluster studies have focused on growth regions and industries covering only the early phases of cluster development. Little attention, however, has been paid to the renewal of clusters in old industrial regions. The aim of the paper is to address the question of how clusters renew themselves in such regions and how they adjust to changes in their environment. After identifying relevant factors from the literature, a comparison is made of the renewal of the automotive and the metal clusters in the old industrial region of Styria. The paper investigates and analyses the different development paths. Critical factors of cluster renewal turn out to be a well developed regional innovation system, the establishment of new innovation networks and new and more indirect forms of policy approach. (31) Homegrown Solutions: Fostering Cluster Formation, Maryann P. Feldman and Johanna L. Francis, Economic Development Quarterly, May 2004; vol. 18: pp. 127137. The 1980s ushered in a new era in technology and economic development policy as a result of increasing competitive pressure. Start-up companies built around commercialising new technologies developed in public or private labs were seen as a means to reinvigorate economies and renew industrial competitiveness in hightechnology fields. This article considers the perspective of the small innovative firm and the question of what small technology-intensive firms want from state economic development programmes. Drawing on a review of the literature and a series of case studies of cluster development, this article presents a set of stylised facts and policy recommendations. (32) Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy, Michael E. Porter, Economic Development Quarterly, Feb 2000; vol. 14: pp. 1534. Economic geography during an era of global competition involves a paradox. It is widely recognised that changes in technology and competition have diminished many of the traditional roles of location. Yet clusters, or geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, are a striking feature of virtually every national, regional, state, and even metropolitan economy, especially in more advanced nations. The prevalence of clusters reveals important insights about the microeconomics of competition and the role of location in competitive advantage. Even as old reasons for clustering have diminished in importance with globalisation, new influences of clusters on competition have taken on growing importance in an increasingly complex, knowledge-based, and dynamic economy. Clusters represent a new way of thinking about national, state, and local economies, and they necessitate new roles for companies, government, and other institutions in enhancing competitiveness. CHAPTER 9 The topics for which specific articles are identified include promotional strategy, promotional effectiveness, terrestrial channels, the Internet as a promotional channel, promotional message variation by sector and online promotional communication variation. PROMOTIONAL BUDGETING 75

(1) Advertising and Publicity: Suggested New Applications for Tourism Marketers, Marsha D. Loda, William Norman, and Kenneth F. Backman, Journal of Travel Research, Feb 2007; vol. 45: pp. 259265. This research explores two of the basic tools used by tourism marketers: advertising and publicity. Message stimulus is the independent variable and consists of two parts: message presentation (i.e., publicity or advertising) and message sequencing (i.e., publicity only, publicity then advertising, advertising only, or advertising then publicity). Four dependent variables are organised in two categories: message acceptance (i.e., perceived credibility, message strength) and message response (i.e., attitude toward the destination, purchase intent). Results of the study show that publicity, in either presentation or sequencing, created significantly higher mean scores than advertising for credibility, message strength, and purchase intent. This study reaffirms that publicity is an important element in the tourism marketing mix. Furthermore, it suggests that a publicity-then-advertising strategy is most effective at persuading potential tourists to visit a specific destination. (2) Branded Spaces: The scope of New Marketing, Elizabeth Moor, Journal of Consumer Culture, Mar 2003; vol. 3: pp. 3960. This article comprises a series of critical reflections on some current directions in marketing, with reference to empirical material from a case study of the promotion of a series of live music events. In particular, it highlights a key theme in contemporary marketing: the attempt to approach consumers in an expanded range of everyday spaces. This, in turn, is related to a heightened emphasis on branding, which derives from a complex of factors including a perceived fragmentation and diversification of media audiences and new ideas about the best ways of structuring and stabilising markets. Within this scenario, the case study is presented as an example of experiential marketing: one of a range of possible strategic choices in the attempt to insinuate marketing practices more deeply into the lives of consumers. In addition, the case study shows how these spatial practices may be connected to electronic marketing technologies, such as databases, consumer websites and viral marketing campaigns, in an attempt to extend the scope of emotional or affective bonds forged between consumers and brands. The article concludes by arguing that whilst such strategies may not always succeed in their stated aims, their emergence should nonetheless be taken seriously as an important development in the mediation of production and consumption. (3) The Paradox of a Marketing Planning Capability, Rebecca J. Slotegraaf and Peter R. Dickson, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2004; vol. 32: pp. 371385. Strategy scholars have long debated the value of formal planning, and research has offered inconsistent support for planning to enhance firm performance. Given these mixed empirical effects, the authors draw from the resource-based view of the firm to illustrate a paradox firms may face. In particular, a strong marketing planning capability may not only reduce the incidence of postplan improvisation but also contain inherent process rigidity. Since both of these can also increase performance, results illustrate a performance paradox in marketing planning. PROMOTIONAL STRATEGY

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(4) Marketing Dj Vu: The Discovery of Integrated Marketing Communications, Harlan E. Spotts, David R. Lambert, and Mary L. Joyce, Journal of Marketing Education, Dec 1998; vol. 20: pp. 210218. Integrated marketing communications (IMC) misrepresents the nature of marketing and systematically ignores at least 60 years of marketing literature. IMC reinvents marketing theory using different terminology for extant concepts. This article examines IMC, its history, and its relationship to the marketing literature. Although IMC has the potential to contribute to the development of theory as it relates to promotion and marketing communication, academicians need to debate its substantive contributions to the marketing and communication literature. This article provides a starting point. (5) Cowboys, Outlaws and Artists: The Rhetoric of Authenticity and Contemporary Jeans and Sneaker Advertisements, Jacqueline Botterill, Journal of Consumer Culture, Mar 2007; vol. 7: pp. 105125. Advertisings contribution to the deterioration of meaning in consumer culture has been well established, yet advertising also offers a therapeutic resource to audiences. Early advertisers humanised the modern marketplace with nostalgic appeals to home, hearth and village, yet, against the rising tide of 1960s identity politics, designers made increasing appeals to authenticity. By the twenty-first century, the modern heroes of authentic individuality the cowboy, the genius artist, the outlaw had been fully parodied and debunked, yet an interpretive study of two totemic youth commodities, jeans and sneakers, suggests that the underlying values of freedom, autonomy and individuality are not. Contemporary jeans advertisers rewrite the quest for authenticity within contemporary promotional culture, yet this appeal is not universal. Athletic shoe brands achieved popularity by reflecting the ideology of athleticism rooted in the modernist ethos celebrating achievement, deferral of gratification, discipline and teamwork. The research suggests autonomy and self-authentication are taken most seriously by those most immersed in the quest for anti-modern identity. Even if the marketplace is not a site of absolute personal freedom, to the degree it quells anxieties that the quest for freedom is disappearing in a hyper-commercialised market culture, it may prove therapeutic. (6) Dynamic Targeted Promotions: A Customer Retention and Acquisition Perspective, Gila E. Fruchter and Z. John Zhang, Journal of Service Research, Aug 2004; vol. 7: pp. 319. This research analyses the strategic use of targeted promotions for customer retention and acquisition in a dynamic and competitive environment. The normative analysis shows that a firms optimal targeting strategies, both offensive and defensive, depend on its actual market share, the relevant redemption rate of its targeted promotions, customer profitability, and the effectiveness of its targeted promotions. These strategies have the attractive feature of being an adaptive control rule. A firm can operationalise these strategies by adjusting its planned promotional incentives on the basis of the observed differences between actual and planned market shares and between actual and planned redemption rates. In the long run, a focus on customer retention is not an optimal strategy for all firms. ADVERTISING

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(7) Advertising Theory: Reconceptualizing the Building Blocks, Xiaoli Nan and Ronald J. Faber, Marketing Theory, Jun 2004; vol. 4: pp. 730. A large amount of research in advertising utilises theories from other disciplines and simply uses an advertising message as a stimulus or focal content topic. The actual elements that make advertising unique are often ignored in this work. It is proposed here that advertising theory and research needs to become more focused on what makes advertising a distinct phenomenon and these elements need to be incorporated in our thoughts and research. Four examples of possible elements are suggested here. These are scepticism, repetition, message coordination and clutter. Research in each of these areas is reviewed and illustrations of how they may impact theory development and theory testing in advertising are presented. (8) Branding Strategies, Marketing Communication, and Perceived Brand Meaning: The Transfer of Purposive, Goal-Oriented Brand Meaning to Brand Extensions, Ingrid M. Martin, David W. Stewart, and Shashi Matta, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jul 2005; vol. 33: pp. 275294. This article develops and tests a conceptual model of the transfer process whereby perceived similarity organised around shared goals facilitates the transfer of knowledge and affect from a parent brand to an extension of that brand. Empirical results, based on two well-known brands and two hypothetical product extensions for each brand, demonstrate that the availability of well-formed, goal-derived categories associated with a parent brand establishes an organising framework for consumers assessments of similarity that facilitates the transfer of consumer knowledge and attitude from the parent brand to a brand extension in another product category. This facilitating effect of similarity does not occur in the absence of goal-derived categories. The results also reveal how marketing communication can be used to facilitate the transfer process by framing similarity in terms of common goals. Implications are discussed for the organisation of consumer knowledge and affect across product categories and for understanding prior research findings on brand extension. (9) The Advertising of Services: Meeting the Challenge of Intangibility, Banwari Mittal, Journal of Service Research, Aug 1999; vol. 2: pp. 98116. Service advertisers often are confronted with the problem of how best to communicate the intangible qualities of a service to their target audiences. In this conceptual article, the author describes what intangibility means, discusses how it influences the service advertising task, and derives propositions to handle that task. The article (a) identifies five conceptual properties of intangibility, (b) describes the advertising challenge of each, (c) suggests approaches to meet each challenge, and (d) elucidates the power of transformational advertising in embedding intangible service performance into a consumers life experiences. The author argues that in services, intangibility can contribute to value rather than detract from it and that it is well within the advertisings special talent to communicate intangibility. The author advances propositions to guide copy and creative strategy for service advertising managers. (10) A Content Analysis of the Content Analysis Literature in Organisation Studies: Research Themes, Data Sources, and Methodological Refinements, Vincent J.

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Duriau, Rhonda K. Reger, and Michael D. Pfarrer, Organisational Research Methods, Jan 2007; vol. 10: pp. 534. We use content analysis to examine the content analysis literature in organisation studies. Given the benefits of content analysis, it is no surprise that its use in organisation studies has been growing in the course of the past 25 years. First, we review the principles and the advantages associated with the method. Then, we assess how the methodology has been applied in the literature in terms of research themes, data sources, and methodological refinements. Although content analysis has been applied to research topics across the subdomains of management research, research in strategy and managerial cognition have yielded particularly interesting results. We conclude with suggestions for enhancing the utility of content analytic methods in organisation studies. (11) Toward a General Theory of Creativity in Advertising: Examining the Role of Divergence, Robert E. Smith and Xiaojing Yang, Marketing Theory, Jun 2004; vol. 4: pp. 3158. Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of creativity in advertising by practitioners and scholars, no systematic research has been conducted to define ad creativity or examine how it relates to ad effectiveness. The present research attempts to fill this gap by reviewing past literature in psychology, marketing and advertising. From this base, a model is developed which defines a creative ad as both divergent (i.e. novel or unusual) and relevant. The effects of divergence and (to a lesser extent) relevance on consumer processing and response are examined and a series of theoretical propositions are developed. Next, a general theory of creativity in advertising is developed that calls for research in five primary areas: advertising as a communication process, management process, societal process, group process, and personal process. Finally, contributions to advertising theory and implications for future research are discussed, along with commentary from a prominent advertising executive. SALES MANAGEMENT (12) Digitization of Selling Activity and Sales Force Performance: An Empirical Investigation, Devon S. Johnson and Sundar Bharadwaj, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2005; vol. 33: pp. 318. Firms are creating a digitised selling capability by developing Web sites designed to provide information and conduct transactions with customers, replacing many routine sales force activities. The authors use the motivation ability framework to shape a conceptual model that examines the effects of the digitisation of selling activity on two salesperson outcomes: salesperson effectiveness and salesperson job insecurity. Using data from salespeople in 168 firms, they assess the moderating effects of environmentallevel motivational factors and firm-level ability factors on the impact of digitisation of selling activity on salesperson effectiveness and job insecurity. The results reveal that digitisation has the paradoxical effect of improving salesperson effectiveness and heightening job insecurity concerns, and also that managers can improve the technology-enabled multichannel capabilities of the firm by giving priority attention to human capital improvement, sales force control systems, and communication of the digitisation strategy.

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(13) Personal Selling and Sales Management: A Relationship Marketing Perspective, Barton A. Weitz and Kevin D. Bradford, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 1999; vol. 27: pp. 241254. The authors examine how the practice of personal selling and sales management is changing as a result of the increased attention on long-term, buyerseller relationships and identify some implications of these changes. Changes in the traditional personal selling and sales management activities are needed to support the emergence of the partnering role for salespeople. For salespeople in the partnering role, the personal selling shifts from a focus on influencing buyer behaviour to managing the conflict inherent in buyerseller relationships. The emphasis on building relationships rather than making short-term sales and the use of sales teams dictates changes in the way firms select, train, evaluate, and compensate salespeople and members of sales teams. In this article, the authors have suggested some issues concerning the emerging partnering role for salespeople that deserve the attention of scholars interested in personal selling and sales management research. (14) The Effects of Job Autonomy, Customer Demandingness, and Trait Competitiveness on Salesperson Learning, Self-Efficacy, and Performance, Guangping Wang and Richard G. Netemeyer, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jul 2002; vol. 30: pp. 217228. Although self-efficacy has been demonstrated to be positively associated with performance-related variables, few studies have looked at its possible antecedents in the context of personal selling. Applying social cognitive theory, this study posits that while self-efficacy positively affects performance, the salespersons learning effort directly affects self-efficacy. Furthermore, two task-related factors (perceived job autonomy and customer demandingness) and one individual difference variable (trait competitiveness) are proposed to affect salesperson learning effort and self-efficacy. Two empirical studies show consistent results regarding the positive effects of learning on efficacy and efficacy on performance as well as the influences of three exogenous constructs on learning and efficacy. Implications and future research directions are discussed. (15) Sales Contest Effectiveness: An Examination of Sales Contest Design Preferences of Field Sales Forces, William H. Murphy, Peter A. Dacin, and Neil M. Ford, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2004; vol. 32: pp. 127143. Sales contests, a widely used form of sales force special incentives, receive considerable attention in the trade and academic press. While understanding salespersons preferences for various contest designs is a critical first step for understanding how sales contests motivate sales people to pursue contest goals, a knowledge gap exists in understanding design preferences. With expectancy theory serving as a theoretical basis, the authors develop hypotheses about preferences for sales contest components. Following tests of hypotheses using survey and conjoint data provided by field sales forces from three companies, exploratory analyses of how individual, supervisory, and sales setting characteristics may affect preferences suggest potential boundary conditions for initial findings. The results lead to an improved awareness of the determinants of contest design preferences as well as insights and implications for sales managers seeking to design effective contests.

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(16) Customer-Employee Rapport in Service Relationships, Dwayne D. Gremler and Kevin P. Gwinner, Journal of Service Research, Aug 2000; vol. 3: pp. 82104. Relationships are an important aspect of doing business, and few businesses can survive without establishing solid relationships with their customers. Although the marketing literature suggests that personal relationships can be important to service firms, little specificity has been provided as to which relational aspects should receive attention. In this study, the authors examine one specific aspect of customeremployee relationships, rapport, that they believe may be particularly salient in service businesses characterised by a high amount of interpersonal interactions. Rapport has received relatively little attention in the marketing literature; the goal of this study is to fill this gap in the literature. In two different service contexts, the authors find support for two empirically distinct dimensions of rapport. They also find a positive relationship between these dimensions and satisfaction, loyalty intent, and word-of-mouth communication. They conclude by suggesting future research directions for further academic inquiry of rapport in service contexts. (17) The Impact of Sales Management Changes on New Product Success, Linda Rochford and Thomas R. Wotruba, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jun 1996; vol. 24: pp. 263270. Although the role of the sales force and sales management mix can be significant in influencing successful new product launch, the impact of specific sales management programmes and tactics has not been examined in detail. This study explores whether firms that introduce new products were more successful in achieving their objectives when the new product introduction was accompanied by associated changes in sales management mix variables. Firms that were more successful in achieving their new product objectives accompanied their new product launches with significantly more changes in sales force quotas than did firms whose achievement of new product objectives was less successful. However, no significant differences in the number of changes in sales force structure, training, or sales support were found between firms with more successful versus less successful new products.

OTHER PROMOTIONAL PRACTICES (18) Toward an Understanding of When Executives See Crisis as Opportunity, Joel Brockner and Erika Hayes James, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Mar 2008; vol. 44: pp. 94115. Whereas it has long been noted that crises may be sources of opportunity for organisations and their constituents, relatively little is known about the conditions under which executives come to perceive crises as opportunity. The authors delineate some factors that affect the tendency of executives to adopt a crisis as opportunity mindset as well as the behavioural concomitants of their having done so. The analysis also includes a future research agenda, a consideration of some of the challenges in enacting that agenda, and a few suggested ways to overcome those challenges. 81

(19) Organisational Perspectives for Public Relations Research and Practice, Nick Trujillo and Elizabeth Lance Toth, Management Communication Quarterly, Nov 1987; vol. 1: pp. 199231. In this article, the authors review three broad paradigms from organisational research functionalist, interpretive, and critical and some of the representative theoretical approaches within each of these paradigms. They discuss the implications of these various perspectives for research in public relations and illustrate these implications with examples of research from public relations literature. They conclude with a brief analysis of the public relations efforts of Johnson and Johnson during the Tylenol crisis and illustrate how organisational theory and research can inform our analyses of public relations research and practice. (20) The Rise of the PR Industry in Britain, 1979-98, David Miller and William Dinan, European Journal of Communication, Mar 2000; vol. 15: pp. 535. Public relations is politically and economically more important than ever. This article charts the growth of the PR industry in Britain since 1979. It sets out the major reasons for its growth and outlines some of the political and economic impacts of the expansion on the PR consultancy sector in Britain. In particular it focuses on the tilt to the market under Thatcher, the role of the PR industry in deregulation and privatisation and the progressive abolition of controls on international movement of capital as exemplified in Britain by the Big Bang. In addition the article discusses the consequences of these developments in opening up new and expanded markets for PR consultancies. (21) Managing Trade Promotions in the Context of Market Power, Jack J. Kasulis, Fred W. Morgan, David E. Griffith, and James M. Kenderdine, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jul 1999; vol. 27: pp. 320332. The use of trade promotions as a channel-programming tool has increased substantially in the past decade. In focusing on the tactical implications of trade promotions, some firms appear to have underestimated the tendency of poorly planned trade promotions to interfere with the implementation of a marketing strategy. In this article, the authors examine the complex issue of trade promotion use from both long-term and short-term perspectives. Different trade promotions can produce dissimilar types of channel cooperation, consumer responses, and postpromotion channel member behaviour, resulting in differences in distribution-programming preferences between suppliers and retailers. The authors argue that the adjudication of these different preference structures is addressed through the market power of the channel participants. Based on an assessment of these channel relationships, an approach for suggested courses of action is forwarded. (22) Using Brand Awareness and Brand Image in Tourism Channels of Distribution, Tracy Woodward, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Apr 2000; vol. 6: pp. 119 130. Brand awareness and brand image influence strategies of distribution channel management, particularly push and pull strategies within the channel. Thus, this research investigates brand awareness and brand image issues within tourism 82

distribution channels. The eight major Australian domestic tour wholesaler brands were measured for the brand awareness of end consumers and travel agents. Also, brand image held in the minds of travel agents was researched. This research demonstrates that a combination of push and pull strategies could be used by domestic tour wholesalers to send appropriate messages to both travel agents and end consumers. This combination may be more effective than either strategy on its own because intangibility, heterogeneity, perishability and ownership issues affect the supply and demand of tourism services. (23) Wine Promotions in Restaurants: Do Beverage Sales Contribute or Cannibalize?, Brian Wansink, Glenn Cordua, Ed Blair, Collin Payne, and Stephanie Geiger, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Nov 2006; vol. 47: pp. 327336. A controlled field study of wine promotions in a mid-priced chain restaurant generated three key findings: (1) selected wine recommendations increased sales by 12 per cent, (2) food-wine pairing recommendations increased sales by 7.6 per cent, and (3) wine tastings increased sales by 48 per cent. In general, 69 to 87 per cent of the increase in sales of promoted wines comes from diners who would likely have ordered a nonpromoted wine. This means that 13 to 31 per cent of the increase comes from diners who would have otherwise ordered liquor, beer, and non-alcoholic drinks. Specific implications for responsible restaurateurs are outlined, including the caveat to not cannibalise sales by promoting a lower-margin, lower-profit wine. (24) Best Kept Secrets: An Evaluation of South Australias Direct Marketing Campaign, Richard Trembath, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jan 1999; vol. 6: pp. 7685. In 1998 the South Australian Tourism Commission launched an innovative marketing campaign known as Best Kept Secrets to attract visitors to the state from external domestic markets. The campaign involved direct mail, and was supported with cinema and print advertising. The centrepiece of the campaign was a magazine-style 148-page direct mail piece known as The Book of Best Kept Secrets that was distributed to 1.4 million households in targeted geographic areas. Evaluation of the campaign indicates that it had a substantial impact in raising awareness of the state, stimulating interest in visiting and delivering a motivational and travel planning document that was valued and retained by a substantial proportion of recipients. (25) Consumer Evaluation of Direct Mail in the Travel and Leisure Sectors, Jo HowardBrown, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Jan 1999; vol. 6: pp. 5561. This paper examines usage and consumer perceptions of direct mail in the travel sector and certain sections of the leisure industry. It builds on ten years of on-going research conducted by the Direct Mail Information Service which latterly has expanded to become sector specific, examining both sectors which are long term users of direct mail and those which are relatively new to the medium. By tracking consumer views the paper clearly highlights areas of opportunity for marketeers in both sectors.

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(26) Regaining Service Customers: Costs and Benefits of Regain Management, Bernd Stauss and Christian Friege, Journal of Service Research, May 1999; vol. 1: pp. 347361. Service markets are increasingly competitive while at the same time customer loyalty decreases. To succeed in these markets, service providers have to address not only prospects and existing customers but also lost customers as a distinct target group for their customer management. This article develops a conceptual basis for regain management aimed at winning back customers who either give notice to terminate the business relationship or whose relationship has already ended. Regain management offers service providers profitable acquisition by adopting a specific management process consisting of regain analysis, regain actions, and regain controlling. Essential for this process is a customer database that allows segmentation of lost customers and a segment-specific variation of regain dialogues and regain offers. (27) Targeting Customers with Statistical and Data-Mining Techniques, James H. Drew, D. R. Mani, Andrew L. Betz, and Piew Datta, Journal of Service Research, Feb 2001; vol. 3: pp. 205219. Operationalising a relationship management programme requires a retention strategy that is sensitive to an individual customers position in the service life cycle, while being financially sound for the provider. To this end, estimating a customers hazard function and remaining tenure with the company can lead to important insights into marketing tactics and constitute fundamental building blocks for methods of targeting important customers. The authors describe a way of estimating these quantities using a combination of statistical and data-mining techniques. The resulting customer hazard information leads to a generalisation of lifetime value (GLTV) that explicitly accounts for company actions and their success in relationship management. (28) Databased Marketing by Travel Agencies, Martin Oppermann, Journal of Travel Research, Feb 1999; vol. 37: pp. 231237. Databased marketing, understood as a comprehensive marketing strategy based on a memory of business transactions with customers, is a crucial step toward gaining competitive advantage in this rapidly changing world and industry. This article discusses the concept of databased marketing and presents the results of a survey of travel agencies in New Zealand. It shows that the travel agencies are involved only to a limited extent in the three identified areas of databased marketing: customer retention, product promotion, and customer creation. Especially in the areas of product promotion and customer creation, considerable opportunities exist to maximise the returns and effectiveness of the existing databases. (29) The Impact of Direct Marketing Appeals on Charitable Marketing Effectiveness, Gerald E. Smith and Paul D. Berger, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jun 1996; vol. 24: pp. 219231. Building on behavioural decision research, this article provides guidelines to charitable marketing managers regarding the effect of charitable direct marketing appeals on donor decision judgments. Several charitable direct mail appeals (factors) were empirically tested simultaneously in a factorial experimental design involving 18,144 potential 84

donors to determine how donor decision strategies influenced choice judgments about whether to give and estimation judgments about how much to give. The results indicate that suggested anchors and framing influence response rate (choice) but not size of gift. Reference information (factual/statistical and narrative/experiential) influences size of gift (estimation) but not response rate. Implications for charitable marketing managers are discussed. ON-LINE PROMOTION (30) Globalization, Promotional Culture and the Production/consumption of Online Games: Engaging Adidass Beat Rugby Campaign, Jay Scherer, New Media & Society, Jun 2007; vol. 9: pp. 475496. Issues pertaining to the production and consumption of corporate websites and online games remain relatively unexplored. This study examines the cultural production of a free, downloadable rugby game and parallel website for Adidass sponsorship of the New Zealand All Blacks entitled Beat Rugby. Produced by Saatchi & Saatchi Wellington to articulate the Adidas brand as globally cool, the promotional apparatus targeted a specific niche of Adidass company-wide target market known as the jeeks: male, sports-loving and computer literate 1220-year-olds. More than 43,000 participants downloaded and played in the three-month tournament with the winners, the virtual 15 All Blacks, flown to New Zealand to meet their real counterparts. The game and electronic community facilitated a range of consumption and communication experiences for a transnational audience of post-fans in a branded environment which was monitored by the cultural intermediaries at Saatchi & Saatchi on behalf of their client. (31) Enhancing Promotional Strategies Within Social Marketing Programs: Use of Web 2.0 Social Media, Rosemary Thackeray, Brad L. Neiger, Carl L. Hanson, and James F. McKenzie, Health Promotion Practice, Oct 2008; vol. 9: pp. 338343. The second generation of Internet-based applications (i.e., Web 2.0), in which users control communication, holds promise to significantly enhance promotional efforts within social marketing campaigns. Web 2.0 applications can directly engage consumers in the creative process by both producing and distributing information through collaborative writing, content sharing, social networking, social bookmarking, and syndication. Web 2.0 can also enhance the power of viral marketing by increasing the speed at which consumers share experiences and opinions with progressively larger audiences. Because of the novelty and potential effectiveness of Web 2.0, social marketers may be enticed to prematurely incorporate related applications into promotional plans. However, as strategic issues such as priority audience preferences, selection of appropriate applications, tracking and evaluation, and related costs are carefully considered, Web 2.0 will expand to allow health promotion practitioners more direct access to consumers with less dependency on traditional communication channels. (32) The Impact of Electronic Commerce on the Publishing Industry: Towards a Business Value Complementarity Framework of Electronic Publishing, Ada Scupola, Journal of Information Science, Apr 1999; vol. 25: pp. 133145.

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The publishing industry, like many other industries, is exploring new markets, new services and new products in response to forces such as advances in information and communication technologies, business strategies such as mass customisation, globalisation and shorter production cycles. This paper focuses on the way in which electronic commerce (e-commerce) technologies are changing and could change the publishing processes, and develops a business value complementarity model of electronic publishing. This model gives a theoretical rationale for, and can be used as a methodology to explore, complementarities between different primary activities and supporting technologies when entering the e-commerce arena in order to maximise profitability and improve the competitive position. (33) Digitization of Selling Activity and Sales Force Performance: An Empirical Investigation, Devon S. Johnson and Sundar Bharadwaj, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2005; vol. 33: pp. 318. Firms are creating a digitised selling capability by developing Web sites designed to provide information and conduct transactions with customers, replacing many routine sales force activities. The authors use the motivation ability framework to shape a conceptual model that examines the effects of the digitisation of selling activity on two salesperson outcomes: salesperson effectiveness and salesperson job insecurity. Using data from salespeople in 168 firms, they assess the moderating effects of environmentallevel motivational factors and firm-level ability factors on the impact of digitisation of selling activity on salesperson effectiveness and job insecurity. The results reveal that digitisation has the paradoxical effect of improving salesperson effectiveness and heightening job insecurity concerns, and also that managers can improve the technology-enabled multichannel capabilities of the firm by giving priority attention to human capital improvement, sales force control systems, and communication of the digitisation strategy. (34) Are we Measuring the Same Attitude? Understanding Media Effects on Attitude towards Advertising, Soo Jiuan Tan and Lily Chia, Marketing Theory, Dec 2007; vol. 7: pp. 353377. This article empirically explores the relationship between the general attitude towards advertising and the attitude towards advertising in specific media: television and print. Results support the proposition that attitude towards advertising in general (AG) is an abstract level construct while attitude towards television advertising (ATV) and attitude towards print advertising (APRINT) are experience-based constructs in the consumers structure of attitudes towards advertising. The authors found a significantly negative reciprocal relationship between ATV and APRINT, a significantly positive reciprocal relationship between ATV and AG, and a non-significant relationship between APRINT and AG. Macro level belief factors like good for the economy and materialism are related positively and negatively to AG, respectively. The personal experience belief factor of product information is positively related to APRINT while personal experience belief factors like hedonic and falsity/no sense are related positively, and social image is related negatively, to ATV. Implications for future research and advertising practices are discussed. (35) Audience Manufacture in Historical Perspective: From Broadcasting to Google, Fernando Bermejo, New Media & Society, Feb 2009; vol. 11: pp. 133154.

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The question of what is new about new media has become a central topic of discussion in new media studies. This article frames within that question a historical and comparative analysis of the process of audience manufacture, and attempts to overcome the limitations of previous literature on the internet by situating the discussion within the political economy of communication. The main topics addressed in the blindspot debate the debate regarding the audience as the commodity produced by advertisingsupported media are used to guide an examination of audience manufacture in broadcasting media, and to contrast it with the manufacture of the online audience. The evolution of online advertising, in particular its relationship with search engines, serves as an entry point for questioning some well-established assumptions about the role of audiences in commercial media systems. (36) From Consumer Response to Active Consumer: Measuring the Effectiveness of Interactive Media, David W. Stewart and Paul A. Pavlou, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2002; vol. 30: pp. 376396. Traditional measures of the effectiveness of marketing communications suggest a specific process by which marketing actions influence consumers. This article offers a broader philosophical perspective on measuring the effectiveness of marketing communications that focuses on interaction as the unit of analysis, rather than the behaviour of either the marketer or the consumer. Structuration theory is discussed and offered as a viable foundation for the identification, selection, and evaluation of new measures of effectiveness in an interactive context among active, goal-driven consumers and marketers. Structuration theory focuses on the emergence and evolution of the structure of interaction, which is posited as a critical factor in devising, selecting, and evaluating new measures of the effectiveness of marketing communications. This view broadens the potential set of measures of effectiveness of interactive marketing communications, implying alternative meanings for measures under different interaction structures and combinations of goal states. (37) Preparing for the New Economy: Advertising Strategies and Change in Destination Marketing Organisations, Ulrike Gretzel, Yu-Lan Yuan, and Daniel R. Fesenmaier, Journal of Travel Research, Nov 2000; vol. 39: pp. 146156. Information technology, especially the World Wide Web, has had a tremendous impact on the tourism industry over the past years. It is difficult for most destination marketing organisations, however, to keep pace with the evolution of new technologies, the emergence of innovative advertising strategies, the changes in the consumer market, and the growing competition due to increasing globalisation. The National Laboratory for Tourism and eCommerce organised a workshop in an effort to identify effective strategies for tourism advertising on the Internet. The results indicated that information technology has led to a number of profound changes in the assumptions underlying communication strategies. It was concluded that the change occurring in the new economy involves a rethinking of who partners and competitors are and how networks with other organisations can increase organisational capacity to learn. Thus, it is argued that success of destination marketing organisations in the new economy is more about change in approach than technology itself.

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(38) E-business Development: An Exploratory Investigation of the Small Firm, Ian Fillis and Beverly Wagner, International Small Business Journal, Dec 2005; vol. 23: pp. 604634. Drawing on existing research on e-business and the small firm, this article presents a review of the literature and the formulation of a conceptual framework of e-business development. Macro-level, industry sector, firm and managerial factors are examined, together with attitudes towards e-business and the benefits of and the barriers to its development. The research is positioned within a framework that adopts the Marketing/Entrepreneurship interface paradigm as an aid to understanding how combinations of formal and informal competencies contribute to competitive advantage. A series of in-depth interviews with company managers was carried out in Central Scotland. Results indicate that industry factors, customer influences, the degree of entrepreneurial orientation of the key decision maker and the level of competency development within the organisation play important roles in the level of e-business development achieved. Also, some small firms only embrace e-business to a certain level and even revert to more conventional business practices. (39) The E-Marketing Mix: A Contribution of the E-Tailing Wars, Kirthi Kalyanam and Shelby McIntyre, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2002; vol. 30: pp. 487499. In the context of the wars between the upstart Internet retailers and the existing bricksand-mortar retailers, many e-marketing techniques were invented. This article develops a single unifying and theoretically based taxonomy for e-marketing techniques: the emarketing mix. Drawing on the paradigms of exchange, relationships, and digital interactions in networks, 11 e-marketing functions are identified that form the elements of the e-marketing mix. Nine of the 11 e-marketing functions are considered basic, while seven functions moderate the effects of others and are termed overlapping. The 11 e-marketing functions provide a categorisation of the e-marketing techniques. Compared to the conventional marketing mix, the e-marketing mix has more overlapping elements and directly represents personalisation, an aspect of segmentation, as a basic function. The existence of multiple elements that are basic and overlapping in the e-marketing mix indicates that integration across elements should be more commonplace compared to the traditional marketing mix. (40) Niche Publishing on the Web: Using Online Communities to Change the Economics of Niche Publishing, Andrew Gray, Business Information Review, Mar 1998; vol. 15: pp. 5057. Comments on the explosive growth of both the demand and the supply side of the Internet and the increasing problems caused by users, who are fuelling the growth in demand, being significantly less experienced than those who connected to the Internet earlier in its growth cycle. Notes that the explosion of products and services on the supply side is leading to an increasingly complicated and confusing array of products. Discusses the characteristics of community-oriented Web sites, tightly focused on the needs of particular professional communities, as a way of overcoming these problems and considers how they can impact the Internet strategies of niche publishers. Options for this type of Internet publishing are seen to be: migration strategies; new product strategies; new market strategies; and community strategies. Outlines briefly the

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common issues associated with the first three options then details the attractive features of the community-oriented approach in terms of: real-time news; database content; information wizards; local area search engines; Internet links; directories; discussion boards (forums); Web sites; alerts; sector-specific malls. CHAPTER 10 The topics for which specific articles are identified include pricing, consumer purchasing behaviour, the Internet as a new distribution channel, retailer pricing, sales promotion and of social networks. PRICING STRATEGY (1) Remembering versus Knowing: Issues in Buyers Processing of Price Information, Kent B. Monroe and Angela Y. Lee, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 1999; vol. 27: pp. 207225. A traditional assumption concerning how prices influence buyers purchasing behaviours has been that buyers know the prices of the products and services that they consider for purchase. However, empirical research during the past four decades repeatedly has discovered that buyers often are not able to remember the prices of items they had recently purchased. One conclusion that has been drawn is that buyers often do not attend to price information in purchase decisions. The authors argue that this conclusion may be incorrect in that what consumers can explicitly remember is not always a good indicator of what they implicitly know. Price information not consciously remembered can still influence internal reference prices and product evaluations. In this article, the authors discuss the conceptual and methodological ramifications of the distinction between remembering and knowing to reassess and refine our understanding of how buyers process and use price information. (2) Pricing Consistency Across Direct and Indirect Distribution Channels in South West UK Hotels, Wai Mun Lim and Matthew J. Hall, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Oct 2008; vol. 14: pp. 331344. This study seeks to ascertain if hotels across the South West of the UK price their room nights consistently across each of the distribution channels utilised, such as the hotels website, bricks and mortar travel agents, third party online booking systems, telephone, and emails. While studies examining pricing consistency have been done among larger hotel chains or groups, there had been no studies looking at smaller independent hotels, particularly hotels in the UK. The results will suggest that hotel pricing across channels show no comparable difference but indicates that the star rating of a hotel plays a vital role in pricing decisions and in the methods of distribution utilised. (3) Advance Pricing of Services and Other Implications of Separating Purchase and Consumption, Steven M. Shugan and Jinhong Xie, Journal of Service Research, Feb 2000; vol. 2: pp. 227239. It is important to differentiate between the act of purchasing and the act of consuming. Understanding this separation provides many implications and areas for future research. 89

For example, the separation creates buyer uncertainty about the utility from consumption. Consider buying a ticket for a concert in advance. Here, buyers may be uncertain about their future state (e.g., health, expected conflicts, mood) at the time of the concert. This article explores the desirability and implications of this separation and the creation of it (which is often a consequence of the service providers selling strategy). The authors show that service providers can improve profits by advance ticketing, perhaps, to the level of first-degree price discrimination (although usually there is no loss in aggregate consumer surplus). These profits are possible despite a service providers inability to price discriminate. (4) Perceptions of Price Fairness: An Empirical Research, Robert Gielissen, Chris E. Dutilh, and Johan J. Graafland, Business & Society, Sep 2008; vol. 47: pp. 370 389. This article researches factors that influence price fairness judgments. The empirical literature suggests several factors: reference prices, the costs of the seller, a self-interest bias, and the perceived motive of sellers. Using a Dutch sample, we find empirical evidence that these factors significantly affect perceptions of fair prices. In addition, we find that the perceived fairness of prices is also influenced by other distributional concerns that are independent of the transaction. In particular, price increases are judged to be fairer if they benefit poor people or small organisations rather than rich people or big organisations. (5) How and How Much To Reveal? The Effects of Price Transparency On Consumers Price Perceptions, Li Miao and Anna S. Mattila, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Nov 2007; vol. 31: pp. 530545. This study investigated the effects of price transparency on consumers price perceptions. The authors two-dimensional information transparency framework (sufficiency and diagnosticity of pricing information) is grounded in the HeuristicSystematic Model of Persuasion. Real-life online hotel booking sites were used for hypothesis testing. Results show that consumers price fairness perceptions and willingness-to-pay are more susceptible to the influence of externally supplied pricing information when such information is presented in a high transparency context (i.e., information high in sufficiency and diagnosticity). Heightened judgmental confidence in consumers price perceptions was also observed in the high information transparency condition. Managerial implications of these findings are briefly discussed. (6) Negotiating Prices for Customized Services, Stefan Roth, Herbert Woratschek, and Sven Pastowski, Journal of Service Research, May 2006; vol. 8: pp. 316329. This research analyses the circumstances under which service providers can benefit from negotiating prices for customised services. In the authors model, a service provider offers a service in different degrees of customisation. As a pricing mechanism, the service provider either applies a posted-price or a bargaining strategy. Although the posted-price versus bargaining problem has been extensively discussed in the literature, previous work does not address the relevance of customisation and has not yet focused on its impact on the pricing mechanism. The model shows that the decision in favour of the bargaining strategy depends on several factors. Consumers willingness to pay is typically higher for customised services, which favours the bargaining strategy. In

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addition, low bargaining costs and low consumer bargaining power make the bargaining strategy even more attractive. According to these results, service providers can benefit from negotiating prices for customised services and posting prices for standardised services. (7) Customers Reactions to Price Increases: Do Customer Satisfaction and Perceived Motive Fairness Matter?, Christian Homburg, Wayne D. Hoyer, and Nicole Koschate, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2005; vol. 33: pp. 3649. Most of the previous research on price changes has focused on price decreases. This article investigates the effects of price increases at an individual level. The authors argue that customers reactions to price increases (i.e., re-purchase intentions) are strongly driven by two factors: the magnitude of the price increase and the perceived fairness of the motive for the price increase. In this context, the authors examine the role of customer satisfaction in influencing the impact of these two variables on repurchase intentions after a price increase. Their findings reveal that as satisfaction increases, the negative impact of the magnitude of a price increase is weakened. Furthermore, the results suggest that satisfaction moderates the impact of perceived motive fairness. The authors also find that the level of satisfaction can influence the valence of the perceived motives in response to a price increase. (8) The Effect of Brand Class, Brand Awareness, and Price on Customer Value and Behavioral Intentions, Haemoon Oh, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, May 2000; vol. 24: pp. 136162. The author introduces a comprehensive customer value framework and tests an extended value model with lodging products. The extended value model in this study newly incorporates the concepts of brand awareness, as compared to brand or product class, and price fairness. Based on Baron and Kennys guideline for mediation analysis, this study found the traditional customer value process to be useful for lodging research and marketing. In addition, brand awareness and price fairness concepts were found to play significant roles in the customer value process. The article includes discussions on both managerial and research implications. (9) Tracking Strategy in an Entrepreneurial Firm, Henry Mintzberg and James A. Waters, Family Business Review, Sep 1990; vol. 3: pp. 285315. This study tracks the strategies of a retail chain over 60 years of its history to show how that vague concept called strategy can be operationalised and to draw conclusions about strategy formation in the entrepreneurial firm that grows large and formalises its structure. The conclusions focus on patterns of strategic change and on contrasting characteristics of entrepreneurship and planning. ON-LINE PRICING (10) Price and the Marketing Environment for Electronic Information, Jennifer Rowley, Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, Jun 1997; vol. 29: pp. 95 101.

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Argues the central role of pricing strategy in determining the future characteristics of the information marketplace. Focuses on three of the four variables in the marketing of electronic databases: product, distribution and price. The fourth variable, promotion, is omitted. Discusses the product variable in terms of the nature of information as a product and its value, consumption, dynamics, life cycle and individuality. Considers the distribution variable in terms of three potential distribution channels: CD-ROMs; data networks; and facsimile transmission; noting that many producers are still involved in printed products. Discusses the price variable by considering five key approaches to pricing and charging: optimal pricing; pricing according to value; pricing for full cost recovery; marginal cost pricing; and free distribution of services. Analyses the pricing structures for online searching of external databases (subscription charges, discount plans, volume purchase plans, connect time charges, display and print charges, telecommunications charges, session rates, charges for special commands, and charges for special services such as SDI, statistical reports and end-user services). Presents a similar analysis for CD-ROM databases. Concludes that the complex and chaotic information marketplace may be alleviated by standardisation in pricing structures for products such as CD-ROMs and research which seeks to link the factors that influence pricing structures to a more closely defined model. (11) The Applicability of Porters Generic Strategies in the Digital Age: Assumptions, Conjectures, and Suggestions, Eonsoo Kim, Dae-Il Nam, and J. L. Stimpert, Journal of Management, Oct 2004; vol. 30: pp. 569589. Because current management theories evolved in the context of brick-and-mortar firms, this paper examines three key questions raised by the advent of e-business: (1) Will the strategy types found among e-business firms resemble terrestrial company generic strategies? (2) Will we find performance differences among e-business firms pursuing different types of strategies? (3) Will we find differences in the strategy-performance relationships of pure online firms (pure plays) and firms with both online and offline operations (clicks-and-bricks)? We conclude that integrated strategies that combine elements of cost leadership and differentiation will outperform cost leadership or differentiation strategies. We also argue that, regardless of business strategy type, clicks-and- bricks firms that closely integrate their on- and offline operations will enjoy performance advantages over their pure play counterparts. (12) Pricing Strategies for Business Information on CD-ROM, Jennifer Rowley and David Butcher, Journal of Information Science, Jan 1996; vol. 22: pp. 3946. Purchasers of business information on CD-ROM are often concerned to assess its costeffectiveness. CD-ROM may offer a number of advantages, as compared with print and online access, but this may be at a price. The marketplace for business information on CD-ROM is characterised by a range of products that embraces a number of different kinds of databases, with differing added-value features and potential applications. Pricing strategies for electronic information are complex. CD-ROM pricing strategies have two distinct components: prices charged for single-user use and prices charged for network use. A number of different types of discounts and options are available. The article concludes with some case studies which assess the pricing strategies for specific CD-ROM products. The key players in the business information marketplace will continue to maintain their presence, but there is likely to be some realignment of

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product ranges, enhanced products and adjustments to pricing strategies before the market reaches greater stability. (13) Price Levels and Price Dispersion Within and Across Multiple Retailer Types: Further Evidence and Extension, Fabio Ancarani and Venkatesh Shankar, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2004; vol. 32: pp. 176187. In this article, the authors develop hypotheses on how prices and price dispersion compare among pure-play Internet, bricks-and-mortar (traditional), and bricks-andclicks (multichannel) retailers and test them through an empirical analysis of data on the book and compact disc categories in Italy during 2002. Their results, based on an analysis of 13,720 price quotes, show that when posted prices are considered, traditional retailers have the highest prices, followed by multichannel retailers, and pure-play etailers, in that order. However, when shipping costs are included, multichannel retailers have the highest prices, followed by pure-play e-tailers and traditional retailers, in that order. With regard to price dispersion, pure-play e-tailers have the highest range of prices, but the lowest standard deviation. Multichannel retailers have the highest standard deviation in prices with or without shipping costs. These findings suggest that online markets offer opportunities for retailers to differentiate within and across the retailer types. DISTRIBUTION (14) Challenges and Opportunities in Multichannel Customer Management, Scott A. Neslin, Dhruv Grewal, Robert Leghorn, Venkatesh Shankar, Marije L. Teerling, Jacquelyn S. Thomas, and Peter C. Verhoef, Journal of Service Research, Nov 2006; vol. 9: pp. 95112. Multichannel customer management is the design, deployment, coordination, and evaluation of channels through which firms and customers interact, with the goal of enhancing customer value through effective customer acquisition, retention, and development. The authors identify five major challenges practitioners must address to manage the multichannel environment more effectively: (a) data integration, (b) understanding consumer behaviour, (c) channel evaluation, (d) allocation of resources across channels, and (e) coordination of channel strategies. The authors also propose a framework that shows the linkages among these challenges and provides a means to conceptualise the field of multichannel customer management. A review of academic research reveals that this field has experienced significant research growth, but the growth has not been distributed evenly across the five major challenges. The authors discuss what has been learned to date and identify emerging generalisations as appropriate. They conclude with a summary of where the research-generated knowledge base stands on several issues pertaining to the five challenges. (15) Distribution Channels for Events: Supply and Demand-side Perspectives, Karen A. Smith, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Oct 2007; vol. 13: pp. 321338. Distribution involves the dissemination of information, the means of booking and purchase, and product bundling or packaging. In an increasingly competitive market place, special events, like other tourism products, require an effective distribution strategy to reach their target tourist and local markets. This article systematically 93

integrates data from interviews with events organisers and a survey of attendees at four events in Wellington, one of New Zealands main event tourism destinations. The complexity of event distribution channels is influenced by the events target market, capacity, partnership relationships, and other factors. Free events have simple distribution channels focused on disseminating information; channels for ticketed events are more complex. There is limited bundling of event tourism packages and a number of barriers exist to their further development in this destination. (16) The Response Strategies of Dominant US Firms to Japanese Challengers, H. Donald Hopkins, Journal of Management, Feb 2003; vol. 29: pp. 525. Six case studies are used to examine the response strategies of dominant US firms to the entry of Japanese challengers into their domestic industries. This study examines the question of whether it is better to respond quickly with individual competitive responses or wait until a broad strategic reorientation is possible. The results suggest that the US firms that had a slower but more concentrated and aggressive response lost less market share than firms that responded quickly. (17) Developing New Rules for New Markets, John H. Roberts, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 2000; vol. 28: pp. 3144. This article examines emerging technologies and the markets that they create, reviewing ideas about how new rules might be developed for successful participation in them. The need to examine new markets is being driven by the convergence of information technology and telecommunications, increased channel turbulence caused by the Internet, the embodiment of information technology in new products, globalisation, and the increasing concentration and interdependence of industries. New rules to succeed in these markets depend on (1) an understanding of the market and (2) an ability to take that understanding and exploit it into profitable, customer-focused action. This article looks at market calibration including the development of new stimuli, measures, and models. It then takes the results of that calibration to show how firms in the new millennium can focus marketing action not only on a well-targeted marketing mix that has historically been the focus of marketing in the 1900s but by developing, maintaining, and maximising their installed customer base. (18) Segmenting Corporate Exporting Activities: Sporadic versus Regular Exporters, Saeed Samiee and Peter G.P. Walters, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Mar 1991; vol. 19: pp. 93104. The primary focus of this study is an examination of differences between characteristics and activities of sporadic and regular exporters. This mode of classifying exporting firms, which has not previously been studied in a rigorous fashion is shown to be valid and has important policy implications. This classification is robust, with a high degree of convergent and internal validity. The two groups are shown to be similar along several key dimensions of exporting behaviour such as size, age, and size of export orders. However, there are distinct differences with regard to such factors as initial market entry influences, export profit margins, export distribution channels, and information use. These critical differences relate to dynamism and level of export marketing activities undertaken. Conceptual, practical, and policy implications are discussed.

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(19) Satisfying Customer Expectations: The Effect on Conflict and Repurchase Intentions in Industrial Marketing Channels, J. Joseph Cronin, JR and Michael H. Morris, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Jan 1989; vol. 17: pp. 4149. The article investigates how the marketers fulfilment of middleman expectations impacts upon conflict and repurchase intentions in industrial channels. The nature and key determinants of expectations in industrial buyer behaviour are examined. Discrepancy theory is used to assess the (dis)confirmation of expectations process. A series of hypotheses are developed and tested in a large manufacturing and distribution network engaged in the marketing of fluid power products. Results suggest a direct causal effect of (dis)confirmed expectations on repurchase intentions and on conflict, and that the effect of expectations on repurchase intentions is not modified by the creation of conflict. (20) The Structure of Reseller Goals and Performance in Marketing Channels, Ravi S. Achrol and Michael J. Etzel, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2003; vol. 31: pp. 146163. The typical view of a marketing channel is that of a manufacturer-designed and -controlled distribution system. However, today, marketing functions, as well as market power, are more evenly distributed in the channel. In organising and managing the modern channel, it is important to understand the business circumstances and priorities confronting channel members. This article studies how reseller firms establish their goal hierarchies and how these goals are related to performance. It hypothesises that goal priorities emerge in relation to the environmental imperatives faced by the firm. The article develops hypotheses that are tested on survey data collected from a sample of franchisee firms, using structural equation models. The results support all the hypotheses about the effects of primary goals on performance. The effects of secondary goals are not unequivocal but informative nevertheless. Overall, the study points to interesting theoretical and managerial conclusions. (21) Organizing and Managing Channels of Distribution, Gary L. Frazier, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 1999; vol. 27: pp. 226240. During the past three decades, tremendous strides have been made in our understanding of how firms should organise and manage their channels of distribution. Still, we have barely touched the surface of all the managerial issues that need to be addressed. A variety of research needs still exist regarding constructs and issues examined in prior channels research. Furthermore, many issues of managerial importance relating to the organisation and management of channels of distribution have received no attention in empirical research. The purpose of this article is to provide a perspective on how channels research should proceed in the future to promote the most progress. It is hoped that the article will help to shape the future direction of marketing thought with regard to channels of distribution and its fundamental domain. ON-LINE MARKETING

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(22) Marketing Strategy and the Internet: An Organizing Framework, P. Rajan Varadarajan and Manjit S. Yadav, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2002; vol. 30: pp. 296312. Competitive strategy is primarily concerned with how a business should deploy resources at its disposal to achieve and maintain defensible competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. Competitive marketing strategy focuses on how a business should deploy marketing resources at its disposal to facilitate the achievement and maintenance of competitive positional advantages in the marketplace. In a growing number of product-markets, the competitive landscape has evolved from a predominantly physical marketplace to one encompassing both the physical and the electronic marketplace. This article presents a conceptual framework delineating the drivers and outcomes of marketing strategy in the context of competing in this broader, evolving marketplace. The proposed framework provides insights into changes in the nature and scope of marketing strategy; specific industry, product, buyer, and buying environment characteristics; and the unique skills and resources of the firm that assume added relevance in the context of competing in the evolving marketplace. (23) Integrating the Internet and Marketing Operations: A Study of Antecedents in Firms of Different Size, Maria Bengtsson, Hkan Boter, and Vladimir Vanyushyn, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2007; vol. 25: pp. 2748. Adopting the Internet for advanced marketing operations opens up challenging opportunities for firms of all sizes. However, such adoption might destroy investments in present market channels and thus has the characteristics of radical innovation. In this article, the authors draw on the literature on innovation to investigate what differentiates adopters of advanced Internet-based marketing operations from non-adopters in firms of different sizes. The conceptual model for this study is centred on the set of internal and external factors size, willingness to cannibalise, entrepreneurial drivers, management support, and market pressure. Analysis is built on survey data from 379 Swedish manufacturing firms. The results of analysis show that composition of factors on which firms base their decision to adopt advanced Internet-based marketing operations varies significantly with firm size. A number of implications for further research as well as for managers and educators are discussed. (24) Music in Electronic Markets: An Empirical Study, Martin Kretschmer, George Michael Klimis, and Roger Wallis, New Media & Society, Dec 2001; vol. 3: pp. 417441. Music plays an important, and sometimes overlooked part in the transformation of communication and distribution channels. With a global market volume exceeding US$40 billion, music is not only one of the primary entertainment goods in its own right. Since music is easily personalised and transmitted, it also permeates many other services across cultural borders, anticipating social and economic trends. This article presents one of the first detailed empirical studies on the impact of internet technologies on a specific industry. Drawing on more than 100 interviews conducted between 1996 and 2000 with multinational and independent music companies in 10 markets, strategies of the major players, current business models, future scenarios and regulatory responses to the online distribution of music files are identified and evaluated. The data suggest

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that changes in the music industry will indeed be far-reaching, but disintermediation is not the likely outcome. (25) When Creators, Corporations and Consumers Collide: Napster and the Development of On-line Music Distribution, Tom McCourt and Patrick Burkart, Media, Culture & Society, May 2003; vol. 25: pp. 333350. The Internet is often depicted as the ultimate arena for unfettered capitalism, erasing geographic boundaries and barriers to entry while providing a plethora of goods and services to consumers. This article traces how public and private reactions by the five major record companies to new Internet distribution technologies have undermined this popular myth. We use a political economic approach to examine the case of A&M Records et al. v. Napster, and discuss how this case underscores the importance of controlling the Internet as an entertainment distribution pipeline. Expressed concerns about piracy mask the actual intentions of the Big Five control of all modes of distribution. The strength of the Big Fives cartel has a momentum of its own based in its market oligopoly, which has been secured through its ownership and management of intellectual property; through format changes and setting standards for other technologies; and through lobbying and legal activities. (26) Identifying Cross-Channel Dissynergies for Multichannel Service Providers, Tomas Falk, Jeroen Schepers, Maik Hammerschmidt, and Hans H. Bauer, Journal of Service Research, Nov 2007; vol. 10: pp. 143160. In this article, the authors propose that in a multichannel environment, evaluative conflicts (dissynergies) between service channels exist. Building on status quo bias theory, they develop a model that relates offline channel satisfaction to perceptions about a new self-service channel. Data were collected from 639 customers currently using offline investment banking. Results show that offline channel satisfaction reduces the perceived usefulness and enhances the perceived risk of the online channel. These inhibiting effects represent a status quo bias. Trust in the bank shows both adoptionenhancing effects and an adoption-inhibiting effect. Finally, the negative relationship between offline channel satisfaction and perceived usefulness is significantly stronger for men, older people, and less experienced Internet users. This study has both theoretical and managerial relevance as it helps to understand consumer behaviour in multichannel environments and provides implications for the design of multichannel service strategies. (27) Integrating E-commerce into Existing Export Marketing Theories: A Contingency Model, Munib Karavdic and Gary Gregory, Marketing Theory, Mar 2005; vol. 5: pp. 75104. Current theory on export marketing is based on the assumption that each exporting decision is made in isolation, whereby a set of factors are considered for single market entry only, without the consideration of simultaneous entry into multiple foreign markets. Because e-commerce is able to provide instantaneous access to numerous global markets, recent technological advances force us to rethink whether existing theoretical frameworks are sufficient in explaining todays export marketing strategies. A review of the recent export literature suggests that a new paradigm may be needed to take into consideration the electronic marketplace, both in the process of entering

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markets, and in the management of operations within those markets. The purpose of this article is to present a model that integrates e-commerce into existing theories on export marketing. Specifically, the aim is to develop a theoretical framework that: (a) extends existing export marketing theories by incorporating e-commerce strategy; (b) proposes a contingency approach to compare and contrast the relationship among environmental variables, export market strategy and export performance; and, (c) provides a clear direction for future research through the development of research propositions investigating the role of e-commerce strategy in the exporting process. (28) A Conceptualization of the Determinants of Small Business Website Adoption: Setting the Research Agenda, Geoff Simmons, Gillian A. Armstrong, and Mark G. Durkin, International Small Business Journal, Jun 2008; vol. 26: pp. 351 389. As evidence mounts on the importance of small businesses and the opportunities presented by website adoption globally, it becomes important to understand the key issues that determine website adoption. However, the extant literature relating to small business website adoption is fragmented and fails to provide an understanding of what determines adoption. Therefore the key contribution of this article to current knowledge is the development of a conceptualisation, supported by the literature, that will provide an interpretation of what determines small business website adoption. Critically, this is the first article to incorporate the important role that the small business marketing context plays within Internet technology adoption. The article develops nine hypotheses, which relate to the critical interactions and integration, within and between four determinant groupings underpinning the conceptualisation. The nine hypotheses will guide and direct future research towards generating an empirically based understanding of what determines small business website adoption. (29) Developing an Online Access Strategy: Issues Facing Small to Medium-sized Tourism and Hospitality Enterprises, Rick Christian, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Apr 2001; vol. 7: pp. 170178. This paper examines the use of the Internet as a marketing and promotional tool within the tourism and hospitality industries. Taking the situation in Australia as an example, the use of the Internet as a promotional tool has not taken hold among small to medium tourism enterprises. It has been suggested that this reluctance to embrace the Internet is due to a range of impediments such as high costs and issues related to adopting new technologies. This paper suggests that a poor understanding of the technology combined with the plethora of jargon and confusing information concerning Internet marketing and promotion is more likely to be the main cause of the slow uptake. This paper also outlines some of the main considerations in developing a site and/or choosing a specialinterest site or portal to join. Finally, the case of a special-interest site that serves small to medium businesses is looked at. (30) Search Engine Marketing: Why it Benefits Us All, David C. Green, Business Information Review, Dec 2003; vol. 20: pp. 195202. Search engines are playing an increasingly important role in Internet marketing and commerce. Having once been sidelined by the major portals in favour of other sticky features such as news, search is once again central to portal strategies. Yahoo has

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recently spent almost US $2 billion acquiring other search technology providers to compete with Google more directly. The world-wide search market is forecast to grow from US $2.1 billion in 2003 to US $7 billion by 2007. However, against the background of a rapidly consolidating search market, there are increasingly sophisticated technology tools and approaches to utilising search engines to achieve marketing goals. (31) Beyond the Call of Duty: Why Customers Contribute to Firm-hosted Commercial Online Communities, Caroline Wiertz and Ko de Ruyter, Organisation Studies, Mar 2007; vol. 28: pp. 347376. Firm-hosted commercial online communities, in which customers interact to solve each others service problems, represent a fascinating context to study the motivations of collective action in the form of knowledge contribution to the community. We extend a model of social capital to incorporate and contrast the direct impact of commitment to both the online community and the host firm, as well as reciprocity, on quality and quantity of knowledge contribution. In addition, we examine the moderating influence of three individual attributes that are particularly relevant to the firm-hosted community context: perceived informational value, sportsmanship, and online interaction propensity. We empirically test our framework using self-reported and objective data from 203 members of a firm-hosted technical support community. In addition to several interesting moderating effects, we find that a customers online interaction propensity, commitment to the community, and the informational value s/he perceives in the community are the strongest drivers of knowledge contribution. (32) Searching for the Future: Challenges Faced by Destination Marketing Organisations, Ulrike Gretzel, Daniel R. Fesenmaier, Sandro Formica, and Joseph T. OLeary, Journal of Travel Research, Nov 2006; vol. 45: pp. 116 126. Threats in the external environment and changes in the industrys markets and structures have challenged destination marketing organisations to change in fundamental ways. The strategic responses to these developments are essentially decisions to proactively shape, adapt to, or passively struggle through a crisis. Envisioning the future of tourism and examining possible ways of reaching various future scenarios are essential exercises in this process of deciding which strategic approach to adopt. In response to the increasing need for new visions of the future of tourism and particularly destination marketing, leading destination marketers from the midwestern United States were invited to participate in a large focus group to discuss the specific challenges encountered by their organisations. This article summarises the issues raised and their implications for destination marketing organisations as well as tourism research. (33) The Internet as an Information Conduit: A Transaction Cost Analysis Model of US SME Internet Use, Franz T. Lohrke, Geralyn McClure Franklin, and Cynthia Frownfelter-Lohrke, International Small Business Journal, Apr 2006; vol. 24: pp. 159178. Small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can use the internet to establish direct customer contact, thereby reducing reliance on channel intermediaries for customer

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support. Based on transaction cost analysis, this study examined whether SMEs facing high asset specificity in product information transmitted to and received from customers employed the internet to a greater degree than those facing lower information specificity. Results based on a survey of 42 US SMEs generally supported this relationship. Moreover, results were generally stronger for firm- than industry-level factors impacting information specificity. Overall, these findings highlight the important benefit that internet use can provide in reducing an SMEs transaction costs. (34) The Effect of Website and E-Commerce Adoption on the Relationship between SMEs and Their Export Intermediaries, Kathryn A. Houghton and Heidi Winklhofer, International Small Business Journal, Aug 2004; vol. 22: pp. 369 388. Whilst website adoption within UK SMEs is widespread, the number offering ecommerce activities is declining or static. This result is surprising given indications that the medium may be valuable to SMEs and to exporters in particular. Among the multitude of factors suggested to affect adoption, the link between export channel relationships and website/e-commerce adoption has mainly been the focus of normative writings or anecdotal evidence. By building on the rich literature on authoritative control (manifest conflict) and relationship marketing paradigm (trust and commitment), as well as in-depth interviews with exporters, the article proposes a conceptualisation of the potential effects of website and/or e-commerce adoption on conflict and the mediating effect of trust and commitment. Evidence presented indicates that the Internet has the capability to be both a constructive and destructive influence on channel relationships. The findings presented here both support and challenge normative and anecdotal literature, which could explain the low adoption rate amongst exporting SMEs. Furthermore, our conceptualisation demonstrates that a combination of authoritative control and relational paradigm constructs (manifest conflict, trust and commitment) is useful in understanding channel relationship scenarios. (35) Understanding Consumer Choices and Preferences in Transaction-Based eServices, Zafar Iqbal, Rohit Verma, and Roger Baran, Journal of Service Research, Aug 2003; vol. 6: pp. 5165. The rapid increase in transaction-based e-services creates a challenge for firms: What combination of features should they offer to satisfy consumers while realistically considering operational and financial constraints? This article explores the above question by highlighting similarities and differences in consumer preferences between different segments for a transaction-based e-service. The study employs a Web-based discrete choice experiment, in which 1430 consumers are offered e-service options, differing from each other in terms of non-web-based and online-only features, price per transaction, and marketing promotions. The results demonstrate that overall, consumer preferences for features of transaction-based e-services differ between offline and online consumers. Furthermore, with increase in consumer usage frequency, interesting trends regarding the relative importance for features are observed. Similarities also exist in consumer preferences between various usage-frequency-based consumer segments. The authors believe that these results have both managerial and research implications for design and operations strategy formulation for transaction-based e-services.

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(36) Intentions to Use Self-Service Technologies: A Confluence of Multiple Attitudes, James M. Curran, Matthew L. Meuter, and Carol F. Surprenant, Journal of Service Research, Feb 2003; vol. 5: pp. 209224. The introduction of self-service technologies (SSTs) into the service encounter necessitates research to better understand customers attitudes toward service providers and technologies, and their intentions to use technology-based service delivery systems. In this research, the authors develop and empirically test three nested structural models that include a hierarchy of consumer attitudes toward both the interpersonal and the technological aspects of the encounter to better understand their intentions to use SSTs. The findings indicate that intentions to use SST options are driven by multiple, hierarchical attitudes. In addition to the direct effects of attitudes toward specific SSTs and individual employees, the findings confirm that higher order global attitudes toward service technologies influence intentions to use SSTs. Interestingly, the findings indicate that heavy SST users rely more on attitudes toward specific SSTs than do light SST users, who rely more heavily on global attitudes toward SSTs when determining intention to use an SST. (37) A Product-Process Matrix for Electronic B2C Operations: Implications for the Delivery of Customer Value, Gregory R. Heim and Kingshuk K. Sinha, Journal of Service Research, May 2001; vol. 3: pp. 286299. Electronic business-to-customer (B2C) operations are making it possible for companies to deliver service products conceptualised as bundles of physical goods, offline services, and digital content to customers almost anywhere and at any time. In this article, the authors develop a product-process matrix for electronic B2C operations. The building blocks of the matrix are an electronic service product structure and an electronic service process structure. The electronic service product structure, characterised by the digital content of service products and the target market segment, defines four service product categories. The electronic service process structure, characterised by the flexibility of process technologies, defines four service process stages. Positions on the matrix capture the product-process interrelationships in electronic B2C operations. The authors present propositions relating customer value to positions on the product and process structures and on the matrix. They also present illustrative applications of the matrix to examine the B2C operations of two electronic food retailers. (38) Repositioning travel agencies on the Internet, Martin Barnett and Craig Standing, Journal of Vacation Marketing, Apr 2001; vol. 7: pp. 143152. Traditionally, retail travel agencies have acted as intermediaries between primary creators/suppliers of travel products and the consumer, largely as a function of taking upon themselves the transaction costs for the consumer to find and select appropriate travel facilitators. Internet-related technologies dramatically change transaction costs in communication-based activities and raise both challenges and opportunities for this business sector relating to issues of the nature and value of intermediation. Two major threats currently perceived are the disintermediation of retail agencies by primary producers, and the emergence of new virtual intermediaries.

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The potential for structural changes in the travel sector highlights the need for travel agencies to actively select between business models which can best support an effective online strategy. The lowering cost of information and communications technology calls into question the sustainability of many existing implicit online models. To aid in the creation of new forms, the authors use a series of seven models to describe the range of virtual organisational structures and apply these in the travel industry. The value of each of these forms lies in there being an appropriate response to the communication and transaction needs within a given nexus of market forces and opportunities. It is argued that the characteristics of traditional travel agencies are not yet aligned with the demands of the new travel economy. A rapidly changing business environment, largely brought about by the Internet, will require companies to quickly develop new affiliations and alliances, have access to new products and be creative in their marketing. It is suggested that an awareness of the range of organisational forms, together with an appreciation of their potential for application, will aid successful adaptation by travel companies within a changing business environment. CHAPTER 11 The topics for which specific articles are identified include family business, succession planning, social entrepreneurs, social enterprise initiatives and social enterprise in developing economies. FAMILY FIRM PERFORMANCE (1) Family Firm Performance: Further Evidence, Jim Lee, Family Business Review, Jun 2006; vol. 19: pp. 103114. This article empirically investigates the competitiveness and stability of family-owned firms relative to firms owned by diverse shareholders. Founding families are present in about one-third of the S&P 500 the sample of this study. Data gathered over the 1992 2002 period confirm that family firms tend to experience higher employment and revenue growth over time and are more profitable. Regression analysis also supports that firm performance improves when founding family members are involved in management. Although evidence on the relative stability in employment among family firms over the long run is tenuous, data from the most recent recession support the role that founding families play in maintaining employment stability during temporary market downturns. (2) A Stakeholder Perspective on Family Firm Performance, Thomas M. Zellweger and Robert S. Nason, Family Business Review, Sep 2008; vol. 21: pp. 203216. Through the lens of stakeholder theory, this article deepens our understanding of financial and non-financial performance outcomes in family firms across multiple stakeholder categories, including the family level of analysis. Based on this foundation, we develop a typology of performance relationships between performance outcomes: overlapping, causal, synergistic, and substitutional. We argue that these relationships, when used between constructive (positive) performance outcomes, are able to increase stakeholder satisfaction, which in turn increases organisational effectiveness. Through this analysis, we extend the common one-dimensional and cause-effect understanding of performance in family firms and move toward a comprehensive stakeholder 102

performance perspective, which provides insights for increasing organisational effectiveness of family firms. (3) A Resource-Based Framework for Assessing the Strategic Advantages of Family Firms, Timothy G. Habbershon and Mary L. Williams, Family Business Review, Mar 1999; vol. 12: pp. 125. The Resource-Based View (RBV) of competitive advantage provides a theoretical framework from the field of strategic management for assessing the competitive advantages of family firms. The RBV isolates idiosyncratic resources that are complex, intangible, and dynamic within a particular firm. The bundle of resources that are distinctive to a firm as a result of family involvement are identified as the familiness of the firm. This approach provides a research and practice method for assessing the specific behavioural and social phenomena within a firm that provide an advantage. Using a familiness model for assessing competitive advantage overcomes many of the problems associated with the generic claim that family companies have an advantage over non-family companies. It also provides a unified systems perspective of family firm performance. (4) Resource Mobilization and Performance in Family and Nonfamily Businesses in the United Kingdom, Jonathan Levie and Miri Lerner, Family Business Review, Mar 2009; vol. 22: pp. 2538. This study draws on agency theory and the resource-based view to hypothesise that family and non-family businesses differ in the capital that they deploy and the way that they deploy it. The authors test this hypothesis in a large U.K.-based sample of 319 family business and 258 non-family business owner/managers. The analysis revealed that adverse selection, opportunism, and niche marginalisation are more prevalent among family business owner/managers. Yet, their businesses are similar to those of their non-family business peers in performance outcomes such as size and growth, which suggests that weaknesses in human and financial capital choice are offset by strengths in the social capital of family firms. (5) Examining the Family Effect on Firm Performance, W. Gibb Dyer, Jr, Family Business Review, Dec 2006; vol. 19: pp. 253273. The purpose of this article is to provide an explanation for the contradictory evidence in the literature regarding the performance of family-owned firms. The article suggests that most of the research fails to clearly describe the family effect on organisational performance. The family effect, based on agency theory and the resource-based view of the firm, is described and propositions are generated that examine the relationship between families and organisational performance. Implications for theory and research are also discussed. (6) The Impact of Family Control on the Performance and Financial Characteristics of Family Versus Nonfamily Businesses in Japan: A Matched-Pair Investigation, Jos Allouche, Bruno Amann, Jacques Jaussaud, and Toshiki Kurashina, Family Business Review, Dec 2008; vol. 21: pp. 315330.

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Research on family businesses has undergone rapid development in the past two decades. Broadly speaking, such companies perform better than non-family businesses, as recent investigations in Japan support. To obtain a more precise result, this research has applied to the Japanese context a research methodology that has proven its worth in Western cases. On the basis of data covering the years 1998 and 2003, we found better performance among family businesses in Japan. (7) An Exploratory Study of Family Member Characteristics and Involvement: Effects on Entrepreneurial Behavior in the Family Firm, Franz W. Kellermanns, Kimberly A. Eddleston, Tim Barnett, and Allison Pearson, Family Business Review, Mar 2008; vol. 21: pp. 114. Family firms are essential for economic growth and development through new business start-ups and growth of existing family firms. Entrepreneurial behaviour by the CEO is essential for such growth to occur. Entrepreneurial behaviour can be influenced by inherent characteristics of the CEO, such as age and tenure, as well as by the degree of family influence in the firm, as indicated by the number of generations involved in the business. We assess the empirical relationships of these variables to both entrepreneurial behaviour and subsequent firm growth. (8) Turnaround Strategies in Established Small Family Firms, John Cater and Andreas Schwab, Family Business Review, Mar 2008; vol. 21: pp. 3150. This study employs a case-study approach to identify unique characteristics of established small family firms that affect their ability to initiate turnaround strategies when encountering an organisational crisis. In our case studies, we found evidence for family firms employing the standard strategies of top-management changes, infusion of external management expertise, and retrenchment that have been proposed in the general turnaround literature. The implementation of these strategies was, however, moderated by eight characteristics generally associated with family firms, including strong ties to the family firm, internal orientation, altruistic motives, and long-term goal orientation. The introduced framework contributes to a more fine-grained understanding of the turnaround challenges of established family firms and how they can be addressed. This is a topic of substantial practitioner interest considering the high failure rates of family firms. (9) Entrepreneurial Risk Taking in Family Firms, Shaker A. Zahra, Family Business Review, Mar 2005; vol. 18: pp. 2340. Family firms are widely recognised as a major source of technological innovation and economic progress. Yet, over time, some family firms become conservative and unwilling to take the risks associated with entrepreneurial activities. Adopting a broad definition of entrepreneurial risk taking, this study uses agency theory to highlight key correlates of risk taking among 209 U.S. manufacturing family firms. The results show that family ownership and involvement promote entrepreneurship, whereas the long tenures of CEO founders have the opposite effect. These results urge managers to capitalise on the skills and talents of their family members in promoting entrepreneurship and selective venturing into new market arenas.

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(10) Are Family Firms Born or Made? An Exploratory Investigation, Jess H. Chua, James J. Chrisman, and Erick P. C. Chang, Family Business Review, Mar 2004; vol. 17: pp. 3754. Do businesses tend to be born as family firms or do they become family firms at a later stage in their development? The question has important implications for family business studies. In this article the authors examine this question using data extracted from survey responses of small business clients of the Small Business Development Center (SBDC) programme in the United States. The results suggest that most family firms are born that way but that a significant number of firms do arrive there through time. The relationship between age and family involvement appears to be concave the rate of increase in family involvement slows as family firms become older and at some point family involvement may even decline. (11) Strategic Management of the Family Business: Past Research and Future Challenges, Pramodita Sharma, James J. Chrisman, and Jess H. Chua, Family Business Review, Mar 1997; vol. 10: pp. 135. This article reviews the literature on family business from a strategic management perspective. In general, this literature is dominated by descriptive articles that typically focus on family relationships. However, the literature does not usually address how these relationships affect the performance of a family business. Taking a strategic management perspective, we outline a new set of objectives for family-business research. We also identify some of the key issues and gaps that should be explored in future studies if research is to contribute to improving the management practices and performance of family firms. FAMILY BUSINESS SUCCESSION (12) Family Business Succession in Portugal: An Examination of Case Studies in the Furniture Industry, Carole Howorth and Zahra Assaraf Ali, Family Business Review, Sep 2001; vol. 14: pp. 231244. This paper explores the transferability of theoretical constructs developed in an AngloAmerican culture to Portugal. Cultural effects on succession are examined within three Portuguese family firms, which were selected for their ability to generate theory. Much of the extant literature appears to be valid in this context. Notable exceptions include difficulties in applying stages models of the succession process with more than one predecessor and successors at varying stages. Harmonious rather than contentious relationships were commonplace. Daughters were more highly educated than sons and less likely to enter the family firm. Sons joined the family firm with little or no outside work experience and low levels of education. These facts are highlighted as concerns regarding the ability of Portuguese family firms to compete in the new economy. A conceptual framework is presented as a basis for further research. (13) Succession Planning in Family Business: The Impact of Owner Gender, Paula D. Harveston, Peter S. Davis, and Julie A. Lyden, Family Business Review, Dec 1997; vol. 10: pp. 373396.

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Research on succession planning in family businesses has largely neglected issues linked to owner gender. The present study examines the extent to which differences are evident between male- and female-led family businesses in succession planning processes. Using data from a national survey of family-business owners, the authors explore the predictors of the comprehensiveness of succession planning. The results confirm that there are similarities and differences between males and females in the determinants of succession planning. (14) Succession in Family Business: A Review of the Research, Wendy C. Handler, Family Business Review, Jun 1994; vol. 7: pp. 133157. This paper reviews the research to date on succession in the field of family business management. Five streams of research are highlighted: (1) succession as a process, (2) the role of the founder, (3) the perspective of the next generation, (4) multiple levels of analysis, and (5) characteristics of effective successions. Gaps in the literature and future research directions are also presented. (15) Factors Preventing Intra-Family Succession, Alfredo De Massis, Jess H. Chua, and James J. Chrisman, Family Business Review, Jun 2008; vol. 21: pp. 183199. Although research on management succession is a dominant topic in the family business literature, little systematic attention has been given to the factors that prevent intrafamily succession from occurring. Based on a review and analysis of the literature, this article presents a preliminary model of the factors that prevent intra-family succession. (16) Succession Planning as Planned Behavior: Some Empirical Results, Pramodita Sharma, James J. Chrisman, and Jess H. Chua, Family Business Review, Mar 2003; vol. 16: pp. 115. This paper uses the theory of planned behaviour to hypothesise the influence of the incumbents desire to keep the business in the family, the familys commitment to the business, and the propensity of a trusted successor to take over on the extent to which family firms engage in succession planning activities. We test these hypotheses using data collected from presidents in 118 family firms. The results show that the propensity of a trusted successor to take over significantly affects the incidence of all successionplanning-related activities. Succession planning may, then, be the result of push by the successor more than of pull by the incumbent. Such a view has negative implications for the succession process that the family firms in our sample follow. (17) The Succession Transition Process: A Longitudinal Perspective, Barbara Murray, Family Business Review, Mar 2003; vol. 16: pp. 1733. Based on longitudinal case study analysis, this paper provides a metaview of the succession process as it unfolds during the generational transition periods in family enterprise systems. The results indicate that the transition period contains a sequence of phases, here called the transition cycle, during which time the system has an opportunity to do the work or tasks required when changing from one archetypal form of ownership and leadership to another. Each phase in the transition period has a distinct task that the system needs to address, and the whole process requires between three to eight years to complete. Three distinct types of transition journeys are identified, based on the extent 106

to which the system was able to make progress with and achieve the tasks required within the transition cycle. One of these journey types was most likely to lead to continuity of the family enterprise, whereas the other two journey types were more likely to lead to disintegration of the system. (18) A Study of Succession in a Family Firm, A.B. Ibrahim, K. Soufani, and J. Lam, Family Business Review, Sep 2001; vol. 14: pp. 245258. For many founders of family firms, the decision to retire and relinquish control of the business to their offspring is difficult. Pierre Peladeau founded Quebecor Inc., a family business and a communications leader in the new economy. The present research describes the reluctance of the founder to let go of the business to his offspring and the succession process after the death of the founder. The methodology employed is a combination of case history and study of public documents. The study underscores the need to manage conflict between family members and to plan for succession for the next generation effectively. (19) The Succession Process from a Resource- and Knowledge-Based View of the Family Firm, Katiuska Cabrera-Surez, Petra De Sa-Prez, and Desiderio Garca-Almeida, Family Business Review, Mar 2001; vol. 14: pp. 3746. A major challenge facing the family firm is the succession process. One reason for this challenge might involve the successors ability to acquire the predecessors key knowledge and skills adequately to maintain and improve the organisational performance of the firm. This paper uses two theoretical approaches from the strategic management field to explore this critical process and analyse how it can be managed effectively: the resource-based theory of the firm and the emergent knowledge-based view. This conceptual framework provides a powerful tool for understanding the nature and transfer of knowledge within the family business, which becomes the basis for developing competitive advantage over non-family businesses. (20) A Four Factor Model: A Guide to Planning Next Generation Involvement in the Family Firm, Eleni T. Stavrou, Family Business Review, Jun 1998; vol. 11: pp. 135142. The involvement of and the reasons for the involvement of offspring in their parents firms can significantly affect the firms future. In this paper, a conceptual model is presented that explains the decision process through which the most suitable level of involvement for the next generation in the firm may be assessed. The decision process involves four factors: family, business, personal, and market. These factors set the context for managing intergenerational transitions in family firms. (21) A Comparison of Successor Development in Family and Nonfamily Businesses, Mark K. Fiegener, Bonnie M. Brown, Russ Alan Prince, and Karen Maru File, Family Business Review, Dec 1994; vol. 7: pp. 313329. Although many streams of management research address leadership, succession, and executive development issues, significant gaps in the literature remain. In particular, few studies have systematically explored the systems by which the future leaders (successors) of family firms are developed. This research presents a descriptive study in 107

which the successor development approaches of small to medium-sized family and nonfamily firms are compared. The findings indicate that (1) family firms favour more personal, relationship-centred approaches to successor development; (2) non-family firms prefer formalised, task-oriented development approaches; and (3) company size has no real effect on successor development. (22) The Succession Experience of the Next Generation, Wendy C. Handler, Family Business Review, Sep 1992; vol. 5: pp. 283307. Literature indicates that succession is critical to the future of a family firm. However, little is known about how the next generation actually experiences the process of succession. An in-depth biographical study of 32 next-generation family members indicates specific factors critical to succession. The findings are delineated in a framework that portrays these influences, their relationships, and the effect they have on the succession experience of next-generation family members. (23) Sibling Relationships and Intergenerational Succession in Family Firms, Stewart D. Friedman, Family Business Review, Mar 1991; vol. 4: pp. 320. Sibling relationships can turn into rivalries that destroy family firms. In this article, clinical and theoretical research on families, organisations, and conflict resolution are drawn on to develop intervention strategies aimed at helping family firm members both increase awareness about forces that sustain destructive sibling conflicts and find ways of working through them. Competition for parental love and attention spurs sibling rivalry. Whether siblings become rivalrous depends largely on parental responses to this contest. Because adult brothers and sisters in family firms remain organisationally subordinated to their parents, they face unique challenges in overcoming sibling rivalrys harmful effects. Yet this is precisely the task confronting them if they are to sustain family management of their business through intergenerational succession. SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS (24) Social Entrepreneurship and Economic Development in Silicon Valley: A Case Study on the Joint Venture: Silicon Valley Network, Flaminio Squazzoni, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Nov 2008; vol. 0: pp. 0899764008326198v1. Social entrepreneurs are playing a pivotal role in promoting intersector initiatives to address economic and social challenges in regions and local communities. This generates social capital to support an initiative-oriented collaboration framework among participants and across sectors. Such intersectoral initiatives are of paramount importance for the capacity of a region/community to set up innovative solutions to socioeconomic problems from the bottom-up, going beyond the limits of markets and government institutions. This is increasingly happening not only in depressed but also in developed regions and communities, such as Silicon Valley. This article reports on the Joint Venture: Silicon Valley Network, a nonprofit organisation launched in 1992 to promote a series of intersectoral initiatives at the edge of the economy, society, and environment in Silicon Valley. (25) Neighbourhood Governance: Leadership, Trust and Social Capital, Derrick Purdue, Urban Studies, Nov 2001; vol. 38: pp. 22112224. 108

Social capital consisting of trust relationships between a community and its leaders can contribute to the effectiveness of neighbourhood regeneration partnerships. Engagement with partnerships can also generate vital new resources of social capital for the community. This depends on community leaders, as social entrepreneurs or community representatives. Social entrepreneurs resemble transformational leaders, combining entrepreneurial skills with a vision for the neighbourhood. Community representatives resemble transactional leaders who interact with their followers. Ambivalence over trust between individuals and organisations in both partnerships and community reveals difficulties in accumulating social capital. The degree of social capital accumulated in a neighbourhood affects the path leadership succession takes as partnerships develop. (26) The Evolution of Local Economic Development in South Africa: The Case of Stutterheim and Social Capital, Etienne L. Nel and Ronald W. McQuaid, Economic Development Quarterly, Feb 2002; vol. 16: pp. 6074. Local economic development and promoting racial reconciliation have been key foci in addressing the legacy of apartheid in South Africa. This article examines what is arguably the most well-established example of local economic development in South Africa, namely a local government and community-led development initiative in the small rural town of Stutterheim. As the project has evolved over a decade, it has changed its development focus to reflect the changing context and various internal constraints. The study reveals that even though the project has had difficulties, its sheer survival and ability to adapt in a rapidly changing society have been important. More general lessons include the significance of key social entrepreneurs and the development of social and human capital in concert with physical and business infrastructure. (27) Sustainability of Social Programs: A Comparative Case Study Analysis, Riki Savaya, Shimon Spiro, and Roni Elran-Barak, American Journal of Evaluation, Dec 2008; vol. 29: pp. 478493. The article reports on the findings of a comparative case study of six projects that operated in Israel between 1980 and 2000. The study findings identify characteristics of the programmes, the host organisations, and the social and political environment, which differentiated programmes that are sustained from those that are not. The findings reaffirm the importance of the human factor, namely, the commitment of the leadership of the host organisation. In addition, the findings of these case studies point to factors that until now have not gained sufficient attention, such as the type of host organisation or public attitudes toward different target populations. (28) Exploring Stratification and Entrepreneurship: African American Women Entrepreneurs Redefine Success in Growth Ventures, Jeffrey Robinson, Laquita Blockson, and Sammie Robinson, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sep 2007; vol. 613: pp. 131154. The relationship between social stratification and entrepreneurship is one that is underexplored in the literature of management and organisations. In the authors view, social stratification (social structure, institutions, and culture) influences the context, process, experience, and outcomes of entrepreneurship. In this article, the authors discuss these relationships in the context of African American women engaged in high-

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growth entrepreneurship. The authors support their premise by presenting the limitations of prevailing approaches that exist within the current minority and women entrepreneurship literatures. Using the concept of entrepreneurial success as an example, the authors demonstrate how a social stratification and entrepreneurship framework may be useful for scholars who seek to understand the process of entrepreneurship. (29) Access to Shops: The Views of Low-income Shoppers, Nicola Robinson, Martin Caraher, and Tim Lang, Health Education Journal, Jan 2000; vol. 59: pp. 121 136. Concern is mounting as the retail stranglehold upon access to food grows. Research on the implications of restructuring retailing and health inequality has failed to involve low-income consumers in this debate. This paper reports on an exercise conducted for the UK Governments Social Exclusion Units Policy Action Team on Access to Shops. The survey provides a useful baseline of the views of low-income groups in England. The choices that people on low income can make were found to be dominated by certain factors such as income and, most importantly, transport. Consumers reported varying levels of satisfaction with retail provision. The findings suggest gaps between what people have, what they want and what the planning process does and does not offer them. Better policy and processes are needed to include and represent the interests of low-income groups. (30) De-linking Enterprise Culture from Capitalism and its Public Policy Implications, Colin C. Williams, Public Policy and Administration, Oct 2007; vol. 22: pp. 461474. Although a small literature has recently emerged that highlights the existence of social entrepreneurship, the idea that entrepreneurship and enterprise culture might be other than profit-driven capitalist endeavour is seldom entertained. Instead, enterprise culture is widely viewed as a by-word for contemporary capitalist culture. The aim of this article is to evaluate critically this dominant narrative. To do this, GEMs UK Social Entrepreneurship Monitor is used to compare the levels and ratios of commercial-tosocial entrepreneurship across various population groups and areas in the UK. The finding is that one-third of all entrepreneurs are driven primarily by social goals rather than profit, and that cultures of entrepreneurship markedly vary across population groups and areas, with rural and marginalised populations displaying a greater propensity to engage in social rather than profit-driven entrepreneurship. The article concludes by discussing the public policy implications of this finding that enterprise cultures are not everywhere and always profit-driven, raising questions not only about whether the promotion of profit-driven entrepreneurship in marginalised populations is akin to parachuting in an alien enterprise culture but also whether a focus upon social entrepreneurship might promote greater inclusiveness in the enterprise culture agenda than is currently the case. (31) Social Entrepreneurship and Societal Transformation: An Exploratory Study, Sarah H. Alvord, L. David Brown, and Christine W. Letts, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Sep 2004; vol. 40: pp. 260282.

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This study provides a comparative analysis of 7 cases of social entrepreneurship that have been widely recognised as successful. The article suggests factors associated with successful social entrepreneurship, particularly with social entrepreneurship that leads to significant changes in the social, political, and economic contexts for poor and marginalised groups. It generates propositions about core innovations, leadership and organisation, and scaling up in social entrepreneurship that produces societal transformation. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications for social entrepreneurship practice, research, and continued development. (32) Building a Culture: The Construction and Evolution of Venture Philanthropy as a New Organisational Field, Michael Moody, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Jun 2008; vol. 37: pp. 324352. Venture philanthropy burst loudly onto the scene in the mid- to late 1990s, promoted as a way to revolutionise grantmaking. Today the field has been refined, and its proponents are more modest. The case of venture philanthropy provides insights into the construction and evolution of a new organisational field and new professional culture, topics that require further scholarly exploration. Qualitative research examining venture philanthropy organisations and their leaders is reported here. Findings suggest that although the dot-com boom was an important prompt, the construction and diffusion of the field depended on opinion leaders who strategically defined, legitimated, and advocated the new model. The fit with existing culture and institutionalisation via networks were also important. Implementation difficulties and the businessnonprofit culture clash are among factors forcing evolution of the field. Several avenues for further research on this understudied field, and on other new fields and hybrid professional cultures, are suggested by these findings. (33) Being Business-Like in a Nonprofit Organisation: A Grounded and Inductive Typology, Raymond Dart, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Jun 2004; vol. 33: pp. 290310. Little research has systematically examined the concept of being business-like in a nonprofit organisation setting despite the increased importance of this concept in research, policy, and practitioner communities. Based on an in-depth qualitative case study of a single, Canadian, nonprofit human services organisation, this article proposes that being business-like in a nonprofit setting can be understood in at least four distinct categories: as goals of programmes, as organisation of either programme service delivery or organisational management, and as organisational rhetoric. (34) Identity, Identification, and Relationship Through Social Alliances, Ida E. Berger, Peggy H. Cunningham, and Minette E. Drumwright, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Apr 2006; vol. 34: pp. 128137. The authors studied social alliances, a type of corporate societal marketing initiative. Their research finds that social alliances are an important means whereby employees identify more closely with their organisations while gaining a greater sense of being whole, integrated persons. Furthermore, this integration allows both organisations and their members to align their commercial identities with their moral and social identities. As organisational members struggled to resolve conflicts within their own identities, they were aided by social alliances, which in turn led them to identify more with their

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organisations. Unlike previous research, the findings suggest that the kind of connections referred to by the informants went well beyond the cold, rational associations described in previous research to emotional attachments that appear to be critical to organisational identification. The results also suggest that participation in social alliances may result in multiple forms of identification: intra- and interorganisation identification. (35) Wholesaling Social Change: Philanthropys Strategic Inflection Point, Ben Hecht, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Mar 2008; vol. 37: pp. 163173. There are times in almost every sector that forces of change come together to fundamentally disrupt the way that sector works. Former Intel Chairman Andy Grove calls this a strategic inflection point. Philanthropy is on the brink of its own strategic inflection point. Just as the internet changed the face of commerce, so it can change fundamentally the way that social change can happen. Today, organisations can wholesale social change or develop programmes that almost overnight touch millions of people. These wholesaling organisations share many common characteristics such as: (1) intent to impact the masses; (2) marginal, incremental cost to serve the next customer; (3) borderless service delivery; (4) grants plus business model; (5) redefining fundamental power relationships; (6) engage markets and market-driven solutions; (7) redirect ongoing flows of public or private sector funds to institutionalise desired change; and (8) use technology itself to provide innovative solutions. Philanthropy should define what wholesaling activity is, recognise it, and create mechanisms that will support acceleration of wholesale social change. (36) Social Enterprise and Entrepreneurship: Towards a Convergent Theory of the Entrepreneurial Process, Elizabeth Chell, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2007; vol. 25: pp. 526. Throughout the twentieth century multiple discourses of the nature of enterprise and the entrepreneur have developed. In this article, the author traces these discourses and perspectives as a backdrop to understanding social and economic entrepreneurship. The article considers the nature of social enterprise and whether, indeed how, it might be construed as a form of entrepreneurship. It is argued that in the past social enterprises have been modelled on tenets of not-for-profit charitable organisations that have attracted human and social capital with pro-social, community-spirited motives, and have engendered survival strategies premised on grant dependency. In the longer term, the author argues, social enterprises should be self-sustaining and therefore entrepreneurial in their endeavours. From these premises, the article suggests that the definition of entrepreneurship might be modified to include the creation of social and economic value and may thus be applied to both private, entrepreneurial ventures as well as social enterprises. (37) Generating Social Capital?: The Social Economy and Local Economic Development, Mel Evans and Stephen Syrett, European Urban and Regional Studies, Jan 2007; vol. 14: pp. 5574. In seeking to understand and promote long-term and inclusive models of local economic development the notion of social capital appears potentially important. In the development of the social economy, an aspect of the local economy which has attracted

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an increased theoretical and policy focus in recent years, the relationship with social capital appears particularly significant. Yet despite the apparent salience of notions of social capital, there remains a lack of understanding of the nature and extent of existing social capital resources and the precise manner in which these are drawn upon in the development of the social economy to generate further social capital within the local development process. In part this is a result of the conceptual confusion surrounding the notion of social capital, but it also reflects a lack of empirical research. This article explores the notion of social capital and the manner in which it is produced, reproduced and used locally within the social economy as part of the local economic development process. Findings are presented from a transnational European research project which examined the development of social enterprises and the social economy within different localities in order to seek to better understand their interrelationships with the local production and use of social capital. These findings emphasise the importance of contextualisation in the study of local social capital and the importance of interpretative approaches for area-based policy development. (38) Perspectives on Non-profit Mission and Financing in India, N. Ravichandran, S. Rajashree, Y. Sathyapriya, and Ajit Jain, Journal of Health Management, Oct 2006; vol. 8: pp. 207227. India has a long tradition of volunteerism and charity. Movements for liberalisation, social reforms, welfare and development, and conscientisation per se have taken place in this country and continue to do so. The history of social organisation seems to have largely been influenced by a laissez-faire movement on the basis of the promulgation of the theory of minimisation of state intervention on the one hand, and dissemination of the concern of volunteerism on a more planned and organised way on the other. During the colonial period the voluntary movement witnessed the era of the Christian church, Gandhian philosophy and reformist approach. The early post-independence period was the era of religion-based and Gandhian voluntary organisations. An important feature during this period was that the state had provided financial support to NGOs. In the 1960s and 1970s NGOs had grown manifold. In the 1980s NGOs occupied a prominent place in the development sector. Nonetheless, in recent years massive changes have been occurring. Indian experiences have revealed that there is a need for the critique of their own work and contributions. In the era of globalisation, successful implementation of development programmes requires appropriate policy framework, formulation of suitable plan schemes, and effective delivery machinery. This has to be based on appropriate research studies to validate presence, position, challenges and relevance. SOCIAL ENTREPRENUERSHIP (39) Antecedents and Outcomes of Entrepreneurial and Market Orientations in a Nonprofit Context: Theoretical and Empirical Insights, Michael H. Morris, Susan Coombes, Minet Schindehutte, and Jeffrey Allen, Journal of Leadership and Organisational Studies, May 2007; vol. 13: pp. 1239. While heavily emphasised within for-profit organisations, little is understood regarding the role of entrepreneurial leadership in the development, growth, and sustainability of non-profit enterprises. The fundamental logic of entrepreneurship is less apparent in this context given the social mission and multiple stakeholders involved. Building on findings regarding entrepreneurial orientation (EO) within for-profit organisations, a

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model of antecedents, correlates, and outcomes of entrepreneurship in non-profit organisations is developed and tested. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between EO and the market orientation (MO) of the non-profit enterprise. The findings demonstrate that entrepreneurship has a legitimate role in non-profit organisations, and the work climate can be designed to affect levels of entrepreneurship. Further, EO is associated with aspects of market orientation, but not with financial performance. Implications are drawn for theory and practice. (40) Looking Backward: Twentieth-Century Themes in Charity, Voluntarism, and the Third Sector, Jon Van Til and Steven W. Ross, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Mar 2001; vol. 30: pp. 112129. A central theme is identified in high school texts published in the twentieth century: that philanthropy and voluntary service in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries formed meaningful responses to the circumstances of their times. A second part of the theme says that, when the time came, the third sector proved inadequate to the challenges posed by the Great Depression. The authors identify seven themes in twentieth-century third sector study that elaborate this basic story: complement, challenge, auxiliary, alternative, apostasy, impediment, and transformation. The authors conclude that the third sector articulates needs, offers assurance and comfort, permits individuals to join in creating the joys of shared community life, and provides opportunities for the greatest and the least in society to make common cause. (41) The Social Representation of Entrepreneurs in the French Press: Desirable and Feasible Models?, Miruna Radu and Renaud Redien-Collot International Small Business Journal, Jun 2008; vol. 26: pp. 259298. The purpose of this article is to question the foundations and structure of entrepreneurs social representation in the French press. Social representations are the result of a perceptive and cognitive construction of reality, which transforms social objects (people, contexts, situations) into symbolic categories (values, beliefs, ideologies), therefore providing a collective significant system for the regulation of cognitions and actions. Within the consensual reality through which the social world is created and experienced, the press can be emphasised as an entrepreneurial Greek chorus playing a key role in the diffusion and transformation of entrepreneurial culture at the local and national levels. The authors conducted a discourse analysis of 962 articles, from 2001 to 2005, in order to study the presss potential impact on entrepreneurial desirability and feasibility beliefs. We identified three main categories of discourses the legitimacy discourse, the normativity discourse, and the accessibility discourse, which may impact readers desirability and feasibility beliefs. This is the first attempt to assess the role of the public discourse in fuelling entrepreneurial intentions in the French context. (42) An Exploratory Study of Lifestyle Entrepreneurship and Its Relationship to Life Quality, Sara B. Marcketti, Linda S. Niehm, and Ruchita Fuloria, Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Mar 2006; vol. 34: pp. 241259. This exploratory study examined the relationship between lifestyle entrepreneurship and life quality. The researchers defined lifestyle entrepreneurs as individuals who owned and operated businesses closely aligned with their personal values, interests, and passions. Researchers used a systems theory perspective to examine the role and impact

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of lifestyle entrepreneurship on life quality for individual business owners, their families, and communities. Through 12 descriptive case studies, researchers examined characteristics of lifestyle entrepreneurs, their businesses, and their perceived life quality. Many of the entrepreneurs owned and operated businesses related to family and consumer sciences, including apparel retail, interiors, food service, and hospitality firms. Two common themes emerged from the data: enhancement of business owners quality of life as a result of the entrepreneurial venture and a perception of the entrepreneurial venture providing enhanced quality of life to employees, customers, and the community. (43) Board Practices of Especially Effective and Less Effective Local Nonprofit Organisations, Robert D. Herman and David O. Renz, The American Review of Public Administration, Jun 2000; vol. 30: pp. 146160. This paper is concerned with the factors that influence and constrain NGO contributions to poverty reduction in a globalising world, focusing on their role as transmitters of grounded knowledge about poverty in very poor countries. Interviews with staff in 33 NGOs in Ghana, a country where the NGO sector is heavily dependent on overseas funding, indicate that local understandings about poverty are being overridden by socalled programmes of partnership support that erode local confidence in home-grown ideas about poverty and how to combat it. This is illustrated by reference to the common donor preference for working with groups and for Asian development approaches. (44) Making Microcredit Work in the United States: Social, Financial, and Administrative Dimensions, Nitin Bhatt and Shui-Yan Tang, Economic Development Quarterly, Aug 2001; vol. 15: pp. 229241. Microcredit has gained increasing attention over the past decade as a tool for spurring grassroots entrepreneurship in the United States. Although some prominent microcredit programmes have reportedly demonstrated positive economic effects on microloan recipients, many others have suffered from various social, financial, and administrative challenges. The authors examine these challenges by drawing on existing studies and their own in-depth analysis of two of the oldest microcredit programmes in California. The authors conclude by discussing possible strategies for addressing these problems. (45) Strategic Collaboration Between Nonprofits and Business, James E. Austin, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, Mar 2000; vol. 29: pp. 6997. Collaboration between nonprofits and businesses is increasing and becoming more strategically important. Based on 15 case studies, this article presents a cross-sector collaboration framework consisting of four components. First, the collaboration continuum provides a conceptual framework for categorising different types of partnerships and studying their possible evolution through three principal stages: philanthropic, transactional, and integrative. Second, the collaboration value construct facilitates the analysis of the definition, creation, balance, and renewal of the value generated in different types of alliances. Third, a set of alliance drivers is identified that determines the nature and functioning of the partnerships. Fourth, alliance enablers that contribute to the effective management of the relationship are set forth. The article discusses the dynamics of the alliance marketplace. The research builds on and extends

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existing interorganisational research theories by providing a distinctive conceptual framework and new empirical understanding of cross-sector alliances. CHAPTER 12 The topics for which specific articles are identified include new technology, global warming, sustainable energy industry, healthcare innovation and genome/nanotechnology development trends. TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY TECHNOLOGY (1) Boundary Maintenance, Border Crossing and the Nature/Culture Divide, David Inglis and John Bone, European Journal of Social Theory, May 2006; vol. 9: pp. 272287. In recent times developments in the natural sciences and in the sphere of environmental politics have compelled social scientists, and also some natural scientists, to rethink the relations that hitherto have been held, in Western thought generally and within particular disciplines, to characterise nature on the one side and culture on the other. This article considers the history of this conceptual boundary and looks at new conceptualisations of nature/culture, stimulated by developments both in biotechnology and in the ongoing controversies about environmental degradation. It argues that while some of the contributions to reconfiguring, or abolishing, the nature/culture division have been productive and stimulating of new ways of conceiving the world, there has nonetheless been an unfortunate tendency for social scientists to bring to bear inherited analytic dispositions on biotechnological and environmental matters. Instead of using these issues as means of challenging social scientific disciplinary dogmas and of engaging in constructive rapprochement with natural scientists, social scientists have in their analyses of such matters often merely asserted the hegemony of culture over nature, and thus in effect the superiority of social scientific over natural scientific conceptualisations of the world. Far from overcoming the nature/culture boundary, social scientists have too often merely asserted the primacy of the sorts of subject matters and analytic techniques they feel comfortable with, rather than subjecting their practices to fully reflexive self-scrutiny. (2) The Mobile Phone as Media, Harvey May and Greg Hearn, International Journal of Cultural Studies, Jun 2005; vol. 8: pp. 195211. This article focuses on the mobile phones permeation into everyday life through products, knowledge and cultural processes. The convergence and blurring of industry boundaries increasingly see entertainment, information and communication technologies (ICTs) and lifestyle products and services combine. The possibilities that digital economies (via products and services) provide in shaping our experiences and how others experience us lend support to Featherstones comment that the aestheticisation of everyday life has arrived. The resulting consumption is an experience economy, where a broad range of mobile phone users, with or without technical savvy, expendable income and aesthetic ambitions, can harvest from the everincreasing palette of the digital domain. Throughout the twentieth century, visions of utopia and dystopia have often run alongside such major developments in technology, especially those that have the capacity or likelihood to transform and disturb 116

conceptions of the everyday. Outlining a number of current states of play and future scenarios for the mobile phone in the everyday, we suggest that mobile phone analytics will shift from the utopian and dystopian towards analyses by more conventional theoretical and methodological tools and approaches found in media, cultural and policy studies, as well as in the social sciences and other disciplines. (3) The Coevolution of Society and Multimedia Technology: Issues in Predicting the Future Innovation and Use of a Ubiquitous Technology, James Stewart and Robin Williams, Social Science Computer Review, Oct 1998; vol. 16: pp. 268 282. Multimedia technology is becoming ubiquitous in modem society, and it is having profound effects on institutions and expectations. The technology is very fluid, and development is shaped by a great many social factors. Prediction of the coevolution of multimedia technology and society needs to be informed by a research framework that focuses attention on the key social, psychological, political, and economic influences on technology and technology use as well as on the emergence of stable uses, infrastructures, standards, and development paths. This article criticises technologically deterministic approaches, which simply seek to extrapolate social change from technological potential. It shows how a three-layer model of component, system, and application technologies can be used to integrate findings from the use and development of technology in specific sectors. Three cases of technology-based predictions are examined from education, retailing, and work organisation, and lessons for understanding technology futures are illustrated by research in different industry and user sectors. (4) Audience Manufacture in Historical Perspective: From Broadcasting to Google, Fernando Bermejo, New Media & Society, Feb 2009; vol. 11: pp. 133154. The question of what is new about new media has become a central topic of discussion in new media studies. This article frames within that question a historical and comparative analysis of the process of audience manufacture, and attempts to overcome the limitations of previous literature on the internet by situating the discussion within the political economy of communication. The main topics addressed in the blindspot debate the debate regarding the audience as the commodity produced by advertisingsupported media are used to guide an examination of audience manufacture in broadcasting media, and to contrast it with the manufacture of the online audience. The evolution of online advertising, in particular its relationship with search engines, serves as an entry point for questioning some well-established assumptions about the role of audiences in commercial media systems. (5) Re-Making the Developmental State in Taiwan: The Challenges of Biotechnology, Joseph Wong, International Political Science Review/Revue internationale de science politique, Apr 2005; vol. 26: pp. 169191. Taiwan has embarked on a new post-industrial or post-manufacturing industrial trajectory, targeting specifically biotechnology and the bio-business sector. Technological innovation has become the key imperative in Taiwans continued economic transformation. This transition invites a rethinking of the East Asian developmental state model and in particular the states role in leading knowledge-

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intensive industrial development. The article first offers a framework of analysis for the post-industrial developmental state, followed by an overview of the emerging biotechnology sector in Taiwan. The bulk of the article examines different political, economic and social challenges faced by the developmentally oriented state. The concluding section discusses how the interventionist state has begun to adapt in postindustrial and democratic Taiwan. (6) New Sources of Radical Innovation: Research-technologies, Transversality and Distributed Learning in a Post-industrial Order, Terry Shinn, Social Science Information, Dec 2005; vol. 44: pp. 731764. This study questions the erstwhile claim that the growth of scientific knowledge and successes of radical technological innovation are the consequence of cognitive and organisational differentiation, and that differentiation and integration are antithetic. It is shown that throughout the twentieth century many radical technological innovations originated with and developed around generic instrumentation, the practitioners and artefacts of which are characterised by selective and intermittent boundary crossing between academia, industry, state technical and metrological services, the military, etc. However, this mobility is not to be confused with mode 2-like anti-differentiation between science and engineering and between academia and enterprise. The innovative feats of what are here labelled research-technologies derive from the capacity to reconcile differentiation and integration, and to secure the division of labour embedded in speciality domains, while simultaneously promoting transverse communication and interaction between actors located in multiple and heterogeneous environments and linked to diverse interests. Research-technologies breed a new constellation of intellectual and institutional transverse dynamics which selectively accommodate both stability and change. (7) An Analysis of E-Business Adoption and its Impact on Business Performance, Fang Wu, Vijay Mahajan, and Sridhar Balasubramanian, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Oct 2003; vol. 31: pp. 425447. Across industries, firms have adopted e-business initiatives to better manage their internal business processes as well as their interfaces with the environment. In this study, a unified framework that captures the antecedents of e-business adoption, adoption intensity, and performance outcomes is proposed and empirically tested using data collected from senior managers in four technology-intensive industries. Applying a framework that captures the intensity of e-business adoption across four business process domains, the authors find that the antecedents and performance outcomes of ebusiness adoption are best studied in a process-specific context. They find, for example, that while the communication and internal administration aspects of e-business positively affect performance outcomes, the more high-profile activities related to online order taking and e-procurement do not. The authors findings provide the foundation for a more rigorous study of e-business. (8) The Role of Innovation Regimes and Policy for Creating Radical Innovations: Comparing Some Aspects of Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology Development With the Development of Internet and GSM, Helge Godoe, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Aug 2006; vol. 26: pp. 328338.

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Telegraphy, the distant ancestor of Internet and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), was invented by Samuel Morse in 1838. One year later, William Grove invented the fuel cell. Although numerous highly successful innovations stemming from telegraphy may be observed, the development of fuel cells has been insignificant, slow, and erratic and has not yet resulted in notable positive socioeconomic effects. By comparing the modern development of fuel cells and hydrogen technology, that is, a potential radical innovation in energy generation, with some aspects related to the evolution of two highly successful radical innovations, Internet and GSM, the author focuses on the role of innovation regimes and policy in a sectoral system of innovations perspective. In the slow pace in fuel cells and hydrogen technology development, two factors seem to interact negatively: weak and fragmented innovation regimes in the energy sector and the current hegemony of market-oriented R&D policies. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY (9) Toward Sustainable Energy Development in Bangladesh, Sk Noim Uddin and Ros Taplin, The Journal of Environment & Development, Sep 2008; vol. 17: pp. 292315. Bangladesh is one of the most electricity deprived nations in the world. Despite large potential for renewable energy sources in Bangladesh, currently their contribution to the electricity supply remains insignificant. Use of renewable energy is considered an indispensable component of sustainable energy systems, as renewables emit less greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuel energy systems. However, to advance such sustainable energy systems, appropriate strategies and institutional settings need to be put in place for all nations. To address this, this article examines Bangladeshs current energy strategies and institutional settings and investigates future strategies for the advancement of renewables. This article argues that further significant efforts could be made toward energy sustainability in Bangladesh and the development for a national sustainable energy strategy. Among other future strategies, implementation of the Clean Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol could assist in facilitation of energy sustainability for Bangladesh. (10) Key Factors in Planning a Sustainable Energy Future Including Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, Lars Hedstrm, Maria Saxe, Anders Folkesson, Cecilia Wallmark, Kristina Haraldsson, Mrten Bryngelsson, and Per Alvfors, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Aug 2006; vol. 26: pp. 264277. In this article, a number of future energy visions, especially those basing the energy systems on hydrogen, are discussed. Some often missing comparisons between alternatives, from a sustainability perspective, are identified and then performed for energy storage, energy transportation, and energy use in vehicles. It is shown that it is important to be aware of the losses implied by production, packaging, distribution, storage, and end-use of hydrogen when suggesting a hydrogen economy. It is also shown that for stationary electric energy storage, fuel cell electrolysers could be feasible. Zero-tailpipe emission vehicles are compared. The battery electric vehicle has the highest electrical efficiency, but other requirements imply that plug-in hybrids or fuel cell hybrids might be a better option in some types of vehicles. Finally, a simplified

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example is applied to the overall results and used to discuss the needs and nature of an energy system based on intermittent energy sources. (11) Hydrogen Highways: Lessons on the Energy Technology-Policy Interface, Alex Waegel, John Byrne, Daniel Tobin, and Bryan Haney, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Aug 2006; vol. 26: pp. 288298. The hydrogen economy has received increasing attention recently. Common reasons cited for investigating hydrogen energy options are improved energy security, reduced environmental impacts, and its contribution to a transition to sustainable energy sources. In anticipation of these benefits, national and local initiatives have been launched in the United States, creating pilot roadmaps and technology partnerships to explore hydrogen economy platforms. Although hydrogen can provide several positive improvements over a carbon- or uranium-based energy system, several problems are also likely. As well, competitive technologies (e.g., hybrid vehicles) may offer comparatively greater economic and/or environmental advantages. Before policies to advance a hydrogen energy economy proceed, it is vital that all aspects of hydrogen be compared with other available alternatives. Important questions to ask in this regard are whether a hydrogen economy can fulfil key energy needs and whether there are appropriate roles for hydrogen to play in a sustainable energy future. (12) The Most Economic, Socially Viable, and Environmentally Sustainable Alternative Energy, Willem H. Vanderburg, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Apr 2008; vol. 28: pp. 98104. The strengths and weaknesses of current energy planning can be attributed to the limited economic, social, and environmental contexts taken into account as a result of the current intellectual and professional division of labour. A preventive approach is developed by which the ratio of desired to undesired effects can be substantially improved. It takes into account supply-and demand-side options, renewable and nonrenewable sources, and net energy availability. Alternative energy must be considered within such a strategy, which carefully examines its effects on society and the biosphere. Intellectual barriers are identified, and ways of overcoming them are suggested. (13) Renewable Energy for Rural Sustainability in Developing Countries, Judith Alazraque-Cherni, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Apr 2008; vol. 28: pp. 105114. This article establishes the benefits of applying renewable energy and analyses the main difficulties that have stood in the way of more widely successful renewable energy for rural areas in the developing world and discusses why outcomes from these technologies fall short. Although there is substantial recognition of technological, economic, institutional, and other supply-side barriers that have generally interfered with success, the household and other stake-holders have been left outside the scope of evaluation. This article first discusses the usefulness of renewable energy for encouraging sustainability in rural, poor areas, analyses barriers that have often interfered with the promotion and delivery of expected outputs of installed modern energy technology in remote communities, and finally presents findings from a survey on the actual performance state of the renewable energy technology and degree of satisfaction with it.

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(14) Review of the Application of Lifecycle Analysis to Renewable Energy Systems, Chris Lund and Wahidul Biswas, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Jun 2008; vol. 28: pp. 200209. The lifecycle concept is a cradle to grave approach to thinking about products, processes, and services, recognising that all stages have environmental and economic impacts. Any rigorous and meaningful comparison of energy supply options must be done using a lifecycle analysis approach. It has been applied to an increasing number of conventional and renewable energy generation systems and in an increasing range of countries. There is now a good amount of research reporting the lifecycle environmental and economic aspects of power generation systems. This article reviews the existing lifecycle analyses of renewable energy systems to determine the current understanding of their full lifecycle impacts. These are then compared with each other and those of conventional power generation systems. The renewable energy systems reviewed include wind, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal (for electricity), hydroelectric, solid biomass, wave, geothermal, biogas, and tidal. The article also highlights the areas where more lifecycle analysis is needed. (15) Wind Power in Australia: Overcoming Technological and Institutional Barriers, Gerard Healey and Andrea Bunting, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Apr 2008; vol. 28: pp. 115127. Until recently, Australia had little installed wind capacity, although there had been many investigations into its potential during the preceding decades. Formerly, stateowned monopoly utilities showed only token interest in wind power and could dictate the terms of energy debates. This situation changed in the late 1990s: installed wind capacity began growing rapidly following the introduction of supportive renewable energy policies and the restructuring of the electricity industry. However, wind farms still provide only 1% of Australias electricity, the future of supportive policies is uncertain, and industry momentum is yet to become self-sustaining. Wind power, the authors argue, faces significant technological and institutional barriers, which need to be overcome if wind power is to play a significant role in Australias electricity supply. The current window of opportunity is providing for the first time a significant space in which these barriers can be better understood and addressed and the requirements for wind power institutionally embedded. (16) The Postmodern Greenhouse: Creating Virtual Carbon Reductions From Businessas-Usual Energy Politics, John Byrne, Leigh Glover, Gerard Alleng, Vernese Inniss, Yu-Mi Mun, and Young-Doo Wang, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Dec 2001; vol. 21: pp. 443 455. Climate change presents a fundamental challenge to the current global energy regime. Under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the international community is developing the architecture of a policy response. Three serious flaws are examined: (a) the potential sacrifice of small island states, (b) the use of market-based policy measures to commodify the atmospheric commons, and (c) the substitution of carbon sequestration for meaningful reductions in energy use. The authors analysis of the politics of climate change, based on these issues, suggests a new understanding of ecology is emerging what they term postmodern ecology in which a global environmental crisis is risked to secure the future of the world energy regime. An

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alternative, based on principles of sustainability and equity, is proposed that would require abandoning the global energy status quo. (17) The Biorefinery Challenges, Opportunities, and an Australian Perspective, William N. Rowlands, Anthony Masters, and Thomas Maschmeyer Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Apr 2008; vol. 28: pp. 149 158. Biomass provides the only sustainable source of organic carbon for the production of chemicals used in manufacturing and as liquid transportation fuels. In this article, the authors examine some of the challenges that society faces in the transition from a global economy in which transportation fuels are derived from fossil fuels to one in which they are derived from renewable biomass via a biorefinery. In so doing, the authors present an overview of the technology currently available to society and highlight some of the key issues that must be resolved in order to grasp the opportunities that stem from the transition. They conclude by considering the situation of their own country, Australia, to illustrate that the solutions to the challenges will likely depend not only on technology development but also on social, political, and geographical factors. (18) Three Ages of the Automobile: The Cultural Logics of The Car, David Gartman, Theory, Culture & Society, Oct 2004; vol. 21: pp. 169195. The automobile as an object of consumption, carrying meanings and identities, has evolved through three ages during the twentieth-century, each characterised by a peculiar cultural logic. In the age of class distinction, the car served as a status symbol of the sort theorised by Pierre Bourdieu. It marked out differences between classes, while simultaneously misrecognising and legitimating their origins. In the age of mass individuality, the car was a reified consumer commodity, as postulated by the theory of the Frankfurt School. It served to obscure qualitative class differences underneath the illusion of mass individuality, in which consumers varied by the quantity of desired automotive traits they could afford. In the age of subcultural difference, the car expressed the different identities of lifestyle groups in a levelled and pluralised consumer culture, as theorised by postmodernism. The extension of the cultural logic of each of these automotive ages ultimately contradicted its configuration, and pushed the car forward to the next age. (19) The System of Automobility, John Urry, Theory, Culture & Society, Oct 2004; vol. 21: pp. 2539. This article is concerned with how to conceptualise and theorise the nature of the car system that is a particularly key, if surprisingly neglected, element in globalisation. The article deploys the notion of systems as self-reproducing or autopoietic. This notion is used to understand the origins of the twentieth-century car system and especially how its awesome pattern of path dependency was established and exerted a particularly powerful and self-expanding pattern of domination across the globe. The article further considers whether and how the twentieth-century car system may be transcended. It elaborates a number of small changes that are now occurring in various test sites, factories, ITC sites, cities and societies. The article briefly considers whether these small changes may in their contingent ordering end this current car system. The article assesses whether such a new system could emerge well before the end of this century, whether in other words some small changes now may produce the very large effect of a

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new post-car system that would have great implications for urban life, for mobility and for limiting projected climate change. HEALTHCARE (20) Generic Drugs A Look Back and a Look Ahead, Leon Lachman, Salvatore Turco, and James T. ODonnell, Journal of Pharmacy Practice, Jan 1990; vol. 3: pp. 192202. This review includes the viewpoints of three pharmaceutical scientists tracing the origins of the generic drug industry, examining the recent generic drug controversies, and offering suggestions to hospital practitioners for coping with the controversies. (21) A Status Report on the Health Care Sector in France, N Lalitha and Samira Guennif, Journal of Health Management, Dec 2008; vol. 10: pp. 311343. Nearly 10 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in France is spent on healthcare. Twenty per cent of this budget is spent on medicines, more than in many of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries including the US, UK and Canada. The pharmaceutical industry in France is the third largest in Europe and adopted product patents even before the TRIPS agreement. Strict regulatory measures govern the pharmaceutical industry in France. The branded drugs are costlier compared to the generics. In order to control costs and promote generic drugs in the prescription, the government has introduced several regulatory measures, which even other OECD countries have not fully implemented yet. Of the total turnover of the pharmaceutical industry, turnover from the domestic sales has been declining while the exports turnover has been increasing. The balance of trade in pharmaceuticals has been positive. The French have also been filing a large number of patents, second only to the US; and they rank higher than the US in patents granted. In order to compensate the firms for the loss of time in the patent application process, the French government grants a five-year term of exclusivity for companies satisfying certain criteria. Though this could delay the entry of generics, for pharmaceutical companies it provides an extended period of power over the product. The industry has also responded by investing in R&D to improve further. In conclusion, the government plays a significant role in providing healthcare and regulating the pharmaceutical industry. (22) Automatic Detection of Instruments in Laparoscopic Images: A First Step Towards High-level Command of Robotic Endoscopic Holders, Sandrine Voros, JeanAlexandre Long, and Philippe Cinquin, The International Journal of Robotics Research, Nov 2007; vol. 26: pp. 11731190. The tracking of surgical instruments offers interesting possibilities for the development of high-level commands for robotic camera holders in laparoscopic surgery. The authors have developed a new method to detect instruments in laparoscopic images which uses information on the 3D position of the insertion point of an instrument into the abdominal cavity. This information strongly constrains the search for the instrument in each endoscopic image. Hence, the instrument can be detected in near real-time using shape considerations. Early results on laparoscopic images show that the method is rapid and robust in the presence of partial occlusion and smoke. The authors first experiment on a cadaver validates our approach and shows encouraging results. 123

(23) Micromechatronics in Surgery, Maria Chiara Carrozza, Paolo Dario, and Louis Phee Soo Jay, Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control, Oct 2003; vol. 25: pp. 309327. There is a fast growing acceptance of minimally invasive surgery (MIS), in which surgical procedures are performed with the least possible damage to healthy organs and tissues. The reduction of recovery time, postoperative pain, infection risks and costs are some of the many advantages of MIS. Micromechatronic technologies involve the miniaturisation of mechatronics devices like precision mechanisms, sensors, actuators and embedded electronics. They have played and will play a very important role in the advancement of MIS. They allow the possibilities of enhancing the surgeons abilities where current MIS techniques do not permit the full range of human dexterity and perception. This paper discusses the objectives, roles, and some present and future applications of micromechatronics in surgery. (24) Incorporating Pharmacogenomics into Practice, Vicki L. Ellingrod and Jessica Moline, Journal of Pharmacy Practice, Jun 2007; vol. 20: pp. 277282. The goal for this issue of the Journal of Pharmacy Practice is to provide an overview of pharmacogenomics and highlight research done in select therapeutic areas such as oncology, psychiatry, cardiology, and HIV, although pharmacogenomics is taking centre stage in other therapeutic areas as well. At the root of all pharmacogenomic investigations is pharmacy, which is why it is so important for pharmacists to gain an understanding of this field and clinical applications of this science, particularly as it relates to their practice and their patients. Pharmacists are experts in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and they therefore represent ideal healthcare professionals for incorporating pharmacogenomics into therapeutic drug monitoring. We are currently in a critical period of time in which pharmacists need to become engaged in the decisionmaking process regarding how best to implement pharmacogenomics into clinical practice. As part of this chapter, the authors outline the role of the Human Genome Project and the Food and Drug Administration, both of which are instrumental to the advancement of pharmacogenomics. Lastly, the authors summarise some of the barriers we still face regarding clinical applicability of this science and the potential role of genetic counsellors in the incorporation of this science into clinical practice. (25) The Emerging International Health Care Market: The Impact of Technology and Innovation, Ashish Chandra and Ronald G. Cheek, Journal of Health Management, Apr 2001; vol. 3: pp. 4363. We are now living in an era of economic globalisation and many industries are now becoming multinational just to survive. This increases the level of complexity for marketers of all companies, including healthcare companies, problems they could not have even imagined when they were a single-country company. Healthcare companies are organisations that have recently started going international. Hence, it is extremely essential for healthcare products and services marketers in the international arena to be aware of the international scenario including the international customer, foreign governments, and also the rapidly changing telecommunications and healthcare technology in domestic and international markets. This paper studies these aspects associated with the emerging international healthcare market and also some of the challenges these marketers may have to face in future.

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(26) Innovation in Healthcare: A Systematic Review of Recent Research, Hannakaisa Lnsisalmi, Mika Kivimki, Pirjo Aalto, and Raija Ruoranen Nursing Science Quarterly, Jan 2006; vol. 19: pp. 6672. Research on innovations in healthcare organisations published between 1994 and 2004 are here reviewed and summarised. The majority of the 31 identified studies dealt with the adoption of innovations and new practices and were cross-sectional designs applying quantitative methods, or multiple case studies applying qualitative methods. Five pathways for future research are recommended: (a) Multilevel approaches studying innovation simultaneously on individual, group, and organisational levels; (b) a combination of quantitative and qualitative data; (c) use of longitudinal designs (innovation both as the dependent and independent variable); (d) application of experimental designs in interventions; and (e) exploration of innovation generation and structural innovations. (27) The Strategic Support of Telemedicine and Telecare, A. C. Norris, Health Informatics Journal, Jun 2001; vol. 7: pp. 8189. The modern development of telemedicine and telecare dates from the early 1990s when a combination of technological and service drivers created new opportunities. These drivers include advances in information and communications technologies, the need to extend healthcare access to remote and disadvantaged communities, military applications and perceived cost reduction. Governments and healthcare providers have shown considerable interest in the potential of telemedicine for reducing service costs but have been slow to provide the strategic context in which the approach can move into the mainstream. Only in the last five years or so have we seen an awareness of the strategic underpinning needed to produce this context. This paper identifies the roles of government, healthcare professionals and equipment suppliers in policy development and strategy setting and reviews the experience of several countries. The analysis seeks to determine the key principles that facilitate the mainstream development of telemedicine, and the critical success factors for the design and delivery of telemedicine and telecare services. (28) Progress, Innovation and Regulatory Science in Drug Development: The Politics of International Standard-setting, John Abraham and Tim Reed, Social Studies of Science, Jun 2002; vol. 32: pp. 337369. This paper examines international standard-setting in the toxicology of pharmaceuticals during the 1990s, which has involved both the pharmaceutical industry and regulatory agencies in an organisation known as the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH). The analysis shows that the relationships between innovation, regulatory science and progress may be more complex and controversial than is often assumed. An assessment of the ICHs claims about the implications of technical harmonisation of drug-testing standards for the maintenance of drug safety, via toxicological testing, and the delivery of therapeutic progress, via innovation, is presented. By demonstrating that there is not a technoscientific validity for these claims, it is argued that, within the ICH, a discourse of technological innovation and scientific progress has been used by regulatory agencies and prominent parts of the transnational pharmaceutical industry to legitimise the lowering and loosening of toxicological standards for drug testing. The

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mobilisation and acceptance of this discourse are shown to be pivotal to the ICHs transformation of reductions in safety standards, which are apparently against the interests of patients and public health, into supposed therapeutic benefits derived from promises of greater access to more innovative drug products. The evidence suggests that it is highly implausible that these reductions in the standards of regulatory toxicology are consistent with therapeutic progress for patients, and highlights a worrying aspect embedded in the technical trajectories of regulatory science. (29) Pills, Power, People: Sociological Understandings of the Pharmaceutical Industry, Joan Busfield, Sociology, Apr 2006; vol. 40: pp. 297314. This article examines how sociology can contribute to an understanding of the work, power and impact of the pharmaceutical industry. Drawing in particular on Latours theoretical and empirical analysis of science, in conjunction with a more explicit consideration of power, it examines the scientific fact making involved in the clinical trials of drugs designed to assess their safety and effectiveness, assessments that are the basis for securing approval for their release onto the market. It also examines postapproval drug assessments and the fuller evaluation of a drug that emerges with time. It shows how the industrys control over this science, especially in the pre-approval stage, has helped to encourage extensive, and often excessive, use of pharmaceuticals. (30) Contrasting the Resource-based View and Competitiveness Theories: How Pharmaceutical Firms Choose to Compete in Germany, Italy and the UK, Andrea M. Herrmann, Strategic Organisation, Nov 2008; vol. 6: pp. 343374. As economic internationalisation advances, the question of how firms cope with increasing pressure for competitiveness gains momentum. While scholars agree that firms need a competitive advantage, they debate whether firms exploit the comparative advantage of their economy and converge on that strategy facilitated by national institutions. No, argue strategic management proponents of the resource-based view. Yes, claim contributors to the competitiveness literature. The authors micro-level studies of these opposing views do not find evidence for a strong, widespread convergence by the firms in one economy to the same institutionally supported strategy. The discrepancies between these findings and the analyses of the competitiveness literature are attributed to differences in the indicators employed to measure corporate strategies. Whenever macro-level indicators are used, the related loss of information on micro-level variety entails that convergence effects are more pronounced possibly exaggerated. NANOTECHOLOGY (31) Entrepreneurship, Innovation, and Wealth Distribution: The Essence of Creative Destruction, Aron S. Spencer, Bruce A. Kirchhoff, and Craig White, International Small Business Journal, Feb 2008; vol. 26: pp. 926. The purpose of this article is to investigate theories that have produced differences in entrepreneurship definitions. We raise this issue because equitable wealth distribution is a fundamental focus of economics. Yet, recent attempts to guide research on entrepreneurship embrace innovation while ignoring the wealth redistribution aspect of entrepreneurship. Schumpeter argues that entrepreneurship means innovation by 126

independently owned start-up firms that cause creative destruction that yields equitable wealth redistribution. Currently, most entrepreneurship scholars focus on innovation, by any firm, as a source of wealth creation without recognising that redistribution only occurs when innovation originates in new, independently owned firms. In this article, we describe how new micro- and nano-technologies championed by high-tech start-ups redefined the electronics industry, deconstructed the mainframe computer industry and are redefining the pharmaceutical industry today. We suggest entrepreneurship research should focus more on entrepreneurs that form and operate independent new firms. (32) Nanorobot for Brain Aneurysm, Adriano Cavalcanti, Bijan Shirinzadeh, Toshio Fukuda, and Seiichi Ikeda, The International Journal of Robotics Research, Apr 2009; vol. 28: pp. 558570. In this paper the authors present how nanoelectronics should advance medicine, providing details on the teleoperated techniques and equipment design methodology necessary for the effective development of nanorobots. The platform architecture describes how to use a nanorobot for intracranial prognosis, and shows how it should be integrated for medical instrumentation. Furthermore, the current study establishes proteomics, nanobioelectronics, and electromagnetics as the basis to advance medical nanorobotics. To illustrate the proposed approach, the nanorobots must search for protein overexpression signals in order to recognise initial stages of aneurysm. An advanced nanomechatromics simulator, using a three-dimensional task-based environment, is implemented to provide an effective tool for device prototyping and medical instrumentation analysis. Thus, based on clinical data and nanobioelectronics, the proposed model offers details about how a nanorobot should help with the early detection of cerebral aneurysm. (33) Military Uses of Nanotechnology: Perspectives and Concerns, Jrgen Altmann, Security Dialogue, Mar 2004; vol. 35: pp. 6179. It is predicted that nanotechnology (NT) will bring revolutionary changes in many areas, with the potential for both great benefits and great risks. Developments in the military could entail specific dangers, containment of which will need special analysis and effort. Military research and development in NT is expanding rapidly. Potential future applications span all areas of warfare. Special dangers to arms control and stability may arise from new biological weapons and microrobots. For humans and society, non-medical body implants possibly made more acceptable via the military raise a number of problems concerning human nature. Further research is needed to find the best way to avoid possible dangers. For the near and medium term, several guidelines for limits and restrictions are suggested. As a first step, transparency and international cooperation should be improved. (34) Mediating Uncertainty: Communicating the Financial Risks of Nanotechnologies, Mary F. E. Ebeling, Science Communication, Mar 2008; vol. 29: pp. 335361. The commercialisation of nanotechnologies and the rapid development of hyperbole around their commercialisation can provide a fertile field for research into how the potentials and expectations of an emerging technology are communicated to investors. As the commercialisation of nanotechnologies intensifies, this area will grow in significance. This article explores how the financial potentials of nanotechnologies and

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the promise of high returns for investors are constructed by marketing professionals and mediated through financial media. Attention is focused on how the immense uncertainties that surround nanotech as a commercialised field are managed by scientists, marketers, public relations professionals, and journalists and on the communication strategies used to take advantage of the ambiguities of nanotech in order to translate the technologies into a profitable industry. (35) Expectations and the Emergence of Nanotechnology, Cynthia Selin, Science, Technology & Human Values, Mar 2007; vol. 32: pp. 196220. Although nanotechnology is often defined as operations on the 10-9 metres, the lack of charisma in the scale-bound definitions has been fortified by remarkable dreams and alluring promises that spark excitement for nanotechnology. The story of the rhetorical development of nanotechnology reveals how speculative claims are powerful constructions that create legitimacy in this emerging technological domain. From its inception, nanotechnology has been more of a dream than reality, more fiction than fact. In recent years, however, the term nanotechnology has been actively drawn toward the present to begin to deliver on the fantastic expectations. This debate over time and timing is loaded with paradox. This work examines how future claims work to define what counts as nanotechnology and reveals dilemmas that accompany temporal disjunctures. Science and politics converge in debates about the future of technology as expectations serve to create and enforce power and legitimacy in the emerging area. (36) Nanotechnologys Controversial Role for the South, Noela Invernizzi, Guillermo Foladori, and Donald Maclurcan, Science Technology & Society, May 2008; vol. 13: pp. 123148. The possibility that nanotechnology will turn into an instrument to aid development or alleviate poverty has been discussed explicitly in academic circles, at meetings held by international bodies, and in non-governmental organisations since 1997. The different positions on the role that it can play in the process reflect particular interpretations of the relationship between science, technology and society. The authors divide the arguments expressed in this discussion in two broad groups. One can be identified as the instrumental position, which emphasises the technical capacity of nanotechnologies to solve poverty problems and spur development. The other group of arguments can be identified as the contextual position by emphasising the social context wherein technology is produced, used and adapted. The authors summarise and analyse the main arguments in the debate on nanotechnologies, development and poverty. The article considers the most influent opinions from organisations, institutions and meetings, presenting their main ideas in chronological order. The outline covers the period from 1997 to late 2007, and reviews the documents that most directly address the issue. Afterwards, the main issues at stake in this controversy are highlighted and analysed.

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