A

Vector and Dyadic Analysis

I am greatly astonished when I consider the weakness of my mind and its proness to error. Descartes This appendix summarizes a number of useful relationships and transformations from vector calculus and dyadic analysis that are especially relevant to electromagnetic theory.

A.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

A.1.1
A d`

Rectangular Coordinates: (x; y; z)

= =
z

A xx + A y y + A z z ^ ^ ^ x dx + y dy + ^ dz ^ ^ z
z = z1 plane ^ z ^ x ^ y P(x1, y1 , z 1) O

dS dV

= dy dz x + dx dz y + dx dy z ^ ^ ^ = dx dy dz
z

dsx = dy dz ds = dx dy z dz z O y y x dx x y = y1 plane dy y dsy = dx dz

x = x1 plane

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

A.1.2
A d`

Cylindrical Coordinates:
= = ^ A + A + Az z ^ ^ ^ d + z dz d + ^ ^ dS dV

(; ; z)

^ = d dz + d dz + d d z ^ ^ = d d dz

z = z1 plane

^ z ^ ds = d dz O y 1 = 1 plane x

dsz = d d ds = d dz dz z

z1 O = 1 cylinder x 1

A.1.3
A = d` =

Spherical Coordinates: (r; ; )

^ ^ Ar ^ + A + A r ^ ^ r dr + rd + r sin d ^ dS dV ^ ^ = r 2 sin d d r + r sin dr d + r dr d ^ = r 2 sin dr d d

= 1 cone

z z 1 ^ r ^ r1 O 1 y x d y ^ O dsr = r 2sin d d ds = r dr d r

ds = r sin dr d

x r = r1 sphere = 1 plane

COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS

A.2 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS

Note that relations between the unit vectors in the different coordinate systems are obtained from the following by replacing the components of A with the corresponding unit vector (for example, Ar ) r ). ^

A.2.1

Rectangular Spherical transformation: !

x = r sin cos y = r sin sin z = r cos (A.1)

These coordinates are related by

and conversion between vectors is given by Spherical ! Rectangular Ax Ay Az Ar A A = Ar sin cos + A cos cos A sin = Ar sin sin + A cos sin + A cos = Ar cos A sin (A.2) = Ax sin cos + Ay sin sin + Az cos = Ax cos cos + Ay cos sin Az sin = Ax sin + Ay cos (A.3)

Rectangular ! Spherical

A.2.2

Rectangular Cylindrical transformation: !

x = cos y = sin z = z (A.4)

These coordinates are related by

and conversion between vectors is given by Cylindrical ! Rectangular Ax Ay Az A A Az = A cos A sin = A sin + A cos = Az = Ax cos + Ay sin = Ax sin + Ay cos = Az (A.5)

Rectangular ! Cylindrical

(A.6)

A.2.3

Cylindrical Spherical transformation: !

= r sin

These coordinates are related by

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

z = r cos

(A.7)

(the azimuthal angle is common to both coordinate systems). Conversion between vectors is given by Cylindrical ! Spherical Ar A A A A Az = = = = = = A sin + Az cos A cos Az sin A Ar sin + A cos A Ar cos A sin (A.8)

Spherical ! Cylindrical

(A.9)

A.3 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR CALCULUS

A.3.1 Flux and Circulation

Maxwells equations are expressed in terms of two important vector field concepts: flux and circulation. The flux of a vector field A through some surface S is defined as ZZ flux of A through S A dS (A.10)
S

and the circulation of A around some path C is defined as I circulation of A around C = A d`

C

(A.11)

These concepts are expressed in differential form as the divergence and curl ZZ I A dS A d` S C Divergence: r A lim ZZZ Curl: r A lim ZZ (A.12) V !0 S!0 dV dS
V S

where we have defined the del operator, which in rectangular coordinates is r @ @ @ x+ ^ y+ ^ z ^ @x @y @z (A.13)

The r operator takes on different forms in other coordinate systems. Section A.4 lists explicit divergence and curl operations in the three most common coordinate systems. Note that the concepts of flux/divergence are also related through the Divergence theorem (A.54), and the concepts of circulation/curl are also related through the Stokes theorem (A.59).

ELEMENTS OF VECTOR CALCULUS

A.3.2

The Gradient

Another important operation is the gradient of a vector field, which is the vector equivalent of a derivative operation. The gradient only operates on scalar fields, , and is written as r. Explicit forms for the gradient operation in the three common coordinate systems is given in section A.4. The gradient produces a vector which points in the direction of greatest change of the scalar field. This property is useful in a geometric sense for determining tangent planes and normal directions to an arbitrary surface [2]. In three dimensions an arbitrary surface can be described by the functional relation f (r) = C (A.14)

where C is a constant, and f (r) is shorthand for a function of the three coordinate variables; for example, in rectangular coordinates, f (r) = f (x; y; z). A plane tangent to this surface at the point r0 is described by (r r0 ) rf (r0 ) = 0 (tangent plane) (A.15)

The gradient points in the direction normal to the surface, so a unit normal to the surface described by (A.14) at the point r 0 can be found from n= ^ rf (r0 ) jrf (r0 )j (unit normal) (A.16)

A.3.3

Vector Taylor Expansion

The multi-dimensional Taylor series expansion of a function f (r + a) around the point r can be represented in vector form as f (r + a) =
1 X 1 n (a r) f (r) n! n=0

(A.17)

A.3.4

Change of Variables

In three dimensions, a change of variables from the coordinates (x; y; z) to new coordinates (u; v; w) is given by [2] ZZZ ZZZ @(x; y; z) du dv dw f (x; y; z) dx dy dz = g(u; v; w) (A.18) @(u; v; w) where @(x; y; z) @x=@u @(u; v; w) = @y=@u @z=@u @x=@v @y=@v @z=@v @x=@w @y=@w @z=@w

is called the Jacobian of the transformation, and

g(u; v; w) = f (x(u; v; w); y(u; v; w); z(u; v; w))

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

and it has been assumed that (x; y; z) can be expressed functionally in terms of (u; v; w) (or vica-versa). A similar result applies to transformations in two-dimensions.

A.4 EXPLICIT DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS

A.4.1 Rectangular Coordinates (x; y; z):
@ @ @ +y ^ +z ^ @x @y @z

r = x ^ r A =

(A.19)

@Ax @Ay @Az + + (A.20) @x @y @z @Az @Ay @Ax @Az @Ay @Ax rA = x ^ +y ^ +z ^ (A.21) @y @z @z @x @x @y r2 = @2 @2 @2 + + @x 2 @y 2 @z 2 (A.22) (A.23)

r2 A = xr2 Ax + y r2 Ay + z r2 Az ^ ^ ^

A.4.2

Cylindrical Coordinates (; ; z):

@ ^ 1 @ + z @ + ^ @ @ @z

r = ^ r A =

(A.24) (A.25)

1 @(A ) 1 @A @Az + + @ @ @z 1 @Az @A rA = ^ @ @z ^ @A @Az + z 1 @(A ) @A + ^ @z @ @ @ 1 @ @ 1 @2 @2 r2 = + 2 + 2 @ @ @ @z 2 2 @A A r2 A = r2 A 2 ^ 2 @ ^ r2 A + 2 @A A + ^(r 2Az ) + z 2 @ 2

(A.26) (A.27)

(A.28)

VECTOR RELATIONS

A.4.3

Spherical Coordinates (r; ; ):

@ ^ 1 @ + 1 @ ^ + @r r @ r sin @ (A.29)

r = r ^ rA = rA =

r2 = = r2 A =

1 @(r 2 Ar ) 1 @(A sin ) 1 @A + + (A.30) 2 r @r r sin @ r sin @ r ^ @(A sin ) @A r sin @ @ ^ ^ 1 @Ar @(rA ) @(rA ) @Ar + + (A.31) r sin @ @r r @r @ 1 @ @ 1 @ @ 1 @2 r2 + 2 sin + (A.32) 2 r2 @r @r r sin @ @ r2 sin @2 1 @2 1 @ @ 1 @2 (r) + 2 sin + 2 (A.33) 2 2 r @r r sin @ @ r sin @2 2 @A @A r r2 Ar 2 Ar + A cot + csc ^ + r @ @ ^ r2 A 1 A csc2 2 @Ar + 2 cot csc @A + r2 @ @ ^ r2 A 1 A csc2 2 csc @Ar 2 cot csc @A + (A.34) r2 @ @

A.5 VECTOR RELATIONS

A.5.1 Dot and Cross Product Identities 2
A A = jAj AB=BA A B = B A A (B C) = B (C A) = C (A B) A (B C) = (A C)B (A B)C A (B C) + B (C A) + C (A B) = 0 (A B) (C D) = A B (C D) (A.35) (A.36) (A.37) (A.38) (A.39) (A.40)

= (A C)(B D) (A D)(B C)

(A.41) (A.42)

(A B) (C D) = (A B D)C (A B C )D

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

A.5.2

Vector Differential operations

r r = r2 r() = r + r r (A) = A r + r A r (A) = r A A r r (A B) = B (r A) A (r B) (A.43) (A.44) (A.45) (A.46) (A.47) (A.48)

r (A B) = A(r B) B(r A) + (B r)A (A r)B

r(A B) = A (r B) + B (r A) + (B r)A + (A r)B (A.49) r r = 0 r (r A) = 0 r r A = r(r A) r2 A (A.50) (A.51) (A.52)

The last identity essentially defines the vector Laplacian r2 A, which reduces to three scalar Laplacians in rectangular coordinates only.

A.5.3

Integral relations
Z Z

From the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,

b b

r d` =

@ d` = (b) (a) @`

(A.53)

In the following, V is a volume bounded by a closed surface S, with the direction of dS taken as pointing outward from the enclosed volume, by convention: ZZZ Z Z A dS (Divergence theorem) (r A) dV =
V S

(A.54) (A.55) (A.56)

ZZZ

ZZZ
V

(r) dV = dS
S

Z Z Z Z

(r A) dV = (dS A)
S

Note that (A.54) combined with (A.51) gives Z Z

r A dS = 0

(A.57)

VECTOR RELATIONS

and that (A.50) and (A.56) give Z Z

dS r = 0
S

(A.58)

In the following, S is an open surface bounded by a contour C described by line element d`. The direction of d` is tangent to C. The direction of dS is normal to the surface following the right-hand rule with the fingers curled in the direction of C : (Stokes theorem) ZZ (r A) dS = (dS r) = I I A d` d` (A.59) (A.60)

ZZ

Note that (A.50) and (A.59) give I r d` = 0 (A.61)

Greens identities and theorems provide additional relations between surface and volume integrals. These are often useful in proving orthogonality of eigenfunctions of the scalar and vector wave equations, and also for boundary-value problems using Greens functions. For two scalar functions and , which are continuous through the second derivatives in the volume V , we have (Greens first identity) ZZZ Z Z (r r + r2 ) dV = r dS
S

(A.62)

Interchanging and and subtracting gives (Greens theorem) ZZZ Z Z (r2 r2 ) dV = (r r) dS

S

(A.63)

The vector forms of Greens identity and Greens theorem are ZZZ ZZZ Z Z r A r B A r r B dV = (A r B) dS
S S

(A.64) (A.65)

Z Z B r r A A r r B dV = (A r B B r A) dS

which also require that A and B are continuous through the second derivatives.

10

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

A.5.4

Distance Vector Identities

Let R be the position vector defined by the two points r and r0 as shown below. Also ^ ^ define R = R R, where R is the distance between the points and R is the unit vector in the direction of R.

z
- r' R=r

r'

r y

Then the following relations hold, where r operates on unprimed coordinates: ^ rR = R ^ r (1=R) = R=R 2 = R=R3 r R = 3 ^ r R = 2=R ^ rR = 0 rR = 0 (from A.67 and A.68) (from A.66) (from A.66 and A.70) (A.66) (A.67) (A.68) (A.69) (A.70) (A.71) (A.72) (from A.67 and A.72) (A.73)

r2 (1=R) = 4(R) r (R=R3 ) = 4(R) In the following, a is any constant vector: r (a=R) = a r(1=R) = a n=R2 ^ r2 (a=R) = ar2 (1=R) = 4a(R) r a (^ =R2 ) = 4a(R) r (a n)=R2 n ^ i 1 h ^ ^ ^ (a r)R = a R(a R) R (a r)R = a

(A.74) (A.75) (A.76) (A.77) (A.78)

(from A.66 and A.77)

VECTOR RELATIONS

11

A.5.5

The Helmholtz theorem

The Helmholtz theorem [3] states that a vector function A(r) can be expressed as the sum of two vector functions, one which has zero divergence (the solenoidal or rotational part) and one with zero curl (the lamellar, or irrotational part); that is, A(r) = r + r' (A.79)

To show that such a decomposition is possible, take the divergence and curl of (A.79), which gives rr = r A r2 ' = r A (A.80a) (A.80b)

Since A is assumed known, these two differential equations are uncoupled and can (in principle) be solved independently for the pair of functions ('; ). This essentially proves the theorem. Note that in order to uniquely determine A, both its divergence and curl must be specified; this is an alternative statement of the Helmholtz theorem. There are an infinite number of possible functions which can be used to uniquely determine A, since the gradient of an arbitrary scalar function, r, can always be added to without changing (A.80); that is, if is a solution of (A.80), so is + r. We can pick any function that is convenient; if is chosen such that r = 0, then r r = r(r ) r2 = r2 r2 ' = r A
2

and (A.80) become (A.81a) (A.81b) r = r A

From electrostatics, we know these have the solution (for unbounded regions) ZZZ ZZZ r0 A(r0 ) r0 A(r 0) '(r) = dV 0 (r) = dV 0 0 4jr r j 4jr r0 j and so (A.79) can be written as ZZZ ZZZ r0 A(r0 ) r0 A(r0 ) A(r) = r dV 0 + r dV 0 0 4jr r j 4jr r0 j

(A.82)

If the field is to be represented in a bounded region, then the solutions to (A.81) must be modified accordingly, and it can be shown that the representation is, more generally, ZZZ Z Z r 0 A(r0 ) A(r0 ) dS 0 0 A(r) = r 0 dV 0 V 4jr r j S 4jr r j ZZZ Z Z r0 A(r 0 ) A(r 0 ) dS 0 + r dV 0 + (A.83) 0 0 V 4jr r j S 4jr r j

where S is the surface enclosing the volume V . This is the formal statement of the Helmholtz theorem.

12

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

A.5.6

Useful Vector Relations in Two-Dimensions

Situations arise where one dimension (usually taken as z ) can be factored out of the ^ analysis. Let the subscript t represent vector components that are transverse to z , so that: ^ r = rt + ^ z @ @z A = At + z Az ^

Transverse and longitudinal components of other common operations can then be similarly decomposed AB = Az (^ B t ) Bz (^ At ) z z | {z }
tr ansverse tr ansverse

longitudinal

rA

We use the earlier vector relations in three dimensions to prove the following identities: rt rt = r 2 t rt (^ rt ) = 0 z rt rt = 0 z (^ rt ) = rt ^ z rt (^ rt ) = z r2 z ^ t z (^ At ) = At ^ z (^ At) (^ B t ) = At Bt z z At (^ B t ) = z (At Bt ) z ^ rt (^ At ) = z (rt At) z ^ (^ At ) (^ B t ) = At B t z z rt (^ At ) = z (rt B t ) z ^ At (^ B t ) = z (At B t ) z ^ (A.86) (A.87) (A.88) (A.89) (A.90) (A.91) (A.92) (A.93) (A.94) (A.95) (A.96) (A.97)

@ ^ (r tAz ) + z (^ At) z | {z @z }

At B t | {z }

(A.84)

longitudinal

rt At | {z }

(A.85)

In the following, S is an open surface bounded by a contour C described by line element d`. The direction of d` is tangent to C, while the normal to C is described by n. ^ ZZ I (2D Divergence theorem) (rt A) dS = A n d` ^ (A.98)
S C

VECTOR RELATIONS

13

Greens identity (A.60) and Greens theorem (A.61) generalize to two dimensions as follows: (2D Greens identity) ZZ ZZ (rt rt + r2 ) dS = t (r2 t r2 ) dS t = I @ d` @n (A.99)

(2D Greens theorem)

I
C

@ @ d` (A.100) @n @n

A.5.7

Solid Angle

An element of surface area for a sphere of radius a, centered at the origin of a spherical coordinate system, is given by dA = a2 sin d d. It is sometimes convenient to view this element of surface area as subtending a solid angle, d-, so that the angular integration in and is replaced by an integration over the range of solid angles subtended by the surface. That is, we write dA = a2 d-, and integrating over the surface of the sphere gives Z Z ZZ
dA = a2 d- = 4a2

which is interpreted as meaning that the entire closed surface of the sphere subtends a total solid angle of 4. The solid-angle is a unitless concept, but it is conventionally given the dimensionless units of steradians.
z

dA dS a r d r n

S x

This concept can be extended to any arbitrary surface S by forming the projection of each surface element dS onto a sphere. In the figure above, dA is the projection of the surface element dS along the radial direction onto a sphere of radius a, centered at the origin. In doing so, both dA and dS subtend the same solid angle d-, which from the

14

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

discussion above is defined as d- = dA=a2 . The projection dA is found by taking the dot product of dS = ndS with the radial unit vector, and scaling the result by a factor of ^ a2 =r2 , where r is the distance to the surface element, dA = ^ dS r and therefore d- = r ^ dS r2 and Z Z
d- =

a2 r2 Z Z

r dS ^ = 4 r2

(A.101)

H It is important to note that the result d- = 4 is critically dependent on having chosen the surface enclose the origin of the coordinate system. Clearly if the origin were outside of the surface S, then the surface no longer subtends a total solid angle of 4. Mathematically this can be seen as follows. From (A.67) note that d- = r(1=r) dS From the divergence theorem, ZZ ZZZ ZZZ 2 d- = r (1=r) dV = 4 (r) dV where the last equality follows from (A.72). The last integral is zero unless the volume bounded by S contains the point r = 0. Shifting the coordinate system by r 0 , this result takes the more general form ZZ ^ R dS 4 = 2 0 R S r0 inside S r0 outside S (A.102)

where R = r r 0 . This is essentially Gauss law.

A.6 DIRAC DELTA FUNCTIONS

Dirac delta functions are a convenient mathematical shorthand that are used to help us out of difficult situations. In the context of Maxwells equations, such difficulties can arise from our description of charge and current distributions as density functions, and J , respectively. For example, consider the charge density of a single electronhow do we represent such a thing? From a macroscopic point of view, the actual size of the electron is neglible, and acounting for it would unnecessarily complicate the mathematics. For an electron located at r = 0 with charge q, a mathematical description of the charge density must have the properties ZZZ (r) = 0 for r 6= 0 and (r) dV = q

DIRAC DELTA FUNCTIONS

15

where the integral is taken over the region contining the charge. A delta function in one dimension, written as (x), is defined to have similar properties, ie. Z b n 1 a x0 b (x x0 ) = 0 for x 6= x 0 and (x x0 ) dx = (A.103) 0 otherwise a The most important property of the delta function follows from the above definition and involves its appearance in an integrand with another ordinary function, f (x). As long as f is continuous at the location of the delta function singularity, then the only contribution to the integral will come from this point, and we get (in one dimension) Z b n f (x)(x x 0 )dx = f (x0 ) a x 0 b (A.104) 0 otherwise a where the range of integration is taken over all values of x. This is called the sifting property of the delta function. The extension to three dimensions is straightforward, at least in rectangular coordinates. We define (r r0 ) by the properties ZZZ n 0 0 0 (r r ) = 0 for r 6= r and (r r0 ) dV = 1 if r in V (A.105) 0 otherwise V which in turn lead to the sifting property ZZZ n f(r0 ) if r0 in V f (r)(r r0 ) dV = 0 otherwise V

(A.106)

In rectangular coordinates, dV = dx dy dz, and therefore (r r0 ) can be represented as a product of three one dimensional delta functions rectangular: (r r0 ) = (x x 0 )(y y 0)(z z 0 ) (A.107)

Returning to our original example, we find that the charge density function associated with a point charge at r0 can now be represented concisely as (r) = q(r r0 ) As another example, consider a current I0 flowing along a thin wire colinear with the z-axis. Using the delta function, we can represent the corresponding current density as J (x; y; z) = I0 (x)(y)^ z Although the current density so defined is singular at x = y = 0, the integral over the cross section of the wire will remain finite and provide the correct answer ZZ ZZ I = J dS = I0 (x)(y) dx dy = I0 These examples also illustrate that the delta function must have units. If x represents a physical length dimension, then (x) has the units of inverse length. Examining the

16

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

expressions for the charge and current density above, we see that the correct units of C=m3 and A=m2 are obtained, respectively, with this association of units. From the sifting property of the three dimensional delta function, we see that it has the units of inverse volume, [1=dV ]. In three dimensions, the differential element of volume takes different forms in different coordinate systems, and so the delta function must be represented somewhat differently in each case. To transform from the representation in rectangular coordinates (A.107) to some other set of coordinates (u; v; w), we use the change of variable theorem of the previous section and note that the volume element in the new coordinate system is given by jJ jdu dv dw, where jJj is the Jacobian of the transformation. Therefore a representation for the delta function is (r r0 ) = 1 (u u0 )(v v 0)(w w 0 ) jJ j 1 ( 0)( 0 )(z z0 ) (r r0 )( 0 )( 0 ) r0 2 sin 0 (A.108)

Using this we find, for cylindrical coordinates cylindrical: and for spherical coordinates spherical: (r r0 ) = (A.110) (r r0 ) = (A.109)

There are situations where this approach breaks down, however, corresponding to the singularities of the Jacobian. This occurs when the delta function peak is located such that one of the variables (u; v; w) is irrelevant in the transformation. For example, in cylindrical coordinates if the delta function is located on the z-axis, the azimuthal angle does not appear in the transformation, and the representation is instead [4] (r r0 ) = 1 ()(z z0 ) 2 (A.111)

One can always check the validity of a delta function representation using the integral properties defined above. Similarly in spherical coordinates, points on the z-axis (corresponding to 0 = 0 or 0 = ) are represented by (r r0 ) = 1 (r r 0)( 0) 2r2 sin (r) 4r 2 (A.112)

For points at the origin, both and are irrelevant, and (r r0 ) = (A.113)

Having shown how the three-dimensional delta function can be represented by products of one-dimensional delta functions, we now list some additional properties of the latter that are useful in electromagnetic analysis: 1 (ax b) = (x b=a) (A.114) jaj

DYADIC ANALYSIS

17

(x 2 a2 ) = Z Z

1 [(x a) + (x + a)] 2a

(A.115) (A.116) (A.117)

(x a)(x b) dx = (a b) f (x)0 (x a) dx = f 0 (a)

where in the last relation the prime denotes a derivative with respect to the argument. Another useful transformation is given by (f (x)) = X (x xi ) jdf (x i)=dxj
i

(A.118)

where xi are the zeroes of f (x), ie. f (x i) = 0, and the summation is over all the possible zeroes. A more exhaustive collection of delta function properties relevant to electromagnetic theory is found in [4].

A.7 DYADIC ANALYSIS

In elementary vector analysis we frequently encounter scalar relationships between two vectors, such as in Ohms law, J = E , where is a scalar quantity. In matrix form, 2 3 2 3 Jx Ex 4 J y 5 = 4 Ey 5 Jz Ez This is a very simple relationship which takes the vector quantity E and scales each component by the number to give a new vector, J, which consequently retains the original direction of E. A more general linear transformation would allow each component of E to influence each component of J , so that the transformation changes the direction as well as the magnitude (ie. involves a rotation in addition to a scaling). We could write this in matrix form as 2 3 2 32 3 Jx xx xy xz Ex 4 Jy 5 = 4 yx yy yz 5 4 E y 5 Jz zx z y zz Ez The matrix [] is referred to as a second-rank tensor. Each component of the tensor describes the influence of one field quantity on another; for example, xz describes the x ^ -component of current flow due to the z -component of the electric field. Such tensor ^ relationships arise in many physical contexts, such as current flow in an anisotropic crystal, or wave propagation in a plasma. Naturally the mathematics becomes more complicated, which is why tensor relationships are rarely covered in elementary electromagnetics courses!

18

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

The tensor relationship can be written in a different way using vector notation as J =E where is defined as = xx x x + xy ^ y + xz x ^ + ^^ x^ ^z yx y x + yy y y + yz y z + ^^ ^^ ^^ z x ^x + zy ^y + z z zz z^ z^ ^^ The only new feature is the appearance of products of unit vectors. This definition gives the correct result using the normal rules for the vector dot product, provided we strictly obey the order of the unit vectors and the dot product. For example, x y E = ^ E y , but ^^ x interchanging the order of the unit vectors clearly gives a different result, y x E = y Ex . ^^ ^ Similarly, we can see that interchanging the order of the dot product in (A.119) also markedly affects the result, ie. E 6= E . This is not surprising given the obvious similarity between this new quantity and an ordinary matrix. Since the components of are characterized by pairs of unit vectors, it is called a dyad, or a dyadic quantity (the word dyad means pair). Clearly there is a close relationship between dyads and second-rank tensors. A dyad or dyadic operator is expressable as the algebraic product of two vectors or vector operators, much like a matrix can be formed from the product of two vectors, P =X Y (A.120) (A.119)

To the extent that the vector fields represent (or can be related to) physically meaningful quantities, a dyad only has meaning when it acts upon another vector. However, we can often ascribe an independent physical significance to dyads such as , in this case the conductivity dyadic. As noted above, dyad-vector multiplications do not obey the familiar vector commutation rules (A.36)-(A.37), but obey instead the matrix-like commutative laws P A = A PT T P A = APT where the superscript T suggests a matrix-like transpose operation. For example, T = xxx x + yx y x + z xz x + ^^ ^^ ^^ xy x ^ + yy ^y + z y z y + ^y y^ ^^ xz xz + yz y z + z z z ^ ^^ ^^ ^z Consequently, one must resist the temptation to use dyads in place of vectors in the vector identities of section A.5, which are derived assuming the simpler vector commutation laws (A.36)-(A.37) where ordering of the vectors is not as significant.

DYADIC ANALYSIS

19

It is frequently useful to employ a unit dyad, I, defined such that AI =IA =A In rectangular coordinates, I = xx + yy + z z ^ ^ ^^ ^^ (A.122) (A.121)

This is analogous to the identity matrix in linear algebra. In electromagnetic theory, dyadic notation is frequently used for brevity. Once the reader becomes familiar with the notation, we find it can be employed in many situations formerly handled by vector manipulations. A simple example given in the text is the function rr A. Ordinarily this expression is understood to mean r(r A), but it can also be represented as (rr) A, where rr is a dyadic operator. Similarly, the function J (^ J)^ which appears in the radiation integrals can be represented by (I ^r) J r r r^

A.7.1

Dyadic Dot and Cross Product Identities

A P = PT A T AP = P T A A P B = A P B = A P B (A.123) (A.124) (A.125) (A.126) (A.127) (A.128) (A.129) (A.130) (A.131) (A.132) (A.133) (A.134) (A.135) (A.136)

A P B = B PT A A B P = A B P = B A P P AB = P B A = P A B A B P = B AP AB P AP B = A P B = AP B A P B = A P B = A P B AP B = A P B = AP B T P Q = QT P T A P Q = A P Q = A P Q P Q A = P Q A = P Q A P A Q = P A Q

20

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

A P Q = A P Q = A P Q P Q A = P Q A = P Q A

(A.137) (A.138)

A.7.2

Differential Operations Involving Dyads

r A = (r) A + rA r P = (r) P + r P r P = (r) P + r P r A B = r A B + A rB r AB B A = r B A r A B = r A B A rB r A B = rA B rB A r A P = r A P A r P r rA = 0 r rP = 0 r r P = r r P r2 P I = IT A I = I A = A IA=AI A I B = A I B = A B I A B = BA AB A I P = A P r I = r r I A = rA r I = r I (A.139) (A.140) (A.141) (A.142) (A.143) (A.144) (A.145) (A.146) (A.147) (A.148) (A.149)

A.7.3

Properties of the Unit Dyad

(A.150) (A.151) (A.152) (A.153) (A.154) (A.155) (A.156) (A.157) (A.158)

DYADIC ANALYSIS

21

(A.159)

A.7.4

Integral relations

We can generalize the earlier vector integral theorems in a straightforward manner to accomodate dyadic functions. In the following, V is a volume bounded by a closed surface S, with the direction of dS taken as pointing outward from the enclosed volume, by convention: ZZZ Z Z r P dV = dS P (A.160) ZZZ ZZZ
V V V

rA dV = dS A Z Z
S

Z Z

(A.161) (A.162)

r P dV = dS P
S

In the following, S is an open surface bounded by a contour C described by line element d`. The direction of d` is tangent to C , while the normal to C is described by n. The ^ direction of dS is normal to the surface following the right-hand rule with the fingers curled in the direction of C: ZZ I dS r P = d` P
S

(A.163) (A.164)

ZZ

(dS rA) =

d` A

The vector-dyadic form of Greens identity (A.64) and Greens theorem (A.65) are (see [5] for a derivation) ZZZ h Z Z i r A r P A r r P dV = n (A r P ) dS ^ ZZZ h
V S

(A.165)

i r r A P A r r P dV

Z Z h i = ^ A r P + r A P dS n

(A.166)

where dS = ^ dS. The dyadic-dyadic forms of the above are: n ZZZ T T r Q r P r r Q P dV

V S

Z Z T = r Q n P dS ^

(A.167)

22

VECTOR AND DYADIC ANALYSIS

ZZZ

T Q T r r P r r Q P dV

Z Z T = r Q n P + QT n r P ^ ^ dS

(A.168)

REFERENCES
1. H.M. Schey, Div, Grad, Curl, and all that: an informal text on vector calculus, W.W. Norton & Company: New York, 1973. An excellent introductory text written especially for electrical engineers. 2. J.E. Marsden and A.J. Tromba, Vector Calculus, 2nd ed., W.H. Freeman & Company: New York, 1981. 3. R.E. Collin, Field Theory of Guided Waves, IEEE Press: Piscataway, NJ, 1991. 4. J. Van Bladel, Singular Electromagnetic Fields and Sources, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1991. 5. C.-T. Tai, Dyadic Green Functions in Electromagnetic Theory, IEEE Press: Piscataway, NJ, 1994.