World Issues Exam Study Guide:

Demographic Transition Model Demographic Transition a theory that states that birth rates and death rates will decline over time as a result of economic and social development. It is the most widely accepted theory explaining population change over time. Stage 1: Pre-Transition - stage in demographic transition in which a high birth rate and a high death rate result in a more-or-less stable population. No country in the world today is still in the pre-transition stage. stable population high birth rate and death rate high fertility rate extremely high infant mortality many young children, very few older people

Stage 2: Early Transition - stage in demographic transition in which a high birth rate and a falling death rate result in a high population growth rate (population explosion). very rapid increase in population death rate declines rapidly high birth rate fertility rate remains high infant mortality rate decreases many young people

Stage 3: Late Transition - a stage in demographic transition in which a declining birth rate and a relatively low death rate lead to a slowing population growth rate. population growth slows down birth rate declines rapidly death rate declines slowly fertility rate declines increasing number of older people

Stage 4: Post-Transition stage in demographic transition in which a low birth rate and a low death rate lead to a stable population stable or slow population increase low birth rate and death rate low fertility rate many older people (graying society)

Trickle-down Economies Trickle-down Economics an economic theory that tax breaks or other economic benefits provided by government to businesses and investing money in companies is the best way to stimulate the economy. Proponents of this theory believe that when government helps companies, they will produce more and thereby hire more people and raise salaries. The people, in turn, will have more money to spend in the economy. Keynesian Economics John Maynard Keynes proposed that the government should increase its spending during high periods of high unemployment, and this in turn would provide more jobs for people. (176) Neo-Malthusian Neo-Malthusian Any person or idea that supports Malthuss pessimistic viewpoint is described as neoMalthusian. Population Theorists Optimistic Views:

Cornucopians the belief that as science and technology advance, new resources will be developed to replace depleted ones. Would use Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions as evidence. Impossible to predict the next revolution Bogue a theory developed by D.J. Bogue in the 1960s stating that over an extended period of time, a society naturally limits its population. The population will only grow in response to Earths ability to support it. Would use Industrial Revolution as evidence that it has raised the Earths carry capacity, and that the worlds population has been growing in response. Some developed countries have already naturally limited their population (Sweden) Supported by the Demographic Transition Model Pessimistic Views Malthus - In 1798, Thomas Malthus hypothesized that population grows geometrically while food production increases arithmetically. The result is that population will eventually outstrip food supply and thus fall prey to famine, disease, and warfare. Any person or idea that supports Malthuss pessimistic viewpoint is described as neo-Malthusian. (79-80) Believed the only possible result would be the onset of misery famine, disease, and warfare Catton In the 1980s, William Cotton introduced the concept of the Earths carrying capacity and states it can only be exceeded only at the expense of the environmental damage. He suggests that the Earths carry capacity has been increasing for many years and has been possible because we have been using up the worlds non-renewable resources. Phantom Carry Capacity earths ability to support an immense population at a high standard of living only because it is using up its non-renewable resources to the detriment of future generations. Soon, our economic and ecological systems will collapse. Paul Ehrlich - Ehrlich argued that the human population was too high already, and that while the level of disaster could be mitigated, humanity could not prevent severe famines, the spread of disease, social unrest, and other negative consequences of overpopulation. However, he argued that societies must take strong action to curb population growth in order to mitigate future disasters both ecological and social. Julian Simon - argues that our notions of increasing resource-scarcity ignore the long-term declines in wage-adjusted raw material prices. Viewed economically, he argues, increasing wealth and technology make more resources available; although supplies may be limited physically they may be viewed as economically indefinite as old resources are recycled and new alternatives are assumed to be developed by the market. argues that population is the solution to resource scarcities and environmental problems, since people and markets innovate. Carrying Capacity

Carrying Capacity - the maximum number of people that can be sustained by an environment (e.g. the earths resources). (61) Rostows Modernization Theory Stages of Economic Development Stage 1: Traditional Society economy is based on subsistence agriculture population growth and social and economic progress are limited by natural controls (droughts, outbreaks of disease) as in the past, some governments today are dictatorships or absolute monarchies society changes very slowly Stage 2: Establishing Conditions for Takeoff society achieves a surplus of wealth (savings) savings are invested in vital economic sectors (transportation, communications, natural resource exploitation) a sense of national purpose evolves more effective, responsive, central government develops Stage 3: Economic Takeoff economy begins to change in response to important technological innovations (improved transportation infrastructure) agriculture changes from subsistence to commercial manufacturing becomes an important part of the economy tertiary sector expands as cities grow and number of customers for service increases Stage 4: Drive to Maturity an extended period of sustained economic growth per-capita wealth increases as economic growth outpaces population growth. economy becomes diversified with expansion of manufacturing and services efficient production methods used in primary and secondary industries increasing percentage of the countrys wealth invested in the economy country reaches maturity about 50-60 years after takeoff Stage 5: High Mass Consumption many people have incomes that are greater than necessary for buying essentials such as shelter, food, and clothing a growing demand for additional consumer goods and services society is also wealthy enough to invest in social programs (improved healthcare, education) Population Trends/Issues The Population Explosion Began in the latter half of the 1600s and accelerated through the 1900s and into the 21st century In 1960, the world population his three billion it had taken more than one million years to reach this level

In 1999, less than 40 years later, the population doubled to six billion In 40 years, the world had to provide for twice as many people (food, homes, jobs) Minorities lives in Old Core (Canada, Sweden), New Core (S. Korea, Poland), and Near Core (Philippines, Iran), as the majority lived in Far Periphery countries

Declining Growth Rate The decline in the worlds growth rate continues since 1980 The reduction from 1980 to 2007 is the largest decline in the world population growth rate in human history. Different countries in the world were experiencing two entirely different population trends; some were experiencing high growth rates, while others were experiencing declining growth rates. The countries that faced declining or negative growth rates faced new challenges because their social systems and economies are based on the assumption that populations will continue to grow. o More older people than younger people; working in a shrinking labour force and have to pay more taxes because of the greater number of services o The demand for goods and services decline because fewer younger people to purchase or invest (housing) Population Implosion Population Implosion the future rapid population decline in core countries (especially old cores) as a result of low fertility rates. (101) Total Fertility Rate Total Fertility Rate average number of children born over the lifetime of a typical woman in a particular country. (How many children are woman currently having?) Natural Increase Natural Increase Rate the rate at which a population increases (or decreases) in a given year expressed as a percentage of the total population; calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate. (64) Doubling Time Rule of 70 simple method to estimate how long it will take a population to double. It is calculated by dividing 70 by the population growth rate. (0.5 70/0.5 = 140 years) One-Child Policy One-Child Policy a Chinese government policy introduced in 1979, designed to reduce the countrys population growth rate by restricting most couples to only one child. (90-92) Gaia Hypothesis

Gaia Hypothesis James Lovelocks theory that views Earth as a self-regulating, living entity made up of organisms that modify the environment for their survival. Chronic Persistent Hunger Chronic Hunger lack of a balanced diet over an extended period of time, leading to malnutrition that weakens people and makes the susceptible to infectious diseases. Results from an insecure supply of food; affecting 850 million people around the world. Inability to earn enough money to grow or buy food. Responsible for 90% of hunger-related deaths in developing counties. Effects of Chronic Hunger o High infant-mortality rates o Increased vulnerability to common illnesses o Acute vulnerability in times of natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods o Poor physical and mental development of children o Poor economic growth of society New Green Revolution The Green Revolution (152) began in 1943 when the Rockerfeller Foundation, at the request of the Mexican government, established an agricultural research station in Mexico to develop more productive varieties of wheat that could be used to feed the rapidly growing population of the country. the selective breeding methods used in the developed world could be used for success in the developing countries. Biotechnology the application of biological processes to agricultural and industrial purposes. Move desirable genes from one organism to another. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) new species created as a result of biotechnology. Varieties of soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola were created to not be affected by certain herbicides and/or to be resistant from insects. Multiple applications of herbicides cause an increased risk of damage to the environment and to peoples health because of the toxicity Biotechnology introduces a herbicide that can be sprayed once and kill a broad spectrum of weeds, cutting down the amount of toxic chemicals entering the environment. Bt-Modified Plants Produces a toxin that kills specific types of insects, yet is harmless to non-target insects, people, and animals that might eat the plant/fruit Allowed farmers to reduce the use of insecticides. Concerns about Biotechnology May result in the creation of super bugs that are resistant to pesticides and immune to Bt crops. May result in the creation of super weeds that are resistant to herbicides Private companies are researching about GMO research; Green Revolution was to benefit the poor.

Forces farmers to buy new seeds after the crop has lost its qualities Terminator Technology plants that are genetically modified to produce sterile seeds Fear that the terminator gene could escape into the gene pool Not enough research on consumption; health problems may affect consumers in the future. Genetically modified foods are not labeled for consumers

Loss of Genetic Diversity Hybrid Varieties Developed to have characteristics that are commercially lucrative o (Tomatoes that dont bruise, cow that gives a lot of milk) Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN estimates that 75% of the genetic diversity of crops was lost in the 20th century. Land Reform the redistribution of land from large land owners to landless farm workers, sharecroppers (farmers who farm land owned by someone else), and small landowners whose holdings may not be large enough to support their families. Guatemala (1954) led to the overthrow of the government Bolivia (by 2011) to redistribute 20 hectares to 3 million farmers. Democratic States Democracy the form of government in which citizens choose their leaders in open and fair elections A decision-making system based on the rule of the majority of the citizens Accountability of the government to the electorate Guarantees for the freedoms of expression, assembly, religion, and the press An independent judiciary that is not subject to the political policies of the government in power. Direct Democracy democratic system used by Ancient Greece where citizens met periodically to make political decisions and gave simple yes or no vote to a question. a referendum, a form of direct democracy, is sometimes used to resolve issues in some nation states (US, Canada) Quebec referenda in 1980 and 1995 to determine its future relationship with Canada Charlottetown Accord referendum in 1992 proposed Aboriginal self-government, Quebec as a distant society, and new division of powers between Ottawa and other provinces In 2007, there were 90 nation states with well-established political systems based on democratic principles. There were an addition 58 nation states with limited democracies o Limited forms of democracy exist where the armed forces are in position to assert control if the democratically elected government moves in a direction that the military leaders dont like. o Fiji in 2006, elected Prime Minister was removed from office and was replaced with an interim military government.

Authoritarianism

Authoritarian a form of government that limits its freedom of its citizens, demands strict obedience to government authority, and generally does not allow criticism of its policies. In 2007, there were 45 authoritarian nations Political, military, and religious power rests in the hands of one individual or a small group that often heads the only political party allowed in the country. Freedoms including: equality before the law, the freedoms of speech and association, and the freedom to create opposition parties Can take the form of absolute monarchy, a one-party nation state, or a military-run state Nationalism the freedom of pride that results from being a citizen of a particular country; a belief in the value of ones own countrys sovereignty. Authoritarian nations promote this to obtain the loyalty and support of their citizens. Absolute Monarchy Authority rests entirely on the monarch (king, queen, sultan, sheikh), depending on the country There is no constitutional form of government, popular assembly, or independent judiciary Upon the death of the ruler, the power to rule is passed from the parent to the child (Saudi Arabia, Jordon, Swaziland, Brunei, Oman, U.A.E) One-Party Nation States Authority rests with one political party; other parties are not allowed to exist Some nations with more than one political party may have restrictions set on the opposition parties to prevent them from gaining power; in reality, a one-party nation (Muammar al-Kadhafi Libya, Kim Jong-il (N. Korea) Military Authoritarianism Authority rests in the hand of one or more military leaders who refuse to give up power or have seized power from an elected government. (Myanmar 1990) Since 1960, more than 50 states in Latin America and Central and Southern Africa have experienced at least one military illegally seizing the power of the nation state In some countries, military plays an influential role even though it doesnt form a government (Algeria, Chile, Indonesia, Mozambique, Thailand, Iraq) Religious Nation States Authority rests in the hands of spiritual leaders whose religious beliefs form the political framework. (Iran) Afghanistan (1996-2001) considered as a mistaken interpretation of Sharia. It is now interpreted in a way that permits a modern lifestyle (UAE) Pronatalist/Antinatalist Policies Pronatalist Strategies ideas that encourage people to have more children (e.g. tax benefits and inexpensive day care programs). (109) Designed to address the economic and non-economic pressures that parents and prospective parents feel. (more generous short-term and long-term parental leaves)

Antinatalist Strategies ideas the discourage people to have more children (e.g. avoid overpopulation, famine, and depletion of non-renewable resources Pandemic Pandemic a continent-wide or world-wide outbreak of an infectious disease H5N1/BSE H5N1 the particular strain of influenza that scientists are most concerned about with respect to a future pandemic. More commonly known as Bird Flu Occurred mainly in China and Southeast Asia among people who work with or live close to domesticated birds (chickens, ducks) 60% of the people who catch bird flu die extremely infectious with a high mortality rate BSE a neurodegenerative disease in cattle that causes a spongy generation in the brain and spinal cord. More commonly known as Mad-Cow Disease Occurred mainly in the UK where humans were transmitted with the disease by eating contaminated beef product from animals infected with BSE Hyperinflation Hyperinflation - Extremely rapid or out of control inflation. There is no precise numerical definition to hyperinflation. Hyperinflation is a situation where the price increases are so out of control that the concept of inflation is meaningless. When associated with depressions, hyperinflation often occurs when there is a large increase in the money supply not supported by gross domestic product (GDP) growth, resulting in an imbalance in the supply and demand for the money. Left unchecked this causes prices to increase, as the currency loses its value When associated with wars, hyperinflation often occurs when there is a loss of confidence in a currency's ability to maintain its value in the aftermath. Because of this, sellers demand a risk premium to accept the currency, and they do this by raising their prices. One of the most famous examples of hyperinflation occurred in Germany between January 1922 and November 1923. By some estimates, the average price level increased by a factor of 20 billion, doubling every 28 hours.

GDP/GNP Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the total value of all the countrys goods and services produced over a period of time Frequently used as the measure of a countrys wealth Gross National Product (GNP) the total value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a particular year, plus income earned by its citizens (including income of those located abroad), minus income of non-residents located in that country.

GNP measures the value of goods and services that the country's citizens produced regardless of their location. GNP is one measure of the economic condition of a country, under the assumption that a higher GNP leads to a higher quality of living, all other things being equal.

ODA/NGOs Official Development Assistance (ODA) Flows of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective. ODA flows comprise contributions of donor government agencies, at all levels, to developing countries (bilateral ODA) and to multilateral institutions NGOs non-governmental organizations that promote courses of action or try to influence the actions of governments, corporations, and other organizations (Greenpeace, Amnesty International) WTO/IMF/GATT/ASEAN/APEC/EEC/NAFTA World Trade Organization (WTO) - the international organization founded in 1995 responsible for coordinating and promoting trade in the world. (189) Also coordinates the creation of regional free-trade agreements between and among countries. International Monetary Fund (IMF) a multilateral organization that works to stabilize the worlds economy and to supervise the international debt payment system (221) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) precursor of the WTO Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) formed in 1967, it promotes the economic and political interests of this region when dealing with other areas of the world promotes social and cultural development, as well as regional stability experiencing rapid economic advancement, and so the organization has become very important in representing its region Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) an organization of 21 nations around the Pacific Rim. A massive free trade agreement among these nations has been proposed. European Economic Community (EEC) an international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) a treaty signed in 1994 by Canada, the United States, and Mexico that phased out most trade restrictions among the three countries. Trade Bloc

Trade Bloc An agreement between states, regions, or countries, to reduce barriers to trade between the participating regions. Most well-known trade bloc is NAFTA, between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. opponents of trade blocs believe that such agreements are detrimental to global free trade. Purchasing Power Parity Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) The theory that, in the long run, identical products and services in different countries should cost the same in different countries. For example, consider a laptop computer that costs 1,500 Euros in Germany and an exchange rate of 2 Euros to 1 U.S. Dollar. If the same laptop cost 1,000 dollars in the United States, U.S. consumers would buy the laptop in Germany Used in measuring HDI Infrastructure Infrastructure - facilities (e.g. transportation, power, and communication networks; sanitation systems) and institutions (e.g. education, business, banking, health) that allow a society to function. (135) Brain Drain Brain Drain the loss of highly educated people from a country because of emigration. (119-120) Brain Gain the increase of highly educated people in a country because of immigration. (119-120) UN Charter UN Charter the foundational treaty of the international organization, the United Nations. Signed by 50 of the 51 original member states on June 26, 1945. On October 24th, 1945, the organization came into force with the five members of the Security Council MNC Multinational Companies companies that operate in several countries; largely replaced by the term transnational companies because many are not clearly identified with any particular nation NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) originally a military alliance, including the United States, Canada, and many western European nations, designed to confront the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War. Has now expanded both its membership and security role. (400) Cold War Cold War a state of hostility, without actual large-scale warfare, that existed between the power blocs led by the US and USSR from the mid 1940s to the end of the 1980s. (346) WMD/MAD

Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) biological, chemical and nuclear weapons that are capable of killing many people at one time and probably devastating large areas. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) a key part of the rule set of the Cold War. It meant that if either side were to use nuclear weapons against its rival, it would ensure its own destruction in the massive and inevitable counterstrike that would follow. (379)

Protectionism Protectionism - government actions and policies that restrict or restrain international trade, often done with the intent of protecting local businesses and jobs from foreign competition. Typical methods of protectionism are import tariffs, quotas, subsidies or tax cuts to local businesses and direct state intervention. Any time a government undertakes any of these actions, they are engaging in protectionism. There is significant debate surrounding the merits of protectionism. Critics argue that, over the long term, protectionism often ends up hurting the people it is intended to protect and often promotes free trade as a superior alternative to protectionism. NTB (Non-Tariff Barriers) Non-Tariff Barriers (NTB) barriers to free trade, other than traditional tariff barriers, such as governmental policies that require domestic purchases. Disparity Economic Disparity an inequality in which some people or countries are much better off economically that other people or countries. (197) The spread or gap between the extreme high and the extreme low Colonialism Acquisition and settlement of a territory or country by another nation (172) o European countries (France, Great Britain) o United States (Cuba, Philippines) o Japan (Korea, China) Mercantile System of the 17th and 18th centuries, colonies were considered to exist solely for the economic benefit of the mother country. o Prevented the colony from operation in its own economic interests. (trade had to be done with master) o Prevented from competing with the mother country (Britain forced the end of Indias cotton industry)

Concession Companies a company created by an imperialist country to develop trade in its colonies; traded in particular products and often acted as the government in remote parts of empires

Impacts of Colonialism Land Tenure - the manner in which land is held (owner-occupied farms, plantations owned by individuals or large companies, and land owned and worked by collectives Plantations large farming operations used to grow tropical and subtropical crops, such as bananas, coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, sugar, spices, and tea Cash Crops a crop grown for sale rather than for personal use. o The best lands today are used for cash crops that are exported. Current Economic Colonialism Neo-Colonialism a form of colonialism that developed principally after WWII based on economic dominance rather than political dominance. o A wealthy country may grant foreign aid to a poor country, provided that country purchases its manufacture goods, or subtly gives them power through the gradual change in culture. Core and Far Periphery More Globalized Core the part of the world containing countries that are more involved in and have benefited to a greater extent from globalization. (43) Less Globalized Periphery that part of the world containing countries that are less involved in and have benefited to a lesser extent from gloablization Old Core the countries of Western Europe along with Canada, the US, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand that have been highly globalized for many years New Core those countries that have joined the Core (i.e. become more globalized) only in recent years. Includes Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Near Core those countries in the Periphery that are most globalized and closes to joining the Core Far Periphery those countries of the periphery that are least globalized and farthest from joining the Core Absolute Poverty Extreme Poverty defined by the UN as the condition of a person living on less that US$1 per day (199) a level of poverty as defined in terms of the minimal requirements necessary to afford minimal standards of food, clothing, health care and shelter GEM/HDI/GDI/HPI Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) - designed to measure "whether women and men are able to actively participate in economic and political life and take part in decision-making"

The GEM is determined using three basic indicators: Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments, percentage of women in economic decision making positions, and female share of income vs. males

Human Development Index (HDI) - a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living for countries worldwide. it is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, a developing or an under-developed country, and also to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life. Gender Development Index (GDI) aims to show the inequalities between men and women in the following areas: long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. a composite indicator of gender equality developed by the UN Gross Domestic Income (GDI) - the total income received by all sectors of an economy within a nation. includes the sum of all wages, profits, an minus subsidies Human Poverty Index (HPI) - an indication of the standard of living in a country, developed by the United Nations (UN). For highly developed countries, the UN considers that it can better reflect the extent of deprivation compared to the HDI OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) - an international economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. (119) It is a forum of countries committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices, and co-ordinate domestic and international policies of its members. HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS the epidemic of the disease of the immune system, caused by the retrovirus HIV, that is infecting and killing millions of people in many parts of the world. (411) Has reduced Swazilands life expectancy to less than 34 years Equivalent to the death toll of a large airplane crash (238 people) per hour, every hour, all year. Sub-Saharan Africa has been most affected, but there are great concerns about the spread of the diseases in other areas of the world (Eastern Europe, Southern Asia, and China) History Spread from chimpanzees to people in Cameroon with the first AIDS death recorded in 1959. The epidemic officially began in 1981. Infected people can live for many years and are capable of infecting others through ordinary activities like having sexual relations or bearing children. Without treatment, everyone infected will die of AIDS or AIDS-related causes. Africa Life expectancies are declining by decades Many children are infected by their mothers.

Millions of children are orphaned each year where their parents die of AIDS The pandemic is putting critical pressure on inadequate African healthcare systems. The economies and social structures of many countries are being devastated as large numbers of skilled workers die Unlike most diseases, AIDS usually kills adults in their prime

Steps in Solving Africas Problem Can be fought in 2 ways: 1. reducing the number of cases 2. helping those already infected to live longer with a higher quality of life End the silence, stigma, discrimination, and denial associated with this disease Work towards the ABC approach in reducing infection (Abstain, Be faithful, Condomize) Empower women in a culture that often permits them to be exploited sexually Treat HIV-positive pregnant women with medications to prevent transmission of the disease to the fetus Implement effective testing and treatment programs Find better ways to support AIDS orphans and their caregivers and NGOs that look after them. Steps in Solving Problem in Core Nations Increase of effective anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) Decreasing the price of ARVs to make them affordable for the majority of patients Wealthy countries have to fund the fight against the disease Research on a vaccine for AIDS must be accelerated. Types of AID (Bilateral & Multilateral) Bilateral Aid aid provided directly from one country to another. (204) Multilateral Aid aid involving more than two donors (aid comes from the World Bank or UN, institutions that are funded by many governments) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) the branch of the Canadian government responsible for providing development assistance both directly and through NGOs. Amnesty International/Oxfam Amnesty International an international human rights non-governmental organisation with over 3 million members and supporters around the world objective of the organisation is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated Amnesty draws attention to human rights abuses and campaigns for compliance with international laws and standards. It works to mobilize public opinion to put pressure on governments that let anal abuse take place.

Oxfam an international confederation of 15 organizations working in more than 90 countries worldwide to find lasting solutions to poverty and related injustice around the world the ultimate goal is to enable people to exercise their rights and manage their own lives Oxfam works directly with communities and seeks to influence the powerful to ensure that poor people can improve their lives and livelihoods and have a say in decisions that affect them Migration Nature of Migration Push Factors conditions in a place that make it so unattractive for residents that they want to migrate to a different place Wages, shortages of food, overcrowded living conditions, political persecution, high crime rate Pull Factors conditions in a place that make it unattractive to potential migrants High wages, good educational opportunities, high standards of living, plentiful resources, Each year, more than two million people migrate and settle permanently in other countries o Millions more migrate, but settle only temporarily

Voluntary Migration Voluntary Migration migration that occurs because the immigrant chooses to move Between 1800 and 1914, approximately 70 million people left Europe and migrated, by choice, to Canada Since 2000, Canada welcomes more than 220,000 permanent international immigrants a year Involuntary Migration Involuntary Migration movement of people against their will; often associated with the persecution or fear of persecution Between 1500 and 1810, 11-15 million people were forcefully taken out of Africa to be sold as slaves in the Americas. Geopolitical: Many citizens of Iraq fled the country due to the invasion of the country and the civil strife that followed Environmental: The Sahara Desert is spreading southward into the Sahel, forcing the people who live there to move away. o In the future, climate change can cause the greatest human migration ever. (rising sea levels) Permanent and Temporary Migration In the early 20th century and before, most migration tended to be permanent due to the high costs and travelling long distances Temporary migration is more common now due to the widespread of air travel and the relatively low costs of traveling Frequently, people who tend to migrate permanently only migrate temporarily o Guest Workers temporary, legal migrants who more to a country to help it overcome a labour shortage

Refugees are usually considered temporary migrants with the assumption being that when conditions improve, they will move back. However, conditions at home countries dont improve and they become permanent migrants.

Legal and Illegal Migration Legal Migration migration that occurs within recognized government programs o Canada focuses on attracting highly skilled and/or wealthy permanent immigrants o Germany accepts few permanent immigrants, but many temporary immigrants to fill jobs o Rich countries (Saudi Arabia, UAE) have guest worker programs for both low-level and high-level jobs Illegal Migration the movement of people into a country without following its immigration laws and procedures 1. Sneaking into the country by land or water Hundreds of thousand of people from Latin America who cross the Mexico-US Border 2. When a person violates a countrys terms of legal entry When someone enters with a student/travel visa but doesnt return home when the visa expires Big problem for Old Core countries; 5 million in Western Europe and 12 million in the US

International and Internal Migration Internal Migration migration that occurs within a country o Movement of people from rural to urban areas (industrial revolution) Rural-urban shift has virtually ended in Old Core countries, other Core countries continue o Movement of people from one region of the country to another In Canada, interprovincial migration exists, increasing the population in Ontario, B.C., and Alberta Brain Drain the loss of highly educated people from a country because of emigration. (119-120) Brain Gain the increase of highly educated people in a country because of immigration. (119-120) Remittance refers to the money sent to family and friends by a migrant in a different location. Replacement Migration migration that occurs to maintain overall or working-age population in a country (123) Refugees people who leave their country under threat of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, or social or political group. Increasingly, people become refugees because of declining environmental quality. (124) Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) people who are forced to move from their home area for reasons similar to those that motivate refugees. However, IDPs remain within the borders of their country.

Social/Economic Perspectives Right-Wing Authoritarian believes the economy works best if the government does not interfere with business or trade, but exerts a significant measure of social control Left-Wing Authoritarian believes the economy works best if the government exerts considerable control over business and trade, while exerting a significant measure of social control Left-Wing Libertarian feels the government has an important role to play in the economy, but feels government should allow people to make their own social decisions Right-Wing Libertarian feels the need to minimize the role of government in all aspects of life Centrist believes social and economic controls should be applied if they are for the public good, or diminished if they do not benefit society. Expansionist View/Ecological World View/ Spaceship Earth Concept/ Cornucopian Thesis Expansionist World View the idea to expand the worlds capabilities with an emphasis on production and industrialism (industrial revolution) (33) Ecological World View looking at the world with an emphasis on the emotional and spiritual relationships that bind humans and the environment together Spaceship Earth Concept the idea that out home, Earth, is a spaceship, and that Earths resources must be protected because we have nowhere to turn if they run out Cornucopian Thesis the belief that as science and technology advance, new resources will be developed to replace depleted ones Limits-to-Growth Thesis a theory based on computer models developed by the Club of Rome that predicted pessimistic outcomes for the Earths environment if the growth trends of the 1970s continued UN Declaration of Human Rights UN Declaration of Human Rights - a profoundly important UN document that was agreed to in 1948. it established the list of human rights that all world citizens should enjoy. Grasshopper Effect Grasshopper Effect: A global phenomenon in which Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) move from warmer to colder regions. The pollutants evaporate, travel through the atmosphere on air currents, and then condense over a new location. They tend to concentrate most in cold regions because condensation is highest here. Nuclear Weapons Nuclear Weapons - a weapon of mass destruction whose explosive power derives from a nuclear reaction.

Asymmetric Warfare Asymmetric Warfare the type of warfare fought by opponents with dramatically different conventional military capabilities. Actions by the weaker power (bombs, kidnapping) are often equated to terrorism by the stronger opponents. (353) Hard & Soft Power Hard Power one category of means by which a country tries to impose its will on another. Includes both economic power (aid, bribes, and economic sanctions) and military power (military sanctions and force of arms). (352) Aid Payments and Bribes: used as tools in a dispute (wealthier countries would off poorer countries) Sanctions: measure taken by countries or international organizations (UN, NATO) against countries to force them to change policies Force: ultimate expression of hard power Soft Power a means by which a country tries to impose its will on another. It includes the use of cooption, public diplomacy, and government diplomacy. Co-option: process by which potential opponents become closely tied to one another long before an actual conflict occurs Public Diplomacy: process that aims to create an ongoing positive image of a country in the minds of citizens of other countries Government Diplomacy: involves international negotiations that take place through formal government channels Co-option Co-option: process by which potential opponents become closely tied to one another long before an actual conflict occurs France and Germany fought each other in four wars between the 1800s and the 1940s The creation of the EU co-opted one country to the other and dramatically reduced the possibility of future war. Conflicts: Current Trends Causes of Conflict Natural Resource Conflict: disputes over the control of natural resources are often the cause of wars and civil strife. The combination of global industrial development and population growth increase the demand for finite resources (oil). (354) Territorial Conflict: arises when two or more groups wish to control the same territory Cultural Conflict: can take many forms - indigenous peoples (native) and the majority of the population that migrated to the country Religious Conflict: religion provides people with spiritual guidance, and in most countries, forms the basis for secular law; differences in this powerful force can result in great conflict

Global Geopolitical Conflict: conflicts within a particular country are little more than localized versions of global rivalries (Cold War proxy wars)

Aral Sea Aral Sea Saltwater lake that straddles the boundary between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia (271) In the early 1960s, the Soviet Union at the time diverted water from two large rivers that formerly fed the Aral Sea. (at that time, the fourth-largest inland body of water in the world) This was done to make the Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton production, where a 1300 km canal and a network of irrigation ditches were sued to help expand the existing cotton fields With the loss of 90% of its inflow, the Sea shrank to one-third of its former volume, and in 1988, it split into two smaller lakes. There was an increase in the concentration of toxic agricultural chemicals and human waste, as well as 60 000 fishing jobs disappearing. The climate has changed, reducing the regions wetland areas with their vegetation and water flow The reason the dam is not broken down is due to the fact that the costs of building one are too high, and people need the agricultural products from the irrigated cropland along with the electricity produced by large dams Land Degradation Land Degradation: Degradation of the productive capacity of soil for future use. (230) Erosion: The breakdown of a land surface (weathering) and the carrying away of weathered materials (transportation) by various agents Chemical Deterioration: Refers to the damage to soil as a result of leaching, salination, acidification, or pollution Salination: Refers to buildup of salts at or near the surface of the soil as water evaporates, particularly in dry, hot climates Desertification: The process by which an arid or semi-arid area loses its productivity to the point that it resembles a desert. Desertification results mainly from human activities (e.g. deforestation, overgrazing) Law of the Seas United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (350) A treaty that deals with the oceanic territorial claims; includes the process of staking territorial claims in the Arctic basin defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural resources.

Tragedy of the Commons Tragedy of the Commons - An economic problem in which every individual tries to reap the greatest benefit from a given resource. As the demand for the resource overwhelms the supply, every individual who consumes an additional unit directly harms others who can no longer enjoy the benefits. Generally, the resource of interest is easily available to all individuals. The tragedy of the commons occurs when individuals neglect the well-being of society (or the group) in the pursuit of personal gain. o For example, if neighboring farmers increase the number of their own sheep living on a common block of land, eventually the land will become depleted and not be able to support the sheep, which is detrimental to all. EEZs Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) also called the 200 (nautical) mile limit; recognizes the sovereignty of nations over adjacent parts of the ocean. (273) Algal Blooms Algal Blooms - a rapid increase in the population of algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Kerala Kerala: Population Control (93) Goal: controlling population growth by reaching post-transition quickly without achieving wealthy economies or coercing their citizens to adopt unpopular birth-control methods. In 2005, Keralas demographic statistics are more like the United States than those of India as a whole In the 1990s, the city had a high population density with 70% of its people in rural areas Education: In 2001, male and female literacy rates were much higher than that of Indias o Almost all Keralese of child-bearing age are literate Status of Women: high status came from high literacy rates and a greater population of women over men Healthcare: improved, available, and inexpensive healthcare ensures that the offspring will survive into adulthood Land Reform: due to the limitation of farm size, it ensured that every farmer would gain ownership of some land. Government: governments have effectively provided for social progress for women as well as education and healthcare for the states population Expatriate Workers: since the mid-1970s, Kerala has been a major source of workers to oil-rich countries; workers bring back with them money and the experience of living in a modern society Change by Diffusion o Structural Change Model - governments adopt measures of force or encourage people to change their behavior

Change by Diffusion Model the spread of new ideas and social norms occurs through various forms of social interaction and the influence of mass media.

BR Birth Rate number of births per 1000 people in a country or region in a given year.
3. World hunger; solutions Chronic hunger results from insecure supply of food/lack of opportunity or ability to earth enough money to grow or buy food More than 850 million people & responsible for 90% of hunger related deaths Undernourished and unable to lead healthy lives Effects High infant mortality rate Increased vulnerability to common illness Acute vulnerability in times of natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods Poor physical and mental development of children Poor economic growth of society Solutions Green revolution (refer above) Biotechnology o Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) o Added vitamins/nutrients in normal food i.e. golden rice which is vitamin A rich o Move desirable genes from one organism to another 4. Foreign Aid Money going from richer countries to poorer ones Two parts: ODA delivered by govts and PDA (private development assistance) delivered by NGOs NGOs Non-governmental, non-profit organization Provide aid all around the world operating in fields such as development programs and human rights CIDA often funds NGOs Funding comes from 3 main sources o Fundraising from private citizens o Rich person who establishes foundations to handle distributions of large donations o Government ODA (official development assistance) budgetsgovt give it to them because think they will use it in better way they the govt would (sometimes govt will match donations in times to crisis) Types of Aid (ODA) Bilateral: from one country directly to another Multilateral: given to international agency for use in program which will operate in multiple countries CIDA Canadian international development agency Government agency 5. Birth Dearth Birth Dearth Huge drops in birth rates and accordingly there is a decreasing population Effects 1. Family structure Children become spoiled by parents and four grandparents

 Single children overwhelmed with responsibility of looking after parents Lots of DINKs, double income, no kids 2. Aging population If trends continue to 2100, half of Europes population will be over 60 Lots of money needed to meet needs of older citizens (pensions, healthcare, etc.) Solutions o Lowering pensions paid out either by value of pension or making people work until a later age o Higher govt contributions to pensions o Base eligibility on income from other sources Older future workforces has advantages and disadvantages 3. Labour shortages (mostly in core) In Canada: 22% of labour force over 55, so lots of potential retirees at time of high employment and shortages of skilled labour People staying in school until later age If Japan and European countries took on Canadian tradition of multiculturalism and let in working immigrants, would solve problem of small labour force o Without these workers, they cant maintain economy 4. Economic Effects Foundation of economy is based on assumption that it continues to grow because o People are getting more money and demand more goods and services o Greater population of people to demand goods and services nd Lower population kills 2 point Also, not as many people to work to create GDP so less govt expenditure 5. Shift in World Power If few of the worlds population is in the developed world, will the five permanent and most powerful countries (US, UK, Russia, China, France) still have veto power? Will the power shift to countries such as India and Pakistan? Reasons for Birth Dearth 1. Woman more educated 2. Woman having career outside home 3. Work away from home for longer periods of time 4. Less traditional a. Marry later b. More likely to divorce c. Not marry at all 5. More access to birth control 6. Types of Globalization The trend towards greater interconnectedness of the worlds financial, economic, technological, political, cultural, sociological, ecological, and geographical systems. Some argue that globalization improves living standards throughout the world, while others say that its effects are more harmful than beneficial Financial Globalization Worlds financial systems becoming interconnected Stock markets constantly affecting one another across countries Does not involve interconnectedness of nationsjust of world cities with significant stock markets Economic Globalization Corporations becoming multinational/transnational o operations all across the world o becoming less and less associated with one separate nation o Move production and capital and seek production where it will benefit them most Brings efficiency and produces much greater global wealth but others say rich get richer while poor get poorer Worries that these corporations will become more powerful than countries

Technological Globalization Growth of communications and computer technology Developing countries benefiting because can go straight to cell lines without building expensive land line based phone systems Developing countries get crank-powered laptops Easier access to high-level technology benefitting everyone Political Globalization As everything else becomes interconnected, pressure on governments to adopt more uniform policies Less national sovereignty and greater emphasis on free trade among nations Cultural Globalization Harmonization of worlds cultures Loss of different cultures/diversity and possibly religion Fear that it will be mainly American view which dominates Ecological Globalization Growing acceptance of idea that planet should be treated as one large ecosystem o Results in everyone taking better care of it o i.e. Global warming and Montreal Protocol would have never been found if it wasnt for globalization Sociological Globalization all members of single, world society rather than distinct national and cultural societies certain common attitudes and standards of behaviour should exist in all countries o i.e. role of woman/capital punishment Geographical Globalization geographical studies now borderless 8. Technological Change and Population Growth Technology advancements change way people live and changes earths carrying capacity Carrying capacity = number of people worlds resources can support using the technology that exists at that time Stage 1 hunting/gathering Food supply was not reliable so population growth rate was not steady low carrying capacity Very large area needed to support small number of people Stage 2 agricultural revolution resulted in more reliable food sources = higher survival rate = more steady population growth food surpluses higher carrying capacity more food from square kilometer population increased accordingly Stage 3 industrial revolution further progress in agricultural production hindered by energy crisis o only source of energy was muscle power of ppl and animals invention of machines powered by steam were very environmentally friendly (windmills, water-powered mills, etc.) coal and oil developed later persons physical efforts multiplied by use of energy and skills/intelligence became more important fewer farm workers needed to grow food, migrated to cities to find jobs new methods = higher carrying capacity = higher population 13. Urban Settlements (issues core/periphery) o In developing countries, this type of migration increasing More ppl in urban than rural for first time in 2007 First gradual but direct as the result of industrialization and mechanization of agriculture urbanization today in new core, near core and far periphery is very fast compared to old cores

increased woman migrating cities are becoming larger and larger o advantages more environmentally sensible on a per capita basis, Changes in New core, Near Core, and Far Periphery Cities population growth faster than economic development and building of necessary infrastructure basic support system rural people go to cities because desperate to find better SOL o but there are not enough jobs there or decent housing rapid migration to cities causes problems that local/national problems cant deal with o overurbanizationwhen citys population grows faster than ability to sustain itself results in squatter settlement: urban settlements lacking proper sanitation, decent shelter, schools, hospitals, and basic social services on outskirts of city Changes in Old Core Cities decentralization middle class grew and car ownership became common o families grew b/c of baby boom o ppl could afford to buy new houses, moved from central areas of cities to suburbs o in US after WWII o newer housing, better education and recreational facilities in suburbs o shopping opportunities b/c of malls o movement of industries and offices o easy access to highways o cheaper costs of land recentralization old problems associated with downtown (traffic congestion, over crowded schools, high crime) became more common in suburbs o people found cities more desirable again o places with more people were better because of public transit, better shopping, more recreation o people had less kids felt less obligated to move to detached, suburban houses o baby boomers decided large suburban houses to oexpensive to maintain moved to city apartments o after 1990 what makes a city successful o strong economy o good government o active democratic process 17. Demographic Transition Model & Population pyramid Analysis (graphs given: china/India)

Stage 1: Pre-Transition *stable population

BR and DR high o Rates fluctuate around each other but relatively stable High fertility rate (8+) Extremely high infant mortality Lower life expectancy (45-50) Less and less people as age groups increase lots of young, very

little old Stage 2: Early Transition *very rapid increase in population Birth rate & fertility rate remain high high dependency load o children still needed to help raise food and support fam and ensure a caregiver would survive for aging parents o Religious teachings restricting birth control death rate drops rapidly and remains below BR o infant mortality rate declines o b/c of methods of water purification, more food, better health care, etc.

germ theory (belief that diseases came from germs, organisms so tiny you cant see them) was not accepted and not fought, so death rate declined slowly lots of young people Every country progressed here to this day o Still relatively few old people, but more than before o Growing number of children are surviving Stage 3: Late Transition *population growth slows down Birth rate declines rapidly o Fertility rate declines Woman realizing infant mortality rate much lower and dont need to have as many kids Industrial revolution meant moving to cities where large family no longer neededchildren now tended to be financial burden rather than contribution More woman in workforce Death rate declines slowly Increasing number old people o

Stage 4: Post Transition *stable or slow population increase

Low BR and DR o BR declined so much that its at DR o Fluctuate around each other again Fertility rate at replacement rate of 2.1 Many older people (greying society)high dependency load o More people entering workforce

than leaving it
Stage 5:???? *declining population happening now Not in model but BR falls to lower than DR o Fertility rate lower than replacement o Lots of old people with few young o Refer to cornucopian world view for about declining population

Demographic Trap
Countries continue to experience high birth rate instead of declining birth rate This together with declining death rate = large increases in population Country wont have enough revenue to generate good social/economic development necessary to get to post-transition

Will eventually exceed carrying capacity (Esp. with inability to advance technology) o Overpopulation growing demands exceed countries carrying capacity