Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 64: 233251, 2000. 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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Experimental Data for CFD Validation of the Intake Ingestion Process in STOVL Aircraft
P. BEHROUZI and J.J. McGUIRK
Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, U.K. Received 17 September 1999; accepted in revised form 24 May 2000 Abstract. Intake ingestion can cause many major problems (e.g. compressor surge) for a Short TakeOff and Vertical Landing (STOVL) aircraft in ground effect. As part of a program of experimental work on ingestion problems, a generic jet discharge/intake model was designed, constructed and tested in a water tunnel specially designed for STOVL ow applications. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) surveys were conducted to identify the mean velocity and turbulence structure of twin-jet and twin-jet plus intake congurations. The LDV measurements conrmed that the ow pattern produced with the impingement height and velocity ratio parameters selected from this study were typical of practically occurring re-ingestion ow elds. Sufcient proles of velocities and turbulence quantities have been measured for this data set to serve as benchmark validation data for time-averaged turbulence-model-based RANS CFD predictions. Key words: CFD validation, STOVL, LDV, hot gas ingestion.

List of Symbols
dj h r R U V Vj W Wc x y z zv = = = = = = = = = = = = = jet exit diameter height of jet exit above ground radius from jet center velocity ratio (Vj /Wc ) transverse velocity component vertical velocity component jet exit velocity longitudinal velocity component cross-ow (headwind) velocity transverse co-ordinate vertical co-ordinate longitudinal co-ordinate upstream distance from jet center line to ground vortex separation point

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Figure 1. Major aerodynamic features of intake ingestion for STOVL aircraft in near ground operation.

1. Introduction An STOVL aircraft in its near-ground hovering phase of ight creates a complex three-dimensional oweld conned between the airframe surface and the ground plane. This oweld contains several identiable sub-components or basic uid ow types, e.g. multiple jet impingement, fountain up-wash ows. The interaction of these ows inuences the ow around the aircraft, as well as introducing serious design and operational problems such as hot-gas ingestion, jet-suck-down and jetinduced forces which change aircraft pitching moment distributions. The ingestion of exhaust gases, as shown schematically in Figure 1, leads to a time-dependent rise in intake temperature (partly due to oweld unsteadiness and partly due to aircraft descent) and spatial non-uniformities in pressure and velocity in the intake ow. This degradation of intake ow quality can cause serious problems for engine performance, including thrust reduction and compressor surge and stall. The ingestion phenomenon is complex and depends on many design and operational parameters such as jet/intake geometrical conguration, headwind (or cross-ow) velocity and jet-impingement height. In general, three ingestion mechanisms have been identied: far-eld, fountain ow and ground vortex ow. The latter two are usually of more interest since measures can be taken (e.g. adding strakes or dams to the aircraft under-frame) to alleviate these problems; they are the ingestion mechanisms given prime attention in this study. During the past 25 years, the oweld characteristics associated with intake ingestion have been studied extensively using both small- and large-scale model testing. Most of these ingestion studies have been made on specic congurations. There have been very few general research investigations, where conguration variables have been systematically varied. The information available from the literature indicates that the critical levels of hot-gas ingestion are certainly highly conguration dependent. Considerable effort has gone into analysis and prediction of the overall oweld in the past (for example, [110]). Ground-effect studies, which are summarised by Kuhn and Eshlemant [1], have given appreciable insight into the mechanism of exhaust-gas ingestion, particularly under low headwind conditions. Kuhn [8] provides a basis for estimating the speed required to avoid ingestion. The effect of intake height on the ingestion behavior of several related congurations was investigated in the study reported by Mclemore and Smith [11]. This study

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was conducted in a wind tunnel and used a J-85 engine mounted in the fuselage of the model with ducting to provide a variety of inlet and exit arrangements. Hall and Rogers [4] investigated the effect of inlet ow on the inlet-temperature rise for two isolated lift-engine simulators. Mclemore [12] has presented a sequence of photographs showing the development of the gas cloud in a 5 to 8 knot headwind which clearly illustrate the three ingestion mechanisms mentioned above. For design of a new generation of STOVL aircraft (e.g., in the Joint Strike Fighter program), it is essential to minimise the losses caused by ground effects. Therefore, those factors which substantially affect exhaust-gas ingestion and jetinduced lift losses must be identied, and a comprehensive database must be established. Performing this type of research at full scale is difcult and expensive. A wind or water tunnel capability is therefore both desirable and often used. Exhaustgas testing at model scale has been attempted previously in a wind tunnel by Strock et al. [13]. As reported by Jones et al. [14], NASA has established a large database for supersonic and subsonic jets exhausting into a subsonic ow eld. Bray [16] has recently reviewed the experimental studies of single and multiple jet impingement. The water-tunnel study of Saripalli [17] for impinging jet ows provided the rst fundamental and detailed uid mechanics data of fountain ow phenomena. The measurements were restricted to twin-jets of wider spacing than normally used in practice (jet center lines 9 and 14 jet diameters apart), and the existence of a crossow was neglected. Barata [18] has included cross-ow, but consider only the case of twin and three-poster parallel jets. Stewart and Kuhns [6] tests include a detailed examination of the ow eld generated in ground effect. Detailed measurements of the ow properties of fountain up-wash are scarce and have been presented essentially in the absence of cross-ow and with use of probe techniques. The most relevant work has been presented by Saripalli [17] who indicated surprisingly high turbulence levels and spreading rates in the fountain. Experimental techniques for capturing the details of hot-gas ingestion phenomena are available and, in some cases, methods for estimating the magnitude of the ingestion have been developed. Measurements of the turbulence eld associated with the ground-effect ows have been given special attention and have usually been carried out in low-speed air ow, e.g., Cimbala et al. [19], or more commonly in water ow experiments by Barata [18], Sarapalli [17], and Behrouzi and McGuirk [20]. The absence of compressibility effects in low speed airow or water analogy tests is not likely to be serious for ground vortex and fountain ows, since both measurements of Abbott [15] and CFD predictions of McGuirk and Page [21] indicate that the fountain and ground vortex interactions lie in essentially low subsonic Mach number zones. Although compressibility can also affect the turbulence and hence entrainment processes, again this is only signicant at much higher Mach numbers than are found in the ground vortex and fountain region. Compressibility and high temperature effects on mean density variations are restricted to the very near jet region. This approximation has been widely accepted and used in many experimental studies of this type of ow. It is therefore believed that the

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nature of the ow interactions in low-speed tests is adequately representative of those occurring in actual aircraft operations. A series of water ow visualisation tests simulating STOVL operation were conducted by Kaemming and Smith [22] on a scale model of the McDonnell Douglas Model 279-3. This study covers the hot-gas ingestion phenomena and techniques to minimise the level of exhaust gas ingestion. A Laser-illuminated dye injection ow visualisation system was used to capture the ow-eld. Experimental investigations by McLean et al. [3] were conducted on a typical aircraft model conguration using Marker Nephelometry to establish the interactions between the jets, the aircraft forward velocity, and the ground plane. Finally, a 9.2% scale STOVL hot-gas ingestion model was designed, built and tested by McDonnell Douglas Corporation [23]. Laser sheet and water vapour were employed to study the hot-gas ingestion phenomena. The laser sheet illumination system has provided details of fountain behaviour against splay angle of the forward nozzles and the height of the aircraft above the ground plane. Although the basic ow mechanisms that produce the ground effect uid mechanics of STOVL aircraft are known, details of the mechanisms are still not adequately understood. No systematic and comprehensive practical approaches have been developed which can successfully produce fundamental guidelines for the design of advanced STOVL aircraft [24]. Careful and systematic investigations to isolate the effects of important parameters on the ow eld around the aircraft intake are particularly lacking. The effects of ground proximity and quantitative/qualitative understanding of the mechanisms of exhaust-gas re-circulation and ingestion should be further documented. In the present work, as part of a program of experimental work on intake ingestion, non-intrusive techniques such as Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV), Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) have been employed to study the intake ingestion process. A generic jet-discharge/intake unit has been designed and constructed. The results of the LIF studies have already been reported in [25]; in this paper a summary of the LDV studies is presented.

2. The Experimental Facility The experiments were carried out in a specially designed and constructed water tunnel (shown in Figure 2) for impinging jet ow problems and described in some detail by Behrouzi and McGuirk [20]. The main advantage of a water ow facility over conventional wind tunnels is that it provides an easy means to perform ow visualisation. Because of the lower kinematic viscosity of water compared to that of air, it is possible to reproduce an aerodynamic ow at a given Reynolds number with a lower free stream velocity in a water tunnel than a wind tunnel. Due to the smaller velocity scales, the ow time scales become relatively longer, leading to clearer observation of dynamic phenomena. The rig is of re-circulating design. The test section dimensions are 1.125 m long, 0.37 m wide and 0.3 m high. The test section is made of Perspex (Plexiglas)

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Figure 2. Schematic of the STOVL ows experimental water tunnel.

to allow ample optical access for both LDV and ow visualisation measurements from both side and top/bottom orientations. The ow circuits consist of cross-ow and jet pumps which extract water from the main supply tank and pump it to a large settling chamber (for cross-ow) or to the overhead jet header tanks which feed two separate jet units each of 12.4 mm exit diameter (dj ). The jet units were machined from brass tubing of outer diameter 18.6 mm (1.5dj ) and inner diameter 12.4 mm (dj ); the last 10 mm at the jet nozzle end were machined at 12 cone angle to give a thin 1 mm lip thickness at the nozzle exit. The mass ow rates of the jets were monitored via rotameters whereas the cross-ow mass ow was measured via a calibrated orice plate. Turbulence management units are provided in both crossow and jet circuits, to provide controlled and well-dened conditions in all inlet ows to the test section. The turbulence management systems represent a fairly standard combination of perforated plates, honeycomb and coarse- and ne-mesh screens and have been demonstrated as successful in other tests conducted in the present tunnel and reported by Behrouzi and McGuirk [20]. Figure 3 presents the design of the jet/intake assembly, which is positioned centrally in the test section and supported by the test section top-wall. A single intake with a rounded lip (2 : 1 ellipse) is positioned between twin-jet pipes (lip thickness 3.1 mm). The jet-exit height, intake diameter, and intake height above the ground plane are chosen as 87.5 mm (7dj ), 37.5 mm (3dj ), and 118.75 mm (9.5dj ), respectively. The jet spacing and intake position forward of the jets are both xed at 75 mm (6dj ). The presence of a (rudimentary) fuselage via a at plate underneath the intake was allowed for to include possible forward deection and forward creep of the fountain ow. These dimensions and relative positions correspond approximately to a typical wheels-on scenario for a vertical landing

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Figure 3. Schematic of the jet/intake assembly and co-ordinate system used in present measurements.

aircraft. The intake-suction pipe is connected to the input ange of the jet-pumps and isolated from other circuits to assure equality of the mass-ow jet discharge and the intake.

3. Laser Doppler Velocimeter Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) is the most suitable choice for the point-wise measurement of separate components of both mean and uctuating velocity in complex, highly turbulent 3D ows. This type of measurement employs the phenomenon of Doppler shifting of the incident light frequency to measure the velocity of small particles (of order 1 micron) suspended in the uid. The attraction of this method is that by being a purely optical method, it does not interfere or perturb the ow in any way since no measuring probes have to be introduced. Numerous improvements and developments have been reported on both optics and signal processing of Laser Doppler systems since they rst appeared in 1964. Durst et al. [26] for example have discussed in great detail the principles, operation, capabilities and limitations of various LDV systems. The cheapest and commonly used system is the single-channel system operating in forward-scatter fringe mode and this is used in the present investigation. The fringe type optical system was shown to be the most suitable for water ow experiments by Wang and Snyder [27] and Vlachos [28], giving a better signal to noise ratio than other methods.

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For this study the velocity and turbulence elds were measured using a HeliumNeon laser operating at a nominal power of 10 mW. Another advantage of using water as a working uid was that a plentiful supply of naturally-occurring dust particles in the water formed the scattering centers so that no articial seeding was necessary and strong signals at high data rates (up to 30 kHz) were obtained even with the low laser power used. Sensitivity to the ow direction was provided by a DANTEC 55 29 Bragg cell with variable frequency shifting made possible by a DANTEC 55N101 frequency shifter. A 310 mm focal length transmission lens was used with a beam spacing of 60 mm. The resulting signals were processed using a TSI IFA 550 processor connected to a PC and controlled by a ZECH LDV data acquisition interface (model 1400A). The IFA 550 is designed to extract velocity information from noisy signals and incorporates a technique for measuring the frequency of coherent signals buried in background noise. The algorithm used in the IFA 550 is based on the comparative relationship between the arrival times of successive zero crossings of the input signal. The total time for 16 continuous valid zero crossing is measured and output as a valid measurement. This system has been compared with other well-established signal processors by Jenson and Menon [29] and in all tests the IFA 550 performed equal to or better than counter processors. No corrections were made for sampling bias; any associated errors were minimised by using high data rates compared to typical velocity uctuation rates, as suggested by Erdmann and Tropea [30]. The signal processor was operated in trigger mode so that data were acquired at xed time intervals; a typical sampling rate used was 2 kHz.

4. Experimental Procedure Preliminary experiments were performed using the LDV system to check the quality of the mean velocity and turbulence intensity of the jets and cross-ow where these entered the test section (and to provide inlet boundary condition data for CFD studies). Figure 4 shows mean and r.m.s. velocity proles at the jet exit as well as at the test-section entrance (cross-ow). The mean velocity was uniform over the central 85% of the jet diameter as well as a larger region of the cross-ow. The turbulence intensity in the case of the jet exit was around 2% and in the cross-ow about 1%. The test condition was dened to be close to those used for twin parallel nozzle owelds in the compressible airow study of Bray [16]. Brays tests were performed with a nozzle pressure ratio of 1.05 and cross-ow velocities of 2.6, 3.9, 5.1 m/s. The corresponding velocity ratios (R) were 35, 23.5 and 18, respectively. The Reynolds number associated with these tests was around 40,000 (dened using jet centerline velocity and diameter). It is well understood that in subsonic ow the structure of the ow eld associated with the twin-jet system depends on the velocity ratio and the Reynolds number. The equivalent jet and cross-ow velocities in water were calculated as Vj = 2.66 m/s and Wc = 0.076 m/s (R = 35);

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Figure 4. Mean and r.m.s. velocity proles at inlet ows (a) and (b) cross-ow proles at x/dj = 0; z/dj = 15 (c) and (d) jet exit proles at y/dj = 6.75; z/dj = 0.0.

0.113 m/s (R = 24); 0.15 m/s (R = 18), respectively to match both velocity ratio and Reynolds number. Velocity ratios of 18 and 35 were studied but yielded either insignicant ingestion events (R = 18) or practically continuous ingestion (R = 35), see [25]. Hence, R = 24 seemed to be suitable for detailed investigation as corresponding to a case of highly intermittent ingestion, thus providing the most difcult test case. For comparison purposes, measurements were also carried out with zero cross-ow (no headwind, a velocity ratio of innity). The accuracy and repeatability of the results depended on the sampling time, especially in the regions where the ow was highly turbulent (such as the fountain region). More accurate data may be obtained by using a higher sampling rate and collecting a large number of samples to form the mean values; but this will clearly increase the measurement time per point. The effect of all LDV system settings such as number of samples, data rate, trigger mode, frequency shift, etc., on the repeatability of the measurements was studied. To minimise statistical (random) errors, the number of individual velocity samples used in the experiments to form averages was set at the large value of 40,000 (sampling time 20 seconds) for all data points. This was not necessary in all regions of the ow, but was found essential for meaningful averages in the fountain and ground vortex zones. In water ows, where seeding density and data rates are very high, there is no need to introduce corrections for biasing and contributions from, e.g., velocity gradient broadening across the measuring volume give rise to errors of less than 1% of the mean velocity.

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Three ow conditions were chosen for data gathering, which progressively introduced ow complexity: Test case 1: no intake system present just twin impinging jets (to capture fountain and ground sheet behaviour), Test case 2: intake geometry introduced but no intake ow, Test case 3: intake geometry present and intake ow on. This allowed some assessment of the blockage effect of the intake structure and the importance of the intake suction ow in perturbing the basic fountain/ground vortex ow-eld created by the twin-jets and the cross-ow. In the co-ordinate system used below to report the measurements (shown in Figure 3), the origin of the longitudinal (i.e. in the cross-ow or headwind direction) (z) co-ordinate (positive in the cross-ow direction) is at the impinging jet entry plane; the vertical (y) co-ordinate has its origin on the tunnel oor and is measured positive upwards; nally, the transverse (x) co-ordinate has its origin at the oweld symmetry plane and is positive towards the front of the rig. LDV measurements were taken along three sets of traverse lines: (a) Transverse (x) proles: Proles at two heights (y/dj = 2.0 and y/dj = 6.75) above the impingement plane parallel to a line connecting the jet centers in the plane of jet discharge (z/dj = 0.0). Along a horizontal line immediately in front of the intake (z/dj = 7.0, y/dj = 9.5). (b) Vertical (y) proles: On the central symmetry plane (x/dj = 0.0) and along the fountain centre line (z/dj = 0.0). Along a vertical line immediately in front of the intake (z/dj = 7, x/dj = 0.0). (c) Longitudinal (z) proles: On the central symmetry plane (x/dj = 0.0) and as close to the ground plane as possible (y/dj = 0.25) to quantify the ground sheet behaviour. Along the intake centre-line (y/dj = 9.5, x/dj = 0.0) to quantify the extent of suction effects. Nearly 30% of all measurements were checked for repeatability and were found to be repeatable to an excellent tolerance with negligible differences. Finally, the tunnel was run for at least two hours before each test to establish steady conditions. Before each test the nal setting of the jet and cross-ow velocities were carried out using the LDV system to guarantee, for example, equal jet velocities, and to ensure repeatable conditions between tests.

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Figure 5. Effect of velocity ratio on penetration of the ground sheet (test case 1).

5. Results Figure 5 presents LDV measurements of the longitudinal velocity (i.e. in the crossow direction, W -component) along a longitudinal line inside the ground sheet region (y/dj = 0.25) for velocity ratios of innity, 35, 24 and 18 for test case 1, i.e. twin-jet conguration with no intake unit. All mean and r.m.s. velocity components are normalised by the jet discharge mean and r.m.s. velocities on the jet center line, respectively and all distances by the jet diameter (dj ). The jet impingement is very close to the co-ordinate origin in both jet and fountain planes, showing the vertical trajectory of the jets. The forward penetrations of the ground sheet (identied by the zero axial velocity location) are: innity, 18, 11 and 9 jet diameters (on the jet-plane) and innity, 20, 13.5 and 11 jet diameters (on the fountain-plane) for the

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Figure 6. Effect of (a) velocity ratio and (b) impingement height on forward penetration of the ground sheet ( empirical correlation of [31]).

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Figure 7. Vertical V -velocity mean and r.m.s transverse proles showing jet and fountain behaviour (y/dj = 2 and z/dj = 0.0).

various velocity ratios. Forward penetration is here characterised by the change in sign of the velocity. The penetration of the ground sheet on the fountain-plane is more than on the jet-plane for all measured velocity ratios which indicates the reenforcement process which takes place as the ground sheets from each jet merge together. Previous studies of twin-jet systems have been carried out at different impingement heights, velocity ratios and jet spacing to those used here which introduces difculties for comparing results. However, Blake and Stewart [31] have produced a correlation of past measurements and these results including the present LDV study are plotted in Figure 6 on the basis of both velocity ratios and impingement height (h). The present results show a similar trend to previous meas-

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Figure 8. Fountain decay rate; vertical V -velocity (x/dj = 0.0 and z/dj = 0.0).

urements but demonstrate slightly reduced penetration; this is probably caused by the blockage effect of the tunnel walls since most of the other results in Figure 6 were taken in free air conditions. Figure 7 shows the effect of the velocity ratio on the jet and fountain behaviour. Both mean and turbulent proles are essentially independent of the cross-ow magnitude or the presence of the intake or its suction ow. With no cross-ow (R = ) the fountain is slightly stronger. Figure 7 also shows the quality of the turbulence data obtained from the current experiment; the separate shear layers in the jet are well-resolved and the highly turbulent nature of both the jet shear layers and the fountain ow are also clear to see. Maximum turbulence intensities of around 11% are observed in the shear layers. On average the introduction of

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Figure 9. Longitudinal W -velocity in ground sheet (showing ground vortex; x/dj = 0.0 and y/dj = 0.25).

Figure 10. Longitudinal W-velocity forward and along intake center line (x/dj = 0.0 and y/dj = 9.5).

a cross-ow created around 10% more turbulence in the mixing region. At this height (2dj ) and longitudinal location, the effect of the intake unit on the jet region was negligible. The fountain decay rate is shown in Figure 8; now the presence of a cross-ow is seen to affect the upper half of the fountain leading to a higher decay rate (possibly due to bending over of the fountain). The blockage effect of the intake is only noticeable in the last 20% of the fountain penetration, with no effect at all of the intake suction. The presence of cross-ow only inuences the

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Figure 11. Longitudinal W -velocity in immediate intake vicinity (transverse proles; y/dj = 9.5 and z/dj = 7).

turbulence eld at the bottom of the fountain where higher turbulence levels are observed for zero cross-ow (more energetic ow at the fountain base). Figure 9 presents results for the longitudinal velocity measured along the ground sheet for the case of twin-jet plus intake. The measured forward penetration of the ground vortex is some 14dj forward of the jet location with cross-ow, but substantially larger (tends to innity) for zero headwind. The reinforcement phenomenon known to occur in multi-jet impingement is identied here (see, also Figure 5b). This phenomenon is also reported by Bray [16] and Miller and Wilson [32]. Figure 10 presents results for the longitudinal velocity measured along the intake centerline. The suction ow causes a deviation from the zero intake ow prole some 5dj (approx. 2 intake diameters) forward of the intake face. The inuence of the intake and its ow are further illustrated in the transverse longitudinal velocity measurements shown in Figure 11 taken just in front of the intake. It is noticeable that the suction eld of the intake extends to around approximately 3dj either side, i.e. an increase of some 100% of the intake size itself even though this measurement plane is only one jet diameter in front of the intake. The excellent symmetry of the established oweld is illustrated well in Figure 11. Measurements along a vertical line in front of the intake shown in Figures 12 and 13 indicate that the disturbance eld of the suction process penetrates down to a position around 7dj above the ground plane, hence most of the ground sheet ow is not inuenced by the intake ow. The level of turbulence anisotropy is an important feature for the turbulence models used in CFD predictions. Behrouzi and McGuirk [20] reported an anisotropy factor of 1.4 in the fountain region between the turbulence normal stresses in longitudinal and vertical directions. Figures 12b and 13b present the differences

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Figure 12. Effect of velocity ratio and conguration on mean and r.m.s. of longitudinal W -velocity proles in front of the intake (x/dj = 0.0 and z/dj = 7).

between these two turbulence levels in the vicinity of the intake. These proles indicate that although only a small number of proles has been measured, the ow eld obtained is very representative of the interaction between a ground vortex and an intake, and there is sufcient data (mean velocities and turbulence intensities) to be eminently suitable for validating RANS-based CFD predictions of ow elds with typical geometry and ow parameters. This data is of high (benchmark) quality and represents successful achievement of the objective of the project.

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Figure 13. Effect of velocity ratio and conguration on mean and r.m.s. of vertical V -velocity proles in front of the intake (x/dj = 0.0 and z/dj = 7).

6. Conclusions A generic jet discharge/intake model was designed and constructed and tested in a specially designed water tunnel for STOVL ow applications. Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) was employed to measure mean velocity and turbulence levels of the ow eld. Tests were performed for three congurations, twin-jet, twin-jetintake (no intake in-ow) and twin-jet-intake (with intake ow). LDV surveys of these selected test cases were carried out and conrmed that the ow behaviour for the impingement height, velocity ratio parameters selected were typical of known re-ingestion ow elds. Sufcient proles of velocities and turbulence quantities

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were measured to serve as benchmark validation data for time-averaged turbulencemodel-based RANS CFD predictions.

Acknowledgements The research reported here has been supported by British Aerospace (Military Aircraft Division). The authors would like to thank British Aerospace for their nancial support and Mr. S. Rickman (B.Ae., (MAD) (Farnborough)) in particular for his close interest in monitoring the development of the work.

References
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