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HOMENEWSABOUTWORLDWIDECULTUREICJEDUCATIONSITEINFO Home>ICJHome>IssuesOn-line>ICJVol6,No1June1998>QuestioningtheAryanInvasionTheoryandRevisingAncientIndianHistory

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QuestioningtheAryanInvasionTheoryandRevisingAncientIndianHistory1 KlausKlostermaier NB.Thefootnotesforthisarticlearelinkedtoaseparatefootnotepage. Introduction Tacitus,theclassicalRomanwriter,claimedtohavedescribedpasteventsandpersonalitiesinhisworkssine iraetstudio,freefromhostilityandbias.Thismottohasguidedserioushistoriansthroughtheages,andit becametheirhighestambitiontowritehistory'objectively',distancingthemselvesfromopinionsheldby interestedparties. Theidealwasnotalwaysfollowed,asweknow.Wehaveseentwentiethcenturygovernmentscommissioning re-writingsofthehistoriesoftheircountriesfromthestandpointoftheirownideologies.Likethecourtchroniclersofformertimes,somecontemporaryacademichistorianswroteunashamedlybiasedaccountsof eventsandredesignedthepastaccordingly. When,inthewakeofWorldWarIIthenationsofAsiaandAfricagainedindependence,theirintellectuals becameawareofthefactthattheirhistorieshadbeenwrittenbyrepresentativesofthecolonialpowerswhich theyhadopposed.Moreoftenthannottheydiscoveredthatalltraditionalaccountsoftheirownpasthadbeen brushedasidebythe'official'historiansassomuchmythandfairytale.Oftenlackingtheirownacademically trainedhistorians-orworse,onlypossessingnativehistorianswhohadtakenovertheviewsofthecolonial masters-thediscontentwithexistinghistoriesoftheircountriesexpresseditselfofteninvernacularworksthat lackedtheacademiccredentialsnecessarytomakeanimpactonprofessionalhistorians. Thesituationisslowlychanging.Anewgenerationofscholarswhogrewupinpost-colonialtimesandwhodo notsharetheformerbiases,scholarsincommandofthetoolsofthetrade-intimacywiththelanguages involved,familiaritywiththecultureoftheircountries,respectfortheindigenoustraditions-arerewritingthe historiesoftheircountries. NowhereisthismoreevidentthaninIndia.Indiahadatraditionoflearningandscholarshipmucholderand vasterthantheEuropeancountriesthat,fromthesixteenthcenturyonwards,becameitspoliticalmasters. IndianscholarsarerewritingthehistoryofIndiatoday. TheAryanInvasionTheoryandtheOldChronology Oneofthemajorpointsofrevisionconcernsthesocalled'Aryaninvasiontheory',oftenreferredtoas'colonialmissionary',implyingthatitwasthebrainchildofconquerorsofforeigncolonieswhocouldnotbutimaginethat allhigherculturehadtocomefromoutside'backward'India,andwholikewiseassumedthatareligioncould onlyspreadthroughapoliticallysupportedmissionaryeffort. Whilenotbuyingintothemoresinisterversionofthisrevision,whichaccusestheinventorsoftheAryan invasiontheoryofmaliceandcynicism,thereisnodoubtthatearlyEuropeanattemptstoexplainthepresence ofIndiansinIndiahadmuchtowiththecommonlyheldBiblicalbeliefthathumankindoriginatedfromonepairof humans-AdamandEvetobeprecise(theircommonbirthdatewasbelievedtobec.4005BCE)-andthatall peoplesonearthdescendedfromoneofthesonsofNoah,theonlyhumantosurvivetheGreatFlood(datedat 2500BCE).TheonlyproblemseemedtobetoconnectpeoplesnotmentionedinChapter10ofGenesis['The PeoplingoftheEarth']withoneoftheBiblicalgenealogicallists. OnesuchexampleofaChristianhistorianattemptingtoexplainthepresenceofIndiansinIndiaisthefamous AbbDubois(1770-1848),whoselongsojourninIndia(1792-1823)enabledhimtocollectalargeamountof interestingmaterialsconcerningthecustomsandtraditionsoftheHindus.His(French)manuscriptwasbought bytheBritishEastIndiaCompanyandappearedinanEnglishtranslationunderthetitleHinduManners, CustomsandCeremoniesin1897withaPrefatoryNotebytheRightHon.F.MaxMller.2AbbDubois,loath'to oppose[his]conjecturesto[theIndians']absurdfables'categoricallystated: ItispracticallyadmittedthatIndiawasinhabitedverysoonaftertheDeluge,whichmadeadesertof thewholeworld.ThefactthatitwassoclosetotheplainsofSennaar,whereNoah'sdescendants remainedstationarysolong,aswellasitsgoodclimateandthefertilityofthecountry,soonledtoits settlement. Rejectingotherscholars'opinionswhichlinkedtheIndianstoEgyptianorArabicorigins,heventuredto suggestthem'tobedescendentsnotofShem,asmanyargue,butofJaphet'.Heexplains:'Accordingtomy theorytheyreachedIndiafromthenorth,andIshouldplacethefirstabodeoftheirancestorsinthe neighbourhoodoftheCaucasus.'3Thereasonsheprovidestosubstantiatehistheoryareutterly unconvincing-buthegoesontobuildtherestofhismigrationtheory(notyetan'Aryan'migrationtheory)on thisshakyfoundation. MaxMller(1823-1903),whowaslargelyresponsibleforthe'Aryaninvasiontheory'andthe'oldchronology', wastoocloseinspiritandtimetothiskindofthinking,nottohaveadopteditfairlyunquestioningly.Inhis PrefatoryNotehepraisestheworkofAbbDuboisasa'trustworthyauthority...whichwillalwaysretainits value.'

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ThatagreatdealofearlyBritishIndologywasmotivatedbyChristianmissionaryconsiderations,isnosecret. ThefamousandimportantBodenChairforSanskritattheUniversityofOxfordwasfoundedbyColonelBoden in1811withtheexplicitobject'topromotethetranslationoftheScripturesintoSanskrit,soastoenablehis countrymentoproceedintheconversionofthenativesofIndiatotheChristianReligion'.4MaxMller,ina lettertohiswifewrotein1886:'ThetranslationoftheVedawillhereaftertelltoagreatextentonthefateofIndia andonthegrowthofmillionsofsoulsinthatcountry.Itistherootoftheirreligion,andtoshowthemwhatthe rootis,Ifeelsure,istheonlywayofuprootingallthathassprungfromitduringthelast3000years.'5 WhentheaffinitybetweenmanyEuropeanlanguagesandSanskritbecameacommonlyacceptednotion, scholarsalmostautomaticallyconcludedthattheSanskritspeakingancestorsofthepresentdayIndianswere tobefoundsomewherehalfwaybetweenIndiaandtheWesternbordersofEurope-NorthernGermany, Scandinavia,SouthernRussia,thePamir-fromwhichtheyinvadedthePunjab.(Itisalsoworthnotingthatthe earlyarmchairscholarswhoconceivedthesegrandiosemigrationtheories,hadnoactualknowledgeofthe terraintheir'Aryaninvaders'weresupposedtohavetransversed,thepassestheyweresupposedtohave crossed,orthevariousclimatestheywerebelievedtohavebeenlivingin).AssumingthattheVedicIndians weresemi-nomadicwarriorsandcattle-breeders,itfittedthepicture,whenMohenjoDaroandHarappawere discovered,toalsoassumethatthesewerethecitiestheAryaninvadersdestroyedundertheleadershipof theirgodIndra,the'city-destroyer',andthatthedark-skinnedindigenouspeopleweretheonesonwhomthey imposedtheirreligionandtheircastesystem. Westernscholarsdecidedtoapplytheirownmethodologiesand,intheabsenceofreliableevidence, postulatedatimeframeforIndianhistoryonthebasisofconjectures.Consideringthetraditionaldatesforthe lifeofGautama,theBuddha,asfairlywellestablishedinthesixthcenturyBCE,supposedlypre-Buddhist Indianrecordswereplacedinasequencethatseemedplausibletophilologists.Acceptingonlinguistic groundsthetraditionalclaimsthattheRigvedawastheoldestIndianliterarydocument,MaxMllerallowinga time-spanoftwohundredyearseachfortheformationofeveryclassofVedicliterature,andassumingthatthe VedicperiodhadcometoanendbythetimeoftheBuddha,establishedthefollowingsequencethatwaswidely accepted: Rigvedac.1200BCE Yajurveda,Samaveda,Atharvaveda,c.1000BCE Brahmanas,c.800BCE Aranyakas,Upanishads,c.600BCE MaxMllerhimselfconcededthepurelyconjecturalnatureoftheVedicchronology,andinthelastwork publishedshortlybeforehisdeath,TheSixSystemsofIndianPhilosophy,admitted:'Whatevermaybethedate oftheVedichymns,whether1500or15000BCE,theyhavetheirownuniqueplaceandstandbythemselvesin theliteratureoftheworld'(p.35).Therewere,eveninMaxMller'stime,WesternandIndianscholars,suchas MorizWinternitzandBalGangadharTilak,whodisagreedwithhischronologyandpostulatedamuchhigher agefortheRigveda. IndianscholarspointedoutallalongthattherewasnoreferenceintheVedaofamigrationfromoutsideIndia, thatallthegeographicalfeaturesmentionedintheRigvedaarethoseofnorth-westernIndiaandthattherewas noarchaeologicalevidencewhatsoeverfortheAryaninvasiontheory.Ontheothersidetherewerereferences toconstellationsinVedicworkswhosetimeframecouldbecalculated.Thedatesarrivedat,however,4500 BCEforoneobservationintheRigveda,3200BCEforadateintheShatapathaBrahmana,seemedfartoo remotetobeacceptable,especiallyifoneassumed-asmanynineteenthcenturyscholarsdid,thattheworld wasonlyabout6000yearsoldandthatthefloodhadtakenplaceonly4500yearsago. DebunkingtheAryanInvasionTheory:TheNewChronology ContemporaryIndianscholars,admittedlymotivatednotonlybyacademicinterests,vehementlyrejectwhat theycallthe'colonial-missionaryAryaninvasiontheory'.Theyaccuseitsoriginatorsofsuperimposing-fora reason-thepurposeandprocessofthecolonialconquestofIndiabytheWesternpowersinmoderntimesonto thebeginningsofIndiancivilisation:astheEuropeanscametoIndiaasbearersofasupposedlysuperior civilisationandahigherreligion,sotheoriginalAryanswereassumedtohaveinvadedacountryonwhichthey imposedtheircultureandtheirreligion. Arecentmajorworkoffers'seventeenarguments:whytheAryaninvasionneverhappened'.6Itmaybe worthwhilesummarisingandanalysingthembriefly: 1. TheAryaninvasionmodelislargelybasedonlinguisticconjectureswhichareunjustified(and wrong).Languagesdevelopmuchmoreslowlythanassumedbynineteenthcenturyscholars. AccordingtoRenfrewspeakersofIndo-EuropeanlanguagesmayhavelivedinAnatoliaasearlyas 7000BCE 2. Thesupposedlarge-scalemigrationsofAryanpeopleinthesecondmillenniumBCEfirstinto WesternAsiaandthenintonorthernIndia(by1500BCE)cannotbemaintainedinviewofthefactthat theHittiteswereinAnatoliaalreadyby2200BCEandtheKassitesandMitannihadkingsand dynastiesby1600BCE 3. Thereisnomemoryofaninvasionoroflarge-scalemigrationintherecordsofAncientIndia-neither intheVedas,BuddhistorJainwritings,norinTamilliterature.Thefaunaandflora,thegeographyand theclimatedescribedintheRigvedaarethatofNorthernIndia.

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4. ThereisastrikingculturalcontinuitybetweenthearchaeologicalartefactsoftheIndus-Saraswati civilisationandsubsequentIndiansocietyandculture:acontinuityofreligiousideas,arts,crafts, architecture,systemofweightsandmeasures. 5. ThearchaeologicalfindsofMehrgarh(copper,cattle,barley)revealaculturesimilartothatofthe VedicIndians.Contrarytoformerinterpretations,theRigvedashowsnotanomadicbutanurban culture(purusaasderivedfrompurvasa=town-dweller). 6. TheAryaninvasiontheorywasbasedontheassumptionthatanomadicpeopleinpossessionof horsesandchariotsdefeatedanurbancivilisationthatdidnotknowhorses,andthathorsesare depictedonlyfromthemiddleofthesecondmillenniumonwards.Meanwhilearchaeologicalevidence forhorseshasbeenfoundinHarappanandpre-Harappansites;drawingsofhorseshavebeenfound inpaleolithiccavesinIndia;drawingsofridersonhorsesdatedc.4300BCEhavebeenfoundin Ukraina.Horsedrawnwarchariotsarenottypicalfornomadicbreedersbutforurbancivilisations. 7. TheracialdiversityfoundinskeletonsinthecitiesoftheInduscivilisationisthesameasinIndia today;thereisnoevidenceofthecomingofanewrace. 8. TheRigvedadescribesariversysteminNorthIndiathatispre-1900BCEinthecaseoftheSaraswati river,andpre-2600BCEinthecaseoftheDrishadvatiriver.Vedicliteratureshowsapopulationshift fromtheSaraswati(Rigveda)totheGanges(BrahmanasandPuranas),alsoevidencedby archaeologicalfinds. 9. TheastronomicalreferencesintheRigvedaarebasedonaPleiades-Krittika(Taurean)calendarofc. 2500BCEwhenVedicastronomyandmathematicswerewell-developedsciences(again,nota featureofanomadicpeople). 10. TheInduscitieswerenotdestroyedbyinvadersbutdesertedbytheirinhabitantsbecauseof desertificationofthearea.Strabo(GeographyXV.1.19)reportsthatAristobuloshadseenthousands ofvillagesandtownsdesertedbecausetheIndushadchangeditscourse. 11. ThebattlesdescribedintheRigvedawerenotfoughtbetweeninvadersandnativesbutbetween peoplebelongingtothesameculture. 12. ExcavationsinDwarakahaveleadtothediscoveryofasitelargerthanMohenjodaro,datedc.1500 BCEwitharchitecturalstructures,useofiron,ascripthalfwaybetweenHarappanandBrahmi.Dwarka hasbeenassociatedwithKrishnaandtheendoftheVedicperiod. 13. Acontinuityinthemorphologyofscripts:Harappan,Brahmi,Devanagari. 14. Vedicayas,formerlytranslatedas'iron,'probablymeantcopperorbronze.IronwasfoundinIndia before1500BCEinKashmirandDwaraka. 15. ThePuranicdynasticlistswithover120kingsinoneVedicdynastyalone,fitwellintothe'new chronology'.TheydatebacktothethirdmillenniumBCEGreekaccountstellofIndianroyallistsgoing backtotheseventhmillenniumBCE. 16. TheRigvedaitselfshowsanadvancedandsophisticatedculture,theproductofalongdevelopment,'a civilisationthatcouldnothavebeendeliveredtoIndiaonhorseback'(p.160). 17. PaintedGrayWarecultureinthewesternGangeticplains,datedca1100BCEhasbeenfound connectedto(earlier)BlackandRedWareetc. Letusconsidersomeoftheseargumentsinsomedetail.Asoftenremarked,thereisnohintintheVedaofa migrationofthepeoplethatconsideredititsownsacredtradition.ItwouldbestrangeindeediftheVedic Indianshadlostallrecollectionofsuchamomentouseventinsupposedlyrelativelyrecenttimes-muchmore recent,forinstance,thanthemigrationofAbrahamandhispeoplewhichiswellattestedandfrequentlyreferred tointheBible.Inaddition,ashasbeenestablishedrecentlythroughsatellitephotographyandgeological investigations,theSaraswati,themightiestriverknowntotheRigvedicIndians,alongwhosebanksthey establishednumerousmajorsettlements,haddriedoutcompletelyby1900BCE-fourcenturiesbeforethe AryansweresupposedtohaveinvadedIndia.OnecanhardlyarguefortheestablishmentofAryanvillages alongadryriverbed. Whenthefirstremnantsoftheruinsoftheso-calledInduscivilisationcametolightintheearlypartofour century,theproponentsoftheAryaninvasiontheorybelievedtheyhadfoundthemissingarchaeological evidence:herewerethe'mightyforts'andthe'greatcities'whichthewar-likeIndraoftheRigvedawassaidto haveconqueredanddestroyed.Thenitemergedthatnobodyhaddestroyedthesecitiesandnoevidenceof warsofconquestcametolight:floodsanddroughtshadmadeitimpossibletosustainlargepopulationsinthe areaandthepeopleofMohenjoDaro,Harappaandotherplaceshadmigratedtomorehospitableareas. OngoingarchaeologicalresearchhasnotonlyextendedtheareaoftheIndus-civilisationbuthasalsoshowna transitionofitslaterphasestotheGangeticculture.Archeo-geographershaveestablishedthatadrought lastingtwotothreehundredyearsdevastatedawidebeltoflandfromAnatoliathroughMesopotamiato NorthernIndiaaround2300BCEto2000BCE. BasedonthistypeofevidenceandextrapolatingfromtheVedictexts,anewstoryoftheoriginsofHinduismis emergingthatreflectstheself-consciousnessofHindusandwhichattemptstoreplacethe'colonial-missionary Aryaninvasiontheory'byavisionof'IndiaastheCradleofCivilisation.'ThisnewtheoryconsiderstheInduscivilisationasalateVedicphenomenonandpushesthe(inner-Indian)beginningsoftheVedicagebackby severalthousandsofyears.OneofthereasonsforconsideringtheInduscivilisation'Vedic'istheevidenceof town-planningandarchitecturaldesignthatrequiredafairlyadvancedalgebraicgeometry-ofthetype preservedintheVedicShulvasutras.ThewidelyrespectedhistorianofmathematicsA.Seidenbergcameto theconclusion,afterstudyingthegeometryusedinbuildingtheEgyptianpyramidsandtheMesopotamian citadels,thatitreflectedaderivativegeometry-ageometryderivedfromtheVedicShulva-sutras.Ifthatisso,

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thentheknowledge('Veda')onwhichtheconstructionofHarappaandMohenjoDaroisbased,cannotbelater thanthatcivilisationitself.7 WhiletheRigvedahasalwaysbeenheldtobetheoldestliterarydocumentofIndiaandwasconsideredtohave preservedtheoldestformofSanskrit,Indianshavenottakenittobethesourcefortheirearlyhistory.The Itihasa-Puranaservedthatpurpose.ThelanguageoftheseworksismorerecentthanthatoftheVedasandthe timeoftheirfinalredactionismuchlaterthanthefixationoftheVediccanon.However,theycontaindetailed informationaboutancienteventsandpersonalitiesthatformpartofIndianhistory.TheAncients,like Herodotus,thefatherofGreekhisto-riography,didnotseparatestoryfromhistory.Nordidtheyquestiontheir sourcesbuttendedtojuxtaposevariouspiecesofevidencewithoutcriticallysiftingit.Thuswecannotread Itihasa-PuranaastheequivalentofamoderntextbookofIndianhistorybutratherasastorybookcontaining informationwithinterpretation,factsandfiction.Indians,however,alwaystookgenealogiesquiteseriouslyand wecanpresumethatthePuraniclistsofdynasties,likethelistsofparamparasintheUpanishadsrelatethe namesofrealrulersinthecorrectsequence.OntheseassumptionswecantentativelyreconstructIndian historytoatimearound4500BCE. AkeyelementintherevisionofAncientIndianHistorywastherecentdiscoveryofMehrgarh,asettlementin theHindukusharea,thatwascontinuouslyinhabitedforseveralthousandyearsfromc.7000BCEonwards. ThisdiscoveryhasextendedIndianhistoryforseveralthousandsofyearsbeforethefairlywelldateableIndus civilisation.8 NewChronologies Pullingtogetheravailablearchaeologicalevidenceasitisavailabletoday,theAmericananthropologistJames G.SchafferdevelopedthefollowingchronologyofearlyIndiancivilisation: 1. Earlyfood-producingera(c.6500-5000BCE):nopottery. 2. Regionalisationera(5000-2600BCE):distinctregionalstylesofpotteryandotherartefacts. 3. Integrationera(2600-1900BCE):culturalhomogeneityandemergenceofurbancentreslikeMohenjo daroandHarappa. 4. Localisationera(1900-1300BCE)blendingofpatternsfromtheintegrationerawithregionalceramic styles. TheIndianarchaeologistS.P.Guptaproposedthisculturalsequencing: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Pre-ceramicNeolithic(8000-600BCE) CeramicNeolithic(6000-5000BCE) Chalcolithic(5000-3000BCE) EarlyBronzeAge(3000-1900BCE) LateBronzeAge(1900-1200BCE) EarlyIronAge(1200-800BCE) LateIroncultures

Accordingtothesespecialists,thereisnobreakintheculturaldevelopmentfrom8000BCEonwards,no indicationofamajorchange,asaninvasionfromoutsidewouldcertainlybe. Amoredetailed'NewChronology'ofAncientIndia,locatingnamesofkingsandtribesmentionedintheVedas andPuranas,accordingtoRajarama9lookssomewhatlikethis: 4500BCE:Mandhatri'svictoryovertheDrohyus,alludedtointhePuranas. 4000BCERigveda(exceptingbooks1and10) 3700BCEBattleofTenKings(referredtointheRigveda)BeginningofPuranicdynasticlists: Agastya,themessengerofVedicreligionintheDravidacountry.Vasistha,hisyoungerbrother, authorofVedicworks.RamaandRamayana. 3600BCEYajur-,Sama-,Atharvaveda:CompletionofVedicCanon. 3100BCEAgeofKrishnaandVyasa.MahabharataWar.EarlyMahabharata. 3000BCEShatapathabrahmana,Shulvasutras,Yajnavalkyasutra,Panini,authoroftheAshtadhyayi, Yaska,authoroftheNirukta. 2900BCERiseofthecivilisationsofAncientEgypt,MesopotamiaandtheIndus-Sarasvatidoab. 2200BCEbeginningoflarge-scaledrought:declineofHarappa. 2000BCEEndofVedicage. 1900BCESaraswaticompletelydriedout:endofHarappa. TextsliketheRigveda,theShatapathabrahmanaandotherscontainreferencestoeclipsesaswellasto siderealmarkersofthebeginningofseasons,whichallowusbybackwardcalculation,todeterminethetimeof theircomposition.Expertsassureusthattofalsifythesedateswouldhavebeenimpossiblebeforethe computerage. Oldversesnew?Orscientistsversesphilologists? Weareleft,atpresent,withtwowidelydifferingversionsofAncientIndianHistory,withtworadicallydivergent setsofchronologyandwithagreatdealofpolemicfrombothsides.ThosewhodefendtheAryaninvasion theoryandthechronologyassociatedwithitaccusetheproponentsofthe'NewChronology'ofindulgingin Hinduchauvinism.Thelattersuspecttheformerofentertaining'colonial-missionary'prejudicesanddenying

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originalitytotheindigenousIndians.Thenewelementthathasenteredthedebateisscientificinvestigations. Whiletheoldertheoryrestedonexclusivelyphilologicalarguments,thenewtheoryincludesastronomical, geological,mathematicalandarchaeologicalevidence.Onthewhole,thelatterseemstorestonbetter foundations.Notonlywerethephilologicalargumentsfromtheverybeginningbasedmoreonstrongassertions andboldguesses,civilisationsbothancientandcontemporarycomprisemorethanliteraturealone.Inaddition, purelyphilologicallytrainedscholars-namelygrammarians-arenotabletomakesenseoftechnicallanguage andofscientificinformationcontainedeveninthetextstheystudy. Considertoday'sscientificliterature.ItaboundswithGreekandLatintechnicalterms,itcontainsanabundance offormulaecomposedofGreekandHebrewletters.Ifscholarswithabackgroundintheclassicallanguages weretoreadsuchworks,theymightbeabletocomeupwithsomeacceptabletranslationsoftechnicalterms intomodernEnglishbuttheywouldhardlybeabletoreallymakesenseofmostofwhattheyreadandthey certainlywouldnotextracttheinformationwhichtheauthorsoftheseworkswishedtoconveytopeopletrained intheirspecialities.ThesituationisnottoodifferentwithregardtoancientIndiantexts.Theadmissionofsome ofthebestscholars(likeGeldner,whoinhistranslationoftheRigveda,consideredthebestsofar,declares manypassages'darkerthanthedarkestoracle'orGonda,whoconsideredtheRigvedabasically untranslatable)ofbeingunabletomakesenseofagreatmanytexts-andtherefusalofmosttogobeyonda grammaticalandetymologicalanalysisofthese-indicatesadeeperproblem.TheAncientswerenotonlypoets andlitterateurs,buttheyalsohadtheirsciencesandtheirtechnicalskills,theirsecretsandtheirconventions thatarenotself-evidenttosomeonenotsharingtheirworld.Someprogresshasbeenmadeindeciphering medicalandastronomicalliteratureofalaterage,inreadingarchitecturalandarts-relatedmaterials.However, muchofthetechnicalmeaningoftheoldestVedicliteraturestilleludesus. TheRigveda-acode? ThecomputerscientistandIndologistSubhashKakbelieveshehasrediscoveredthe'VedicCode'which allowshimtoextractfromthestructure,aswellasthewordsandsentencesoftheRigveda,andthe considerableastronomicalinformationwhichitsauthorssupposedlyembeddedinit.10Theassumptionofsuch encodedscientificknowledgewouldmakeitunderstandablewhytherewassuchinsistenceonthepreservation ofeveryletterofthetextinpreciselythesequencetheoriginalauthorhadsetdown.Onecantakecertain libertieswithastory,orevenapoem,changingwords,transposinglines,addingexplanatorymatter, shorteningit,ifnecessary,andstillcommunicatetheintentionsandideasoftheauthor.However,onehasto rememberandreproduceascientificformulainpreciselythesamewayithasbeensetdownbythescientistor itwouldnotmakesenseatall.Whilethescientificcommunitycanarbitrarilyadoptcertainletterequivalentsfor physicalunitsorprocesses,onceithasagreedontheiruse,onemustobeytheconventionsforthesakeof meaningfulcommunication. Evenanon-specialistreaderofancientIndianliteraturewillnoticetheefforttolinkmacrocosmand microcosm,astronomicalandphysiologicalprocesses,tofindcorrespondencesbetweenthevariousrealmsof beingsandtoordertheuniversebyestablishingbroadclassifications.Vedicsacrifices-thecentralactofVedic culture-weretobeofferedonpreciselybuiltgeometricallyconstructedaltarsandtobeperformedat astronomicallyexactlyestablishedtimes.Itsoundsplausibletoexpectacorrelationbetweenthenumbersof bricksprescribedforaparticularaltarandthedistancesbetweenstarsobservedwhosemovementdetermined thetimeoftheofferingstobemade.SubhashKakhasadvancedagreatdealoffascinatingdetailinthat connectioninhisessaysonthe'AstronomyoftheVedicAltar'.HebelievesthatwhiletheVedicIndians possessedextensiveastronomicalknowledge,whichtheyencodedinthetextoftheRigveda,thecodewaslost inlatertimesandtheVedictraditionwasinterrupted.11 India,thecradleof(world-)civilisation? BasedontheearlydatingoftheRigveda(c.4000BCE)andonthestrengthoftheargumentthatVedic astronomyandgeometrypredatesthatoftheotherknownAncientcivilisations,somescholars,likeN.S. Rajaram,GeorgeFeuerstein,SubhashKakandDavidFrawley,havemadethedaringsuggestionthatIndiawas the'cradleofcivilisation'.TheylinktherecentlydiscoveredearlyEuropeancivilisation(whichpredates AncientSumeriaandAncientEgyptbyoveramillennium)towavesofpopulationsmovingoutordrivenout fromnorth-westIndia.Latermigrations,causedeitherbyclimaticchangesorbymilitaryevents,wouldhave broughttheHittitestoWesternAsia,theIranianstoAfghanistanandIranandmanyotherstootherpartsof Eurasia.SuchascenariowouldrequireacompleterewritingofAncientWorldHistory-especiallyifweaddthe claims,apparentlysubstantiatedbysomematerialevidence,thatVedicIndianshadestablishedtradelinkswith CentralAmericaandEasternAfricabefore2500BCE.Itisnowonderthatthe'NewChronology'arousesnot onlyscholarlycontroversybutemotionalexcitementaswell.Muchmorehardevidencewillberequiredtofully establishit,andmanyclaimsmayhavetobewithdrawn.Butthereisnodoubtthatthe'oldchronology'hasbeen discreditedandthatmuchsurpriseisinstoreforthestudentsnotonlyofAncientIndia,butalsooftheAncient Worldasawhole. Sortingoutthequestions: The'RevisionofAncientIndianHistory'respondstoseveralseparate,butinterlockingquestionsthatareoften confused. 1. The(emotionally)mostimportantquestionisthatoftheoriginalhomeofVediccivilisation,identified withthequestion:wherewasthe(Rig-)Vedacomposed?India'sindigenousanswertothatquestion hadalwaysbeen'India',moreprecisely'thePunjab'.TheEuropean,'colonialmissionary'assumption, was'outsideIndia'.

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2. Thenextquestion,notoftenexplicitlyasked,is:wheredidthepre-Vedicpeople,the'Aryans'come from?Thisisaproblemforarcheo-anthropologistsratherthanforhistorians.Theracialhistoryof Indiashowsinfluencesfrommanyquarters. 3. Arelated,butseparatequestionconcernsthe'cradleofcivilisation',towhichseveralancientcultures havelaidclaim:Sumeria,Egypt,India(possiblyalsoChinacouldbementioned,whichconsidered itselfforalongtimetheonlytrulycivilisedcountry).Dependingonwhatanswerwereceive,themajor expansionofpopulation/civilisationwouldbefromwesttoeast,orfromeasttowest.Thefamouslux exorientehasoftenbeenappliedtothespreadofcultureintheancientworld.Indiawasasfarasthe 'Orient'wouldgo. 4. Itisratherstrangethatthedefendersofthe'Aryaninvasiontheory',whohaveneitherarchaeological norliterarydocumentstoprovetheirassumption,demanddetailedproofforthenon-invasionand refusetoadmittheevidenceavailable.Similarly,theyfeelentitledtodeclare'mythical'whateverthe sources(Rigveda,Puranas)saythatdoesnotagreewiththeirpreconceivednotionsofVedicIndia. Someconclusions: IfIweretojudgethestrengthoftheargumentsforrevisingAncientIndianHistoryinthedirectionof'Indiaas CradleofCivilisation'IwouldrateSeidenberg'sfindingsconcerningtheShulvasutrageometry(appliedinthe Induscivilisation;BabylonianandEgyptiangeometryderivativetoit)highest.NextwouldbethearcheoastronomicaldeterminationofastronomicaldatainVedicandpost-Vedictexts.Thirdisthesatellite photographybaseddatingofthedryingoutoftheSaraswatiandthearcheo-geographicalfindingofacenturies longdroughtinthebeltreachingfromAnatoliathroughMesopotamiaandNorthernIndia.Geologicalresearch hasuncoveredmajortectonicchangesinthePunjabandthefoothillsoftheHimalayas.Atonepointasection roseaboutsixtymetreswithinthepast2000years. 'Vasishta'sHead',abronzeheadfoundnearDelhi,wasdatedthroughradio-carbontestingtoaround3700BCEthetimewhen,accordingtoHicksandAnderson,theBattleoftheTenKingstookplace(Vasishta,mentionedin theRigveda,wastheadvisortoKingSudas).Afurtherfactorspeakingforthe'Vedic'characteroftheIndus civilisationistheoccurrenceof(Vedic)altarsinmanysites.Fairlyimportantisalsotheabsenceofamemory ofamigrationfromoutsideIndiainallofancientIndianliterature:theVeda,theBrahmanas,theEpicsandthe Puranas.GrantingthattheVedicSamhitaswereritualmanualsratherthanhistoricrecords,furtherprogressin revisingAncientIndianHistorycouldbeexpectedfromastudyofItihasa-Purana,ratherthanfromananalysis oftheRigveda(bywayofparallel,whatkindofreconstructionofAncientIsrael'sHistorycouldbedoneonthe basisofastudyofthePsalms,leavingoutGenesisandKings?OrwhatreconstructionofEuropeanHistory couldbebasedonastudyoftheearliestRitualeRomanum?) Anafterword: HinduismtodayisnotjustadevelopmentofVedicreligionandculturebutasynthesisofmanydiverse elements.ThereisnodoubtaVedicbasis.Itisevidentinthecaste-structureofHindusociety,intherituals whichalmosteveryHindustillundergoes(especiallyinitiation,marriageandlastrites),intraditionalnotionsof ritualpurityandpollution,andintherespectwhichtheVedastillcommands.ThereisalargeareaofHindu worshipandreligiouspracticeforwhichtheVedaprovideslittleornobasis:temple-building,imageworship, pilgrimages,vowsandprayerstogodsandgoddessesnotmentionedintheVeda,beliefsliketransmigration, world-picturescontainingnumerousheavensandhellsandmuchmorewhichappeartohavebeentakenover fromnon-Vedicindigenouscultures.Therehavebeenhistoricdevelopmentsthatledtothedevelopmentsof numerousschoolsofthought,sectsandcommunitiesdifferingfromeachotherinscriptures,interpretations, customs,beliefs. ApartfromitsVedicoriginsHinduismwasneveroneineitheradministration,doctrineorpractice.Itdoesnot possessacommonlyacceptedauthority,doesnothaveasinglecentreanddoesnothaveacommonhistory. Unlikethehistoriesofotherreligions,whichrelyononefounderandonescripture,thehistoryofHinduismisa bundleofparallelhistoriesoftraditionsthatwerelooselydefinedfromtheverybeginning,thatwentthrougha numberoffissionsandfusions,andthatdonotfeelanyneedtoseektheiridentityinconformingtoaspecific historicrealisation.Whileincrediblyconservativeinsomeofitsexpressions,Hinduismisveryopentochange anddevelopmentundertheinfluenceofcharismaticpersonalities.Fromearlytimesgreatlatitudewasgivento Hindustointerprettheirtraditionalscripturesinagreatmanydifferentways.TheeasewithwhichHindushave alwaysidentifiedpersonsthatimpressedthemwithmanifestationsofGodhasledtomanyparalleltraditions withinHinduism,makingitimpossibletochronicleadevelopmentofHinduismalongoneline.Thepresentation ofahistoryofHinduismwillbearecordofseveralmainstreamHindutraditionsthatdevelopedalongindividual lines;onlyveryrarelydotheselinesmeetinconflictormergetogeneratenewbranchesofthestillvigorously growingbanyantreetowhichHinduismhasbeenoftencompared. BacktoVol.6,No.1Contents BacktoTop

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