3370892

ORIGINAL ARCHIVAL COPY
DIGITAL PWM CONTROL OF BRUSH-LESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR DRIVES
BY ANAND SATHYAN
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Electrical Engineering in the Graduate College of the Illinois Institute of Technology
Approved Advisor
Chicago, Illinois December 2008
UMI Number: 3370892
Copyright 2009 by Sathyan, Anand
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Copyright by ANAND SATHYAN 2008
11
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards my advisor, Prof. Ali Emadi, for his constant help, stimulating suggestions, encouragement and efforts in making this dissertation a great success. The confidence and dynamism with which Prof. Emadi guided my research requires no elaboration. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank the respected members of the committee, Prof. Mohammad Shahidehpour, Prof. Alexander J. Flueck, Prof. Alireza Khaligh, Prof. Zuyi Li, and Prof. Sheldon Mostovoy for their valuable suggestions. I would like to extend my special thanks to Prof. Mahesh Krishnamurthy for his expert guidance during the key phases of my research. My heartfelt gratitude goes out towards my loving parents Sri. Sathyan, Smt. Indra, younger brother Chi. KrishnaPrasad and my uncle and aunt Sri. Kuppannan and Smt. Padma whose love, support and continuous motivation helped me during this testing academic voyage. My grandmother late Gowribai set an example for me to lead life during difficult times. My acknowledgements would not be complete without a special mention of the wholehearted help and encouragement of my cousins Smt. Rajashree, Sri. Prabhakar, Sri. Krishnamoorthy, Smt. Nalini, Sri. Prasanna and Smt. Kuntal. I appreciate the support of my collegues at the Electric Power and Power Electronics Centre, without whose support and wide ranging expertise, it would never have been possible for me to complete this dissertation productively. I would also like to take this opportunity to thank all the generous project sponsors for providing the Grainger Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory with constant financial support during the complete time frame of my graduate studies.
iii
Above all, I would like to thank God Almighty for having given me the courage, patience, and the intellectual power to overcome all difficulties that I have faced during my graduate studies. Sri Krishnarpanamastu.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOLS ABSTRACT CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Benefits of "brushless" technology Where "brushless" technology falls short Overview of chapters iii vii viii xii xiv
1 1 6 7 9
2. BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Introduction Stator Rotor Hall Sensors Commutation sequence Dynamics of a BLDC motor Conclusion
10 10 10 13 15 19 22 26
3. BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) DRIVE STRATEGIES 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Overall system description Brushless DC drive strategies Sensored BLDC motor control Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) PWM signal generation Hysteresis current control PWM control of BLDC drives Direct Torque Control of BLDC drives
27 27 28 30 31 32 34 38 40 43
3.10 Sensor less BLDC motor control 3.11 Digital Hysteresis control 3.12 Conclusion
45 47 48
4. NOVEL DIGITAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE FOR BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR DRIVE 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction Novel digital controller design Speed ripple calculation Steady state analysis Simulation results Hardware details Advantages of digital controller Conclusion
49 49 51 55 57 58 65 75 75
5. DIGITAL PWM CONTROL - COMPREHENSIVE STABILITY ANALYSIS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The describing function method 5.3 Describing function of saturation nonlinearity 5.4 Dynamics of the novel digital PWM controller 5.5 Transfer function Gffl (co) en5.6 Root locus plot for the transfer function G0) (w) en5.7 Transfer function G; (i) en5.8 Root locus plot for the transfer function G; (i) en5.9 Transfer function Gjmax (co) err 5.10 Root locus plot for the transfer function Gjmax (co) err 5.11 Conclusion 6. CONCLUSION 6.1 Summary 6.2 Conclusion and future work
76 76 77 80 83 85 86 87 88 89 91 97 98 98 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY
99
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 CW sensor and drive bits by phase order 2.2 CCW sensor and drive bits by phase order 4.1 BLDC motor specification from poly-scientific (BN42-EU-02)
Page 18 18 68
vn
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Typical full load efficiencies for sub fractional motors 1.2 Typical speed-torque relationship for AC Induction motors 1.3 Typical speed-torque curves for a BLDC motor 2.1 BLDC motor 2.2 Cross sectional view of the stator of a BLDC motor 2.3 Trapezoidal back EMF waveforms in the three phases of a BLDC motor 2.4 Sinusoidal back EMF waveforms in the three phases of a BLDC motor 2.5 Cross sections of different rotor arrangements for a BLDC motor 2.6 Sensor versus drive timing 2.7 Three phase bridge 2.8 Hall sensor signal, back EMF, output torque and phase current 2.9 Winding energizing sequence with respect to the hall sensor 2.10 Three phase BLDC machine equivalent circuit and mechanical load 2.11 Model of a BLDC motor 2.12 Root locus plot for a BLDC motor 3.1 Typical inverter drive system for a BLDC motor 3.2 Back EMF and phase current variation with rotor electrical angle 3.3 Gate waveforms for PAM 3.4 Basic switch-mode DC-DC converter 3.5 Output voltage of the switch-mode DC-DC converter 3.6 PWM signal generation . ...
Page 2 4 8 11 11 12 13 14 16 17 20 21 22 25 26 28 29 31 32 33 35
viii
3.7 PWM signals at various duty ratios 3.8 Switch gate waveforms for 120 degree PWM switching 3.9 Switch gate waveforms for 60 degree PWM switching 3.10 Switch gate waveforms for IR hard switching 3.11 Hysteresis current control 3.12 Schematic of conventional PWM current control 3.13 Schematic of PWM current control with current shaping 3.14 Schematic of DTC BLDC drive 3.15 Digital hysteresis control for a BLDC motor drive system 4.1 Proposed novel digital PWM controller 4.2 Block diagram for digital PWM control for a BLDC motor drive system 4.3 Flowchart describing the novel digital controller 4.4 Speed response .
36 37 38 39 40 41 42 44 48 52 52 53 56
4.5 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under no load condition 59 4.6 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under 30% rated load 60 4.7 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under no load condition 61 4.8 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under 30% rated load 62 4.9 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under no load condition 63 4.10 Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under 30% rated load 64 4.11 Final experimental set-up 65
ix
4.12 Block diagram showing operations and functions implemented in FPGA device 67 4.13 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under no load condition 69 4.14 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under 30% rated load 70 4.15 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under no load condition 71 4.16 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under 30% rated load 72 4.17 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under no load condition 73 4.18 Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under 30% rated load 74 5.1 Nonlinear system to which the describing function method is applicable .. 5.2 Nonlinear system 5.3 Nonlinear system with nonlinearity replaced by describing function 5.4 Input-output characteristics of saturation nonlinearity 5.5 Sinusoidal response of saturation nonlinearity 5.6 Block diagram of the overall system 5.7 Control logic 5.8 Describing function to find Gffl (ra) en5.9 Root locus plot for the function Gffl (co) err 5.10 Describing function to find G; (i) err 5.11 Root locus plot for Gj (i) err for D = 1 and co = 3000 RPM 5.12 Describing function to find Gimax (co) err 78 78 80 81 82 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
5.13 Speed response for change in load torque and for a reference speed of 1800 RPM 93 5.14 Experimental results for a change in load torque from 20% to 80% of rated load for a reference speed of 2000 RPM 94 5.15 Experimental results for a change in reference speed from 2200 RPM to 1300 RPM under no load condition 95 5.16 Experimental results for a change in input voltage from rated voltage to 30% of rated voltage under no load condition 96
XI
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol b D DL DH emf
E
Definition viscous friction constant duty cycle low duty high duty electromotive force motor terminal back emf magnetic flux switching frequency instantaneous current average current Phase A current Phase B current Phase C current rotor moment of inertia back-emf constant integral constant proportional constant torque constant motor terminal inductance power motor terminal resistance torque developed torque load torque mechanical time constant
<f>
fs i I
la
h
Ic
K K
K
K
L P R T Td TL
T
Symbol
f
Definition switch off-time switch on-time switching period angular position angular velocity rotor reference speed steady state angular velocity dc voltage source damping ratio
off on
Ts 9, co ^ref ^ss *dc Q
xm
ABSTRACT
Electrical motors are an integral part of industrial plants with no less than 5 billion motors built world wide every year. Development of advanced motor drives has yielded increase in efficiency and reliability. Residential and commercial applications such as refrigerators and air conditioning systems use conventional motor drive technologies. The machines found in these appliances are single phase induction motors or brushed DC machines which are characterized by low efficiency and high maintenance, respectively. On the contrary a brush-less DC (BLDC) motor drive is characterized by higher efficiency, lower maintenance and higher cost. In a market driven by profit margins, the appliance industry is reluctant to replace the conventional motor drives with advanced motor drives (BLDC) due to their higher cost. Replacing these inefficient motors, with more efficient brush-less DC motors (BLDC) will result in substantial energy savings. Therefore it is necessary to have a low cost, but effective BLDC motor controller. This thesis lays the groundwork for the development of a novel low-cost IC for control of BLDC motors. A simple novel digital pulse width modulation (PWM) control has been implemented for a trapezoidal BLDC motor drive system. This digital controller treats the motor like a digital system. Based on the speed error and the actual value of the motor current, the controller selects a high duty, low duty or a skip state. Speed
regulation is achieved by alternating between these states. Due to the simplistic nature of this control, it has the potential to be implemented in a low cost IC. Describing function method and Fourier analysis were used to prove the stability of the motor-drive system.
xiv
Most three-phase motors, including BLDC motors need at least six PWM channels for inverter power devices such as IGBTs and MOSFETs. Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is used to generate the control signals. Designing the controller using an FPGA presents several advantages such as small drive size and less development time. Simulation results are presented, for various commanded speed and load torque. presented. Experimental verification is carried out using to validate the claims
xv
1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction The basic function of an electric motor is to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Considering the ready availability of electricity and the myriad uses for mechanical energy, it's no surprise that electric motors are widely used. According to the U.S Department of Energy fact sheet (DOE/GO-10096-314), electric motors are responsible for consuming more than half of all the electrical energy used in the United States. In the HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) realm, electric motors drive fans and compressors, which make these components largely responsible for the electrical energy that is consumed by an HVAC system. So when a new motor
technology is introduced - one that promises remarkably better efficiency - it is worth a closer look. Such is the case with brushless DC, or "electronically commutated," motors (ECMs). Proponents of brushless technology claim that the design results in quieter operation, more efficient performance, greater output power, higher operating speeds, and longer service life. This section of the thesis provides a refresher on basic motor
operation. Along the way, it explains why a brushless DC motor was targeted for control, and considers their appropriateness for HVAC applications. The most basic way to classify electric motors is by power supply and size. As for power supply, motors either use alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). AC power is readily available from the distribution grid, while DC power requires a battery
2 or, more commonly a converter that changes AC to DC. In the size category, motors are either fractional (smaller than 1 HP) or integral (1 HP or larger). When it comes to energy use, small (fractional horsepower) single-phase AC motors leave considerable room for improvement. AC motors are designed to run most efficiently at rated voltage and speed. When an application requires multiple speeds, the conventional solution is either to use a motor with multiple taps (the least expensive option) or to add an SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier). Each of these adaptations causes the motor to run less efficiently. The
performance degradation can be significant: The typical full-load efficiency of 55 to 65 percent at the rated voltage can drop to as little as 15 to 20 percent at part load and reduced voltage. When compared with more common motor technologies, such as shaded pole and permanent split capacitor, the brushless design's full load efficiency of 75 percent or better offers substantial energy savings for motors with sub fractional horsepower ratings (figure 1.1). But the real advantage of a brushless DC motor becomes evident at part load, where its performance edge doubles or triples [38].
100 Brushless DC ^ o
<D
80
1
CU O
60
40 20 0 0.0 0.1
Permanent split capacitor AC
Shaded pole AC
0.2 Motor Size, hp
0.3
0.4
0.5
Figure 1.1. Typical full load efficiencies for sub fractional motors
All electric motors rely on the attraction and repulsion of magnetic fields to operate, so what is responsible for this dramatic difference in performance? The answer requires review of a few motor fundamentals.
1.1.1
AC Induction Motors. In AC motors, the magnetic field in the stator is created
by passing alternating current through coils of wire. The rise and fall of this magnetic field causes current to flow in the bars of the squirrel cage rotor, which in turn creates another magnetic field. It is the interaction of these magnetic fields that produces torque. Induction motors are so named because the stator's fluctuating magnetic field "induces" current in the rotor. In a three phase motor, the stator coils energize and de-energize sequentially, creating a rotating magnetic field. Torque results when the induced magnetic field of the rotor "chases" the rotating stator fields; when the fields align, torque disappears. AC induction motors depend on the rotor turning slower than the rotation of the stator fields. As the speed of the rotor approaches that of the stator fields, the force (torque) on the rotor diminishes. The difference between these speeds is called slip [7]. Figure 1.2 illustrates the relationship between torque and speed. Notice that the rotor speed (and, therefore, shaft speed) decreases as load is applied to the motor. In HVAC terms, a fan connected to this motor will require higher torque to maintain airflow as the system static pressure increases (for example, a damper closes), resulting in slower shaft rotation and therefore less airflow.
1.1.2
DC Motors. As in AC motors, the driving force provided by DC motor results
from the interaction of rotating magnetic fields in the rotor and stator. But because direct current does not oscillate, the polarity fluctuations needed to keep the rotor turning must be created mechanically. There are several ways to do this, as evidenced by the types of DC motors available; shunt wound, series wound, compound wound, and permanent magnet are just a few. To understand the principles of DC motor operation let us look at how a permanent magnet works.
Synchronous Speed Rotor Speed
o.
Figure 1.2. Typical speed-torque relationship for AC induction motors
When current passes through a coil of wire placed between the north and south poles of a permanent magnet, the magnetic field generated by the coil interacts with the field from the permanent magnet and applies rotational force (torque). If the coil is allowed to rotate, the fields eventually align such that the plane of the armature coil is perpendicular to the field of the permanent magnet and torque disappears. Rotation can be maintained by reversing the direction of current flow in the coil of wire. In permanent-magnet DC motor, the permanent magnet forms the stator, the loops of wire (armature coil) are placed on the rotating shaft (rotor), and a commutator switches the current flow from one coil to the other at exactly the right moment. The commutator
provides a means for connecting a stationary power source to the rotating coils, typically via conductive rods (brushes) that ride on smooth conductive plates. The uneven torque that results from a single coil armature can be smoothed by adding additional coils and commutator segments. Unlike AC motors, in which a certain amount of slip is unavoidable, the synchronous nature of DC motors means that they operate at a fixed speed for a fixed voltage, providing a significant advantage in applications where knowing motor speed is important. Changing the voltage produces a predictable change in speed. Adding load to the motor (that is, increasing the torque on the shaft) increases the current drawn without slowing shaft rotation [7]. The Achilles heel for a DC motor is its commutator. Consistently transferring current from a stationary point to the rotating shaft requires materials that can carry current, yet withstand friction and arcing. Commutators require periodic maintenance, decrease motor life, and limit the maximum speed at which the motor can turn.
1.1.3
Best of both: Brushless DC Motors.
A brushless DC (BLDC) motor
implements the basic operating principles of DC motor operation a bit differently by placing the permanent magnet in the rotor and coils in the stator. The coil windings are electrically separate from each other, which allows them to be turned on and off in a sequence that creates a rotating magnetic field. In this case, it's the field of the rotors permanent magnet ("chasing" the rotating stator field) that makes the rotor run. One significant advantage of this arrangement is that the commutator does not carry current to the rotor - which eliminates the brushes and their wear-related
6 drawbacks. It is still necessary to know the rotor position so that excitation of the stator field always leads the permanent magnet field to produce torque [2]. In a BLDC motor, this function is provided by a commutation assembly consisting of electronic circuitry and a series of sensors (usually Hall Effect sensors). The circuitry decodes the sensor signals to determine the position of the shaft and energize the appropriate stator windings.
1.2 1.2.1
Benefits of "brushless" technology Broad operating range. Eliminating the brushes is a definite plus: It not only
extends the motor's service life and reduces maintenance, but also eliminates the speed restrictions inherent to "brushed" DC motors. BLDC motors can attain speeds of more than 60,000 rpm. More importantly, the power circuit components that are required to convert from alternating to direct current provide the basis for variable-speed drive, making BLDC motors well-suited for applications that require speed control over a wide operating range.
1.2.2
Higher efficiency. Using permanent magnets in the rotor helps to keep the rotor
small and inertias low. Without current flow (and the associated losses) in the rotor, the motor generates less heat [28]. Whatever heat is produced dissipates more efficiently from the brushless motor's wound stator to the outer metallic housing than through the "brushed" motor's shaft or rotor-stator air gap.
1.2.3
Flexible design. The DC power supply permits a motor design with any number
of phases in the stator. Although three-phase configurations are most common, two and
four phased configurations also are used. How the coils are energized is flexible too. As an example, two windings can be energized with the third off at any instant in a three phase BLDC configuration. Energizing the coils in pairs simplifies control design, which lowers first cost, and provides motor torque - about 10 percent more than energizing the windings sinusoidally.
1.3 1.3.1
Where "brushless" technology falls short? Higher cost. BLDC technology requires power transistors to drive the stator
windings at a specified motor current and voltage level. This addition, coupled with electronic commutation controls, makes brushless DC motors more expensive to purchase than their AC couterparts. While it is true that the gap is narrowing, thanks to advances in "brushless" technology and increased volume, BLDC motors still carry a first-cost penalty.
1.3.2
Disruptive Harmonics.
Although the displacement power factor for BLDC
motors is 1, the true power factor (ratio of total watts consumed to volt-amps supplied) is less than 1. The difference results from the harmonic currents that nonlinear loads (such as variable-speed devices, computers, office machines, and certain lighting systems) create when converting from AC to DC power [28]. Harmonic currents do no useful work; worse still, they burden system components - overheating conductors and connectors, and in severe cases, burning out transformers and motors. The distorted waveform of harmonic currents also can interfere with the operation of sensitive equipment.
1.3.3
Making the most of brushless DC motors. Applications that are best suited for
BLDC technology can take full advantage of its unique operating characteristics synchronous speed-torque performance and variable-speed drive capability. Another benefit of BLDC technology is the ability to accurately control connected loads. Motor speed, applied voltage, and torque share a linear relationship (figure 1.3). This attribute combined with the electronic commutator's precise speed of measurement makes it possible to control a BLDC motor such that it delivers a known torque output.
T3
Torque
Figure 1.3. Typical speed-torque curves for a BLDC motor
Widespread use and acceptance of brushless DC motors in residential products (where motors are small and efficiency advantage is most significant) has prompted greater competition in the market. With market interest comes further research and development, ultimately reducing first cost and increasing application flexibility. Given the existing availability and first cost penalty, BLDC technology will find great acceptance wherever its performance advantage over a wide speed range can be
9 combined with its excellent variable speed capabilities. This can result in an efficiency improvement of at least 30 percent over single phase AC induction motors.
1.4
Overview of Chapters Chapter 2 introduces the basics of brushless DC motors. A detailed model of the
BLDC motor starting from the basic electrical and mechanical equations is derived. Also the transfer function for the BLDC motor, along with the suitability of the BLDC motor for speed control is presented. Chapter 3 focuses on the various strategies for BLDC motor speed control. The most commonly used sensored and sensorless techniques is reviewed. The concept of PWM voltage control is explained, followed by various methods of generating a PWM signal. Hysteresis current control method is also discussed. A truly digital Hysteresis control strategy for a BLDC motor is also briefly presented. Chapter 4 introduces the novel BLDC motor drive digital controller. The digital control concept is presented in detail. The design method is generalized so as to make it applicable to any BLDC motor. The proposed digital controller is realized using PSIM. Simulation results are presented to validate the theoretical calculations. Conclusions and future work is discussed. Chapter 5 introduces the novel BLDC motor drive digital controller. The digital control concept is presented in detail. The design method is generalized so as to make it applicable to any BLDC motor. The proposed digital controller is realized using PSIM. Simulation results are presented to validate the theoretical calculations. Conclusions and future work is discussed.
10 CHAPTER 2 BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR
2.1
Introduction BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means that the magnetic
field generated by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency. BLDC motors do not experience the "slip" that is normally seen in induction motors. BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these, 3phase motors are the most popular and widely used. Figure 2.1 is a simplified illustration of BLDC motor construction. A brushless DC motor is constructed with a permanent magnet rotor and wire wound stator poles. Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by the magnetic attractive forces between the permanent magnet rotor and a rotating magnetic field induced in the stator wound poles. In this topology shown in figure 2.1, there are three electromagnetic circuits connected at a common point. A motor with this topology is driven by energizing two phases at a time.
2.2
Stator The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings
placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery (Figure 2.2). Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction motor; however, the windings are
11 distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC motors have three stator windings
connected in star fashion. Each of these windings is constructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. Each of these windings is distributed over the stator periphery to form an even number of poles. There are two types of stator winding variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This differentiation is made on the basis of the interconnection of coils in the stator windings to give the different types of back Electro Motive Force (EMF) [5].
Figure 2.1. BLDC motor
Figure 2.2. Cross sectional view of the stator of a BLDC motor
12 As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motor's back EMF is sinusoidal as shown in figure 2.3 and 2.4 [54]. In addition to the back EMF, the phase current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective types of motor. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor. However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby increasing the copper intake by the stator windings.
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Figure 2.3. Trapezoidal back EMF waveforms in the three phases of a BLDC motor
13 Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on [10]. Motors with 100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Figure 2.4. Sinusoidal back EMF waveforms in the three phases of a BLDC motor
2.3
Rotor The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs
with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles.
14 Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make the permanent magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress further for the same torque [15]. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite magnets. Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, ferrite and Boron (NdFeB) are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous research is going on to improve the flux density to compress the rotor further. Figure 2.5 shows cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.
Figure 2.5. Cross sections of different rotor arrangements for a BLDC motor
15 2.4 Hall Sensors Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the stator. By reading the Hall Effect sensors, a 3-bit code can be obtained with values ranging from 1 to 6. Each code value represents a sector on which the rotor is presently located. Each code value, therefore, gives us information on which windings need to be excited to turn the rotor. State '0' and '7' are invalid states for Hall Effect sensors. Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the nondriving end of the motor. Each sensor element outputs a digital high level for 180
electrical degrees of electrical rotation, and a low level for the other 180 degree electrical degrees. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined. The three sensors are offset from each other by 60 electrical degrees so that each sensor output is in alignment with one of the electromagnetic circuits [22]. A timing diagram showing the relationship between the sensor outputs and the required motor drive voltages is shown in figure 2.6. The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts. The numbers in top of figure 2.6 correspond to the current phases shown in figure 2.1. It is apparent from figure 2.6 that the three sensor outputs overlap in such a
16 way as to create six unique three-bit codes corresponding to each of the drive phases. The numbers shown around the periphery of the motor diagram in figure 2.1 represent the sensor position code. The north pole of the rotor points to the code that is output at that rotor position. The numbers are the sensor logic levels where the most significant bit is sensor C and the least significant bit is sensor A.
1
+Vdc A Float -Vdc
+Vdc B Float -Vdc
--- -
+Vdc C Float -Vdc

1
Sensor A
Sensor B
Sensor C
Code
011
001
101
100
110
010
011
Figure 2.6. Sensor versus drive timing
17 Each drive phase consists of one motor terminal driven high, one motor terminal driven low, and one motor terminal floating [21]. A simplified drive circuit is shown in figure 2.7. The input sensor state and the corresponding drive state, required for
commutation can be put in the form of a state table as shown in table 2.1 and 2.2.
+ Vdc
+ Vdc
+ Vdc
A High ^ Control
K*
B High ^ Control ^
CHigh^ Control
^ A
-To A
-ToB
ToC
A Low Control"
BLow Control"
CLow Control"
-Vdc
-Vdc
Vdc
Figure 2.7. Three phase bridge
18
Table 2.1. CW sensor and drive bits by phase order Phase Sensor Sensor Sensor C High C Low B High B Low A High A Low C B A Drive Drive Drive Drive Drive Drive 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
Table 2.2. CCW sensor and drive bits by phase order Phase Sensor Sensor Sensor C High C Low B High B Low A High A Low C B A Drive Drive Drive Drive Drive Drive 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
19 2.5 Commutation sequence Figure 2.8 shows an example of hall sensor signals with respect to back EMF and the phase current. Figure 2.9 shows the switching sequence that should be followed with respect to the hall sensors [30]. The sequence numbers on figure 2.8 correspond to the numbers given in figure 2.9. Every 60 electrical degrees of rotation, one of the hall sensor changes state. Given this, it takes six steps to complete an electrical cycle [44]. In synchronous, with every 60 electrical degrees, the phase current switching should be updated. However, one electrical cycle may not correspond to a complete mechanical revolution of the rotor. The number of electrical cycles to be repeated to complete a mechanical rotation is determined by the rotor pole pairs. For each rotor pole pairs, one electrical cycle is completed. So, the number of electrical cycles/rotations equals the rotor pole pairs. BLDC motors are popular because they are fast, noiseless, efficient, and exhibit a longer operating life. BLDC motors are also popular due to their compact size,
controllability, high efficiency, low EMI and high-reliability. Their compact size is a direct result of technological advances in magnets that deliver efficiency improvements. Additionally, the ratio of torque delivered in BLDC motors relative to motor size is higher than in non-BLDC motors, making BLDC motors an excellent match for space and weight sensitive applications.
20
Ea
/ / \
\ \
'a
/
/ ; Eb
cot
N
\ '
/
y
cot
Ec
\ \ ic \
cot
360
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
Figure 2.8. Hall sensor signal, back EMF, output torque and phase current
21
Figure 2.9. Winding energizing sequence with respect to the hall sensor
22
BLDC motors can be designed into systems that are sensor-based or sensorless. The implementation of sensorless BLDC motor systems eliminates the cost of Hall Effect or optical sensors and their supporting electronics [47, 49]. The sensorless operation is also desirable if the rotor is operating while immersed in fluid such as fuel, oil or water. In sensorless control, back EMF zero crossing is used for commutation.
2.6
Dynamics of a BLDC motor The dynamics of the machine are described by a set of mathematical differential
equations. To attain the electrical equations for a BLDC machine, basic circuit analysis was used to find the per-phase voltage as shown by equation 2.1. The equation is only shown for phase-a to neutral since the equations for phase b and c only differ in the subscript notation. The electrical and mechanical equations can be obtained from the equivalent circuit shown in figure 2.10.
Ra
e. , * '*
vvv
a Td
4 n
Ti
Re
b .
VA
~x
I
BLDC Machine
Mechanical!
Load
V\A
Figure 2.10. Three phase BLDC machine equivalent circuit and mechanical model
23
dia(t) an(t) = i a R a + L a - i T + e a ( t )
(2-1)
where, van(t) = per phase voltage ia(t) = phase current ea(t) = per phase voltage back-EMF Ra = per phase resistance La = per phase inductance Equation 2.2 is the mechanical equation that relates the machine's angular velocity to the developed electromagnetic torque, load torque, and motor parameters. T an (t) = (o(t)b + J^ + T L (t) where, Tem(t) = developed electromagnetic torque co(t) = rotor angular velocity b = viscous friction constant J = rotor moment of inertia TL = load torque Equations 2.1 and 2.2 are coupled through the developed electromagnetic torque (Ton) and the back-EMF (ephase) which are described by equations 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
T
(2.2)
d=
t-aia
+ k
t-bib
+ k
t-cic
(2-3)
e a =k e o(t) where, kt.x = per-phase torque sensitivity ke_x = per-phase back-EMF
(2.4)
24
The voltage equation can be written in laplace domain as shown in equation 2.5.
Xm(s) = W s > + W s > + Ke<<s)

From the above equation the phase current can be written as,
T
(2-5)
Van^-V^ R+sLa
a a
(2-6)
The electromagnetic torque in the laplace domain is as shown in equation 2.7 and
2.8.
W^W*)
Tem(s)=Jsco(s)+bco(s)+TL(s)
(2-7)
(2.8)
Using equations 2.7 and 2.8, it is possible to express the torque equation as,
V m ( S )-1^00(8)
8
"W )"^
+sL
(2.10) a
From the above equations it is possible to draw the model of the BLDC motor as shown in figure 2.11. For the block diagram illustrated in figure 2.11, the transfer function is denoted as shown in equation 2.11 [32, 42].
(s)_ = V(s)s +
(JRa
â BL a ) > R a + K t K e ) JL, a
C2-11)
JL0 a
From the transfer function the root locus plot can be drawn as shown in figure 2.12. From the root locus plot, it is possible to infer that the BLDC motor is an
inherently stable system, since there exists a range of KtKe for which the poles of this
25
R system lie on the left half plane [45]. The root locus starts from the poles
a
B and
on the real axis and diverges as the product KtKe increases, but remains on the left half plane. Therefore a BLDC motor is ideally suited for speed control [18, 24].
1 R,+sL
*(s)
<,aM
KM
V,. R+sL b Ib(s)
/TV TL(s) 7X 1era(s)

1
YxA
KM4
ra(s)
B + sJ
/tv
V Rc+sLc
Us)
*JA
KcM\
Figure 2.11. Model of a BLDC motor
26
Imaginary Axis
R, L,
B J
Real Axis
Figure 2.12. Root locus plot for a BLDC motor
2.7
Conclusion A review of Brush-Less Dc motor drives, its construction, operating principle and
equivalent circuit were presented.
27
CHAPTER 3 BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) DRIVE STRATEGIES
3.1
Overall System Description The operating characteristics of a BLDC motor are very similar to that of a
brushed DC motor. Since a permanent magnet rotor is used in a BLDC, speed control can be implemented by varying the average voltage across the stator windings. This tends to change the value of the average stator current. However for a given load torque, the average stator current has to be ideally fixed. Hence the back EMF induced in the stator windings has to change such that the stator current remains constant. For a
constant field, this amount to change in speed. Thus increasing the applied stator voltage increases the motor speed and vice-versa. Variation in the motor voltage can be achieved using several techniques which can be broadly divided in to sensored control and sensorless control. Usage of semiconductor switches is preferred due to their low loss, high frequency operation and the allowance for electronic control. This is apart from the other advantages like space and cost saving. For a three phase BLDC application, the most common topology used is a threephase buck derived converter or a three phase inverter bridge. The typical inverter drive system for a BLDC motor is shown in figure 3.1 [48]. As seen from figure 3.1, the output stage consists of a three-phase inverter composed of switches that could be MOSFETs or IGBTs. If IGBTs are used, antiparallel diodes need to be connected across them for carrying reverse currents, while MOSFETs use body diodes. MOSFETs give lower turn-off switching loss and usually
28
lower diode forward drop, but that advantage may be offset by higher on-state voltage drop and turn-on switching/diode reverse recovery loss than IGBTs [33, 3].
Jq3 . Jq~j J ^ j
VHc
JEQ
JEqJ JE
Three-phase BLDC Motor
Figure 3.1. Typical inverter drive system for a BLDC motor
3.2
Brushless DC drive strategies Typical waveforms for a three-phase BLDC motor with trapezoidal flux
distribution are shown in figure 3.2. Approximately, the back EMF induced per phase of the motor winding is constant for 120, before and after which it changes linearly with rotor angle. In order to get constant output power and consequently constant output torque, current is driven through a motor winding during the flat portion of the back EMF waveform. At a time, only two switches are turned on, one in a high side and the other in a low side. Thus for a star connected motor winding, two phases are connected in series across the DC bus, while the third winding is open. The switches in figure 1 are switched
29 such that each phase carries current only during the 120 period when the back EMF is constant. Thus there is a commutation event between phases every 60 electrical, as seen from figure 3.2. Effectively it means that there is a current transition every 60.
Appropriate commutation therefore requires knowledge of rotor position, which can be directly detected using position sensors or estimated in sensor-less manner by monitoring back EMF in the open phase. In any case, the phase current is essentially constant for the
30
60
90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Figure 3.2. Back EMF and phase current variation with rotor electrical angle
30
120 conduction period. Hence the switch carries current for 1/3 of one electrical rotation and the current is constant for a constant load. This can be used to calculate the switch conduction losses. Furthermore, PWM may be introduced during switch conduction giving rise to switching losses [39]. strategies employed. Switching fashion depends upon the types of Controlling the speed
Various strategies are described below.
amounts to changing the applied voltage across the motor phases. This can be done using sensored methods or sensor-less methods [50, 34, 37].
3.3
Sensored BLDC motor control Brushless-dc machine operation requires rotor position information to allow for
appropriate solid state switch firing. For sensored control, three leading technologies are commonly used to fulfill the position information requirement. These technologies are hall-effect sensors, resolvers, and optical encoders. The most commonly used sensor
type is a Hall Effect sensor. They are low cost and provide position resolution to within thirty electrical degrees, which is sufficient to operate a BLDC machine. If precise speed regulation is required, a higher resolution position sensor is needed. Both optical
encoders and resolvers offer much higher position resolution. The difference in the two sensors is most evident in their robustness under harsh environments. In general, optical encoders are fragile in comparison to an encoder. Resolvers can easily survive in
automotive propulsion applications where high temperature and extreme vibration is common. The position sensor type will always depend on the particular application. Using the rotor position information obtained from the sensors, the speed of the BLDC motor can be controlled in any of the following schemes.
31 3.4 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) In this case, the applied voltage across the motor windings is changed by varying the magnitude of the bus voltage. For that usually a boost converter is added after the diode bridge rectifier. Apart from the DC bus voltage control, power factor correction can also be achieved. Since there is no high frequency switching involved, the strategy is quite simple and efficient. The waveforms for this strategy are shown in figure 3.3.
A H gh
A L
':!,'.
B H gh
j :
h L. >'.<
C H gh
1
0
30 SO 30
C L >w
120
150 180 210 240 270 30C 330 360
Figure 3.3. Gate waveforms for PAM
As can be seen, each switch is on continuously for 120 degree electrical. The on times of the two switches in the same leg are displaced from each other by 120 degree. Also on times of high side and low side switches are sequentially displaced from other high side and low side switches respectively by 120 degrees.
32
3.5
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) serves to control the average output voltage
given a fixed input voltage. This is achieved by using power switches to vary the time for which the dc input is applied to the load [36]. The concept of PWM is better understood when applied to a basic switch-mode dc to dc converter as shown in figure 3.4.
VDC
- +
A
R
Vo
Figure 3.4. Basic Switch-Mode DC to DC converter
The on-time (ton) is defined as the time for which the switch is closed, during this period the input dc voltage (VDC) is applied to the resistive load. Off-time (t0ff) is when the switch is open resulting in no voltage applied to the load. Therefore, during on-time V0 = VQC and during off-time V0 = 0. This is shown in figure 3.5. The switching nature of the converter results in a variable average voltage at the output. The switching time period (Ts) is simply the sum of the on-time and off-time. PWM is classified with respect to the nature of the switching time period. If the
switching time period is variable, it is called a variable frequency PWM control. On the
33
other hand, if the switching time period is constant, it is called constant frequency PWM control.
VQi
VDC
I
0
off
I
i
\/u
o
'
Figure 3.5. Output voltage of the switch-mode DC to DC converter
With constant frequency PWM control, the harmonics produced are at the switching frequency and its multiples, making filtering much easier [9]. With variable frequency PWM the harmonics produced are at a wide range of frequencies, which makes filtering more difficult. It is important to derive a relation between the input voltage and output voltage as a function of the on-time and off-time. A parameter called the duty ratio (D) is defined as the ratio of the on-time duration to the switching time period, as given by equation 3.1.
D = -&-
(3.1)
Taking the integral of the output voltage over one time-period and dividing by the time period yields the input to output relationship. i Ts
J
(3.2)
34
J v d c dt+ j odt
0 t
(3.3)
o=^vdc
(3.4)
Substituting equation 3.1 in 3.4 yields,

V
o= D " V dc
(3-5)
The basic dc to dc converter shown in figure 3.4 is analyzed with a resistive load. In practice the load will be resistive-inductive as in the case with any electric machine. If the load is inductive, and the current is forced to zero in a very short time, it will result in a very large voltage spike, as verified by equation 3.6.
V L
= L 77
(3.6)
One way to eliminate the high voltage spikes during turn-off time is by allowing the current to go down towards zero at a slower rate. To accomplish this, a diode is introduced into the circuit to allow a current path during turn-off. The diode is called a freewheeling diode since it provides a freewheeling path for the current to naturally decay to zero. For a three phase dc to ac inverter, the free wheeling path is provided by the diodes in anti-parallel with the switch.
3.6
PWM signal generation This section describes different methods to produce a PWM signal. Figure 3.6
illustrates a common approach to produce a PWM signal. The voltage control signal (Vcontroi) is compared with the saw-tooth signal (Vsawtooth) to produce the PWM signal. If the voltage control signal is greater than the
35
saw-tooth signal, then the switch is turned on for current conduction. If the voltage control signal is less than the saw-tooth signal, then the switch is turned off.
, ^ ^'\ ^
on
X^.-'' __../'
on
/
" t
^,/'
on
off
off
off
off
ton
t 0 ff
Ts
Figure 3.6. PWM signal generation
The repetitive waveform can be either sawtooth or triangular waveform. Different duty ratios are achieved by simply varying the amplitude of the control signal, as shown in figure 3.7. The average voltage applied across the motor stator windings can also be changed by modulating the switch duty cycle within the conduction interval. In this case the DC bus voltage is kept constant while the winding current is determined by low frequency component of the inverter output voltage. Hence the output current is more or less similar to that shown in figures 3.2 and 3.3, with a switching frequency ripple. Switching output voltage can be realized either by switching only one of the two switches per leg or switching both the switches. Accordingly the following types of PWM strategies can be obtained.
36
\
;w:
\
K/
^
\ .
v 0
"t
on off off
on off 1 0 % Duty
on off
x"
i\
"
/'
K \ . /'! ^
on off
on off
on
, off
on off
5 0 % Duty
\
/
off:
off: 9 0 % Duty
off
Figure 3.7. PWM signals at various duty ratios
3.6.1
120 degree switching. In this case, only one switch switches per leg while the
other one conducts as shown in figure 3.8. Usually the high side switch is the one which modulates the duty cycle while the low side switch conducts current continuously for 120 degree [29].
3.6.2
60 degree switching. This strategy realizes a symmetrical version of the previous
method. Both the high and low side switches are switched for 60 degree electrical and
37
operate in continuous conduction for 60 degree interval. Gate waveforms for the high and low side switches are shown in figure 3.9. At any time, only one switch is switching while the other one is in conduction. Whether the high side switch is switching or the low side switch is switching depends upon the polarity of the output voltage at the third (unfed) phase. When this voltage is positive, the high side switch is switched. When this voltage is negative the low side switch is switched [29].
::.uii
I
j
A Hig
LPV
inn
!
nn
B Hicf
Lorn
nnnrinnnnnnn
1
0 30 60 90 120 1 150 180 210 240 270 300 30 3S0
C Hig!
::; L G i S
Figure 3.8. Switch gate waveforms for 120 degree PWM switching
3.6.3
IR Hard switching.
In this strategy, both the high and low side switches are
switched simultaneously. Both high and low side diodes conduct [29]. The waveforms for this type of switching are shown in figure 3.10
38
A High
f-. L O W
B High
2 o >
LOW
C High
60
;80 210 240 270 300 330
360
Figure 3.9. Switch gate waveforms for 60 degree PWM switching
3.7
Hysteresis current control Hysteresis current control, achieves voltage control indirectly by monitoring the
current through the load and forcing it to stay within a predefined band-gap, [48, 55]. For example if the load is inductive-resistive, forcing the current to remain within a band-gap will result in an average output voltage as shown in figure 3.11. The on-time and off-time applied to the power switch are not fixed values. They vary depending on the behavior of the current, resulting in a variable switching frequency. The variable switching frequency poses the problem of switching harmonics over a wide frequency range making filtering difficult. However due to its nature of
39 operation, Hysteresis current control has inherent over-current protection since current is always monitored. This is very attractive feature for high performance motor drive
systems. Control of the current magnitude ensures that the electric machine will not fail
00000
8,
A High
B High
1
C High
I >
cav
30
60
10 270
300 33f
Figure 3.10. Switch gate waveforms for IR hard switching
due to dramatic load changes. Such a load change may occur when an object may prohibit the rotation of the rotor causing a locked rotor situation. Under locked rotor conditions, PWM control would command a duty ratio to one [46]. When that occurs,
40
there is essentially a short circuit which will certainly damage the motor if no additional protective measures are taken [14].
.1
/
AI
't
on off on off on off on offl on off on
Figure 3.11. Hysteresis current control
The last section presented the control algorithms, like PAM, PWM and Hysteresis control. The following sections will elaborate on how these control strategies can be applied to have closed loop speed control for a Brushless DC motor drive system.
3.8
PWM control of BLDC drives The common control algorithm for a permanent magnet BLDC motor is PWM
current control. It is based on the assumption of linear relationship between the phase current and the torque, similar to that in a brushed DC motor [6]. Thus, by adjusting the phase current, the electromagnetic torque can be controlled to meet the requirement. It is
41 very simple and widely used in many low-cost applications. However, the coupling characteristics between the feed current and the resultant torque are actually nonlinear. In a BLDC drive system, the imperfection of back EMF and the phase current commutations are the major causes of electromagnetic torque pulsation.
3.8.1
Conventional PWM current control.
The general structure of a current
controller for a BLDC motor is shown in figure 3.12. The instantaneous current in the motor is regulated in each phase by a Hysteresis regulator, which maintains the current within adjustable limits. The rotor position information is sensed to enable commutation logic, which has six outputs to control the upper and lower phase leg power switches. The current reference is determined by a PI regulator, which maintains the rotor average speed constant.
Rectifier
Inverter
Commutation Logic ~J Speed Command PI Current Ref * f
Current Feedback
Speed Feedback
Figure 3.12. Schematic of conventional PWM current control
42
3.8.2
PWM current control with current shaping. In order to reduce torque ripples,
it requires an appropriate current reference, which could be relatively complex and difficult to implement. In this section, for simplifying explanation, a simple example of current control with current shaping technique is presented. Figure 3.13 shows the
schematic of PWM current control with current shaping. In contrast to the conventional PWM current control, the current reference is generated according to the pre-determined back-EMF waveform to maintain electromagnetic torque constant [55]. The Hysteresis current regulator adjusts the phase currents according to the current reference. electromagnetic torque equation in BLDC drive is as shown in equation 3.7 The
=-4v 1
+ e
Co V
bib+ecic)
(3.1)
where is the rotor mechanical speed, ea, eb and ec are the back emf of phase a, b and c respectively. Currents ia, ib and ic are the currents in phase a, b and c respectively.
Rectifier
- r - V.,
Inverter
Commutation LogicSpeed Command PI
Current Ref
{+>
' ' t
Current Control
Current Feedback Speed Feedback
Figure 3.13. Schematic of PWM current control with current shaping
43
Since the mechanical time constant is much bigger than the electrical time constant, it can be deduced that the electromagnetic torque will be kept constant when the phase currents are controlled as the inverse of back-EMF waveforms by assuming a constant rotor speed.
3.9
Direct Torque Control of BLDC drives Direct Torque Control scheme was first proposed by Takahashi and Depenbrock
for induction motor drives in the mid 1980s. More than a decade later, in the late 1990s, DTC techniques for both interior and surface mounted synchronous motors (PMSM) were analyzed. More recently, application of DTC scheme is extended to BLDC motor drives to minimize the torque ripples and torque response time as compared to conventional PWM current controlled BLDC drives. The electromagnetic torque and the stator flux linkage amplitude of the BLDC motor under two-phase conduction mode can be controlled simultaneously [55]. The key issue in the DTC of a BLDC motor drive is to estimate the electromagnetic torque correctly. For a BLDC motor with non-sinusoidal back-EMFs, the electromagnetic torque equation can be expressed as:
^ 3 P T =
d^ r a .
d\|/r
2 2
dee
sa
dee
sB
(3.2)
where 0e is the rotor electrical angle. \|/ra and \|/r6 are the rotor flux-linkage in the a axis and the R axis of the stationary reference frame, which can be calculated as ^ra
=
^sa-Lsisa
(3-3)
44
VrB =^sti
"VsB
(3.4)
where Ls is the stator winding inductance. The schematic of a DTC BLDC drive system is shown in figure 3.14.
Rectifier
Inverter
Speed Command PI
^ Position Sensor
Torque Regulator Switching Table
Stator flux linkage
Regulator
Sector Selection
IE
2 2
. dB, '"
Vjis . d0 **
V/,l>=\{Ust)-RhM
',/,=('+2'J/V3
-rK
i.
1
U
2
+ ,f
Wrfi = sf> ~
J,fi
Figure 3.14. Schematic of DTC BLDC drive
45
3.10
Sensorless BLDC motor control The BLDC motor is inherently electronically controlled and requires rotor
position information for proper commutation of current. However, the problems of the cost and reliability of rotor position sensors have motivated research in the area of position sensorless BLDC motor drives. Solving this problem effectively will open the way for full penetration of this motor drive into all low cost, high reliability, and large volume applications [31, 25]. In the last two decades, many sensorless drive solutions have been offered to eliminate the costly and fragile position sensor for BLDC motors with trapezoidal backEMFs. The back-EMF voltage sensing, back-EMF integration, flux estimation, detection of the freewheeling diodes conduction, and motor modification technique are the main categories of past sensorless solutions for BLDC motors. However, none work well at all speeds without accuracy, reliability, and complexity problems, especially at low speed range. Typically, practical minimum speed of the conventional sensorless drive is around 10% of the rated speed [40, 4]. Also, the position error from a phase shifter in transient state deteriorates the performance of sensorless drive. These drawbacks of sensorless BLDC motor drives have been an obstacle to the use of this motor in various industrial applications [26].
3.10.1 Back EMF sensing technique. The BLDC motor has a trapezoidal shape of the induced back-EMF in the stator winding. Monitoring the phase back-EMF measured from terminal voltages in the silent phase, the zero crossing of the back-EMF can be detected. Since the back-EMF is zero at standstill and proportional to speed, the
46 measured terminal voltage that has large signal-to-noise ratio and cannot detect zero crossing at low speeds. Also, the estimated commutation points that are shifted by 30 degrees from zero crossing of back EMFs have position error in transient state. With terminal voltage sensing method, an operating speed range is typically around 1000-6000 RPM. The third harmonic back-EMF sensing method provides wider speed range than the terminal voltage sensing method [17, 27].
3.10.2 Back EMF integration technique.
In this method, position information is
extracted by integrating the back-EMF of the silent phase. Integration starts when the open phase's back-EMF crosses zero. A threshold is set to stop the integration that corresponds to a commutation instant. This method also has a problem at low speeds because of the error accumulation problem [52].
3.10.3 Flux linkage based technique. In this method, the flux linkage is calculated using measured voltages and currents. The fundamental idea is to take the voltage equation of the machine and by integrating the applied voltage and current, flux can be estimated. From the initial position, machine parameters, and the flux linkages
relationship to rotor position, the rotor position can be estimated [41, 13]. This method also has significant estimation error in low speed. Improper error of parameters and sampled current is reason for accumulation error at low speeds in which the voltage equation is integrated in a relatively large period of time.
47
3.10.4 Freewheeling diode conduction. This method uses current flowing through a free wheeling diode in silent phase. For a short period after reaching zero crossing of the back-EMF in silent phase, a tiny current is flowing through freewheeling diode. This silent phase current starts to flow in the middle of the commutation interval, which corresponds to the point where back-EMF of the open phase crosses zero. This method also has position error of commutation points in transient state. The most serious
drawback of this method is the requirement of six additional isolated power supplies for the comparator circuitry to detect current flowing in each freewheeling diode [51].
3.11
Digital Hysteresis control There are many control strategies that have been developed for BLDC motors.
All of these were aiming at digital implementation of the analog controller. The work prior to this which aimed at developing a truly digital controller is presented by the author in [22]. The concept of the overall system is shown in figure 3.15. The controller treats the BLDC motor like a digital system, which may operate in two predefined states. Operation of the motor in State- 1 will result in a motor speed of low omega (coO- Operation in State-2 results in a motor speed of high omega where speed
(COH) (COH),
is greater than
(COL).
If the commanded speed is co , where
CL= O
oo =
G)H, the digital controller will achieve speed regulation by appropriately alternating states. The rules that the digital controller follows are extremely simple: 1. If the actual motor speed is less than the commanded speed, then switch or stay in State - 2 (COH)-
48
2. If the actual motor speed is greater than the commanded speed, then switch or stay in State - 1 (L).
vdc^
Gating Signals
IH
or lL
Hysteresis Current Regulator
Position Decoder
actual Digital Controller

L, observed
State Observer
Figure 3.15. Digital Hysteresis control for a BLDC motor drive system
3.12
Conclusion An overview of sensored and sensorless control methods for BLDC motors was
introduced.
Basic concepts of pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation, The different ways to
hysteresis control and direct torque control were introduced. produce a PWM signal was also introduced.
49 CHAPTER 4 NOVEL DIGITAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE FOR BRUSH-LESS DC MOTOR DRIVE
4.1
Introduction Permanent magnet motors with trapezoidal back-EMF and sinusoidal back-EMF
have several advantages over other motor types. Most notably, (compared to other dc motors) they are lower maintenance due to the elimination of the mechanical commutator and they have high power density which makes them ideal for high torque-to weight ratio applications. Compared to induction machines, they have lower inertia allowing for faster dynamic response to reference commands. Also, they are more efficient due to the permanent magnets which results in virtually zero rotor losses. The major disadvantage with permanent magnet motors is their higher cost and relatively higher complexity introduced by the power electronic converter used to drive them. The added complexity is evident in the development of a torque/speed regulator. Using the d-q transformation to ease the complexity of analyzing three phase machines may serve to design an adequate controller. However, development of a controller based on the transformation of the a-b-c equations to the d-q variables is only advantageous for permanent magnet motors with sinusoidal back-EMF. Applying the transformation to a trapezoidal backEMF motor does not eliminate the angle dependent phase inductances. The author in [35] applied the d-q transformation to a BLDC motor by fixing the synchronous reference frame to the instantaneous rotor flux linkage instead to the rotor geometric axis. However, this method is cumbersome since the instantaneous rotor flux linkage must be found experimentally and programmed into a DSP. Sliding mode control techniques have proved to be computationally intensive when adaptive parameter estimation is used
50
to estimate load parameters.
Hysteresis current control and pulse width modulation
(PWM) control coupled with continuous control theory produce the most widely used BLDC motor control techniques. Hysteresis current control is essential towards
achieving towards adequate servo performance, namely instantaneous torque response yielding faster speed response compared to PWM control [1, 16]. For most applications, a proportional-integral (PI) current and speed compensators are sufficient to establish a well-regulated speed/torque controller. In other cases state feedback control is needed to achieve more precise control of the BLDC motor. Classical control theory and linear system theory are well understood, but are highly complex and require extensive control systems knowledge to develop a well designed controller [53]. Discrete control theory allows for such controllers to be digitally implemented with micro-controllers, microprocessors, or digital signal processors (DSPs). Digitizing analog controllers serves to add complexity to the overall design procedure [8, 43]. It is important to note that digital implementation of a continuous control technique does not produce a pure digital controller. Instead, what results is a digitally implemented non digital controller. This thesis introduces a novel digital controller that treats the BLDC motor drive like a digital system. The BLDC system may only operate in a low duty (DL) or a high duty (DH). Speed regulation is achieved by alternating between low duty and high duty, which makes the concept of the controller extremely simple for design and implementation. This novel concept will help reduce the cost and complexity of motor control hardware. That, in turn can boost the acceptance level of BLDC motors for commercial mass production applications. The characteristic equations of a BLDC machine were used to derive a design procedure for the novel controller. It
51 will be shown that the design procedure involves a simple first order non-homogenous differential equation. During steady state operation, the design procedure is reduced to a few simple algebraic equations. Computer simulations and experimental results were used for proof-of-concept.
4.2
Novel digital controller design A novel constant frequency digital PWM controller has been designed and
simulated for a BLDC motor drive system. The digital controller treats the BLDC motor like a digital system. The concept of this digital controller is very simple. Speed
regulation is achieved by using a high duty (DH) and a low duty (DL). The rules of the digital controller can be explained using simple IF THEN statements. 1. If the actual motor speed is less than the reference speed, and if the motor current is less than the limiting current, then apply a high duty (DH). 2. If the actual motor speed is more than the reference speed, and if the motor current is less than the limiting current, then apply a low duty (DL). 3. In any case, if the motor current exceeds the limiting current then apply a skip state. A skip state can be defined as a state with zero duty. Unlike a Hysteresis controller, a PWM control does not have an inherent current control capability. Hence a current limiter has to be introduced. A novel Hysteresis digital controller for a BLDC motor has been implemented by the author in [46]. Unlike the previous work, this controller does not need any state observer. Figure 4.1 shows an illustrative description of the proposed digital controller. Figure 4.2 shows the complete block diagram of the motor drive system.
52
n
"-'H
" \ Dse, =1 <

#
0
D=DH or DL
'"' i Isel =1
D se , =0
DL
-
Isel =0
Digital PWM Signal
Skip State
(0
+^ \ ^
Ts
M
Dsel
aal
3 ! /
*i ,-^
i
K x^_^/ 'actual
I limn, max 'limit
* . 'limit,min
+ \ \ ^
/ ^ Isel
Figure 4.1. Proposed novel digital PWM controller
Gating Signals
Current Limiter
Position Decoder
4 DH or DL
Digital Controller reference
Figure 4.2. Block diagram for digital PWM control for a BLDC motor drive system
53 A proportional controller provides the reference for the current limit. The current is always made to stay within a maximum and minimum limit. The maximum value of Iiimit is 1-5 times the rated motor current. This is because motors can handle 1.5 times the rated current for a short duration of time. The minimum value of Iijmjt decides the steady state error. For a value equal to zero, a large steady state error is observed in the simulation. The minimum value of Ljmit is defined as the ratio of a percentage (1%) of the rated torque to the torque constant. A flowchart of the novel digital PWM controller is shown in figure 4.3.
Set U)ref
Sense actual motor speed (u>act), DC link current (ldc)
Select DL
Select DH
120 Commutation Logic
Figure 4.3. Flowchart describing the novel digital controller
54 4.2.1 Proportional constant. The value of the proportional constant K, for a desired
speed ripple Aco is calculated as shown below. In steady state, Aco <= |coerr*2| . In the worst case Aco = |coerr*2|. For the desired speed ripple Aco, a constant Kset can be defined, Aco
^ set
:
(4.1)
03
rated
Taking the maximum value of the speed ripple,

K
set - ~ o) &
err
rated
*2
(4.2)
A s l o n g a s actual
<
ffl
^CO,
Mimit ~ Mimit,max
(4.3)
A l s o I limit
ro
error
îmit
* ( B error
(4-4)
Using equations 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 in equation 4.4, it can be shown that
2*1 K.
K
limit,max
s e t * C 0 rated
(4.5)
4.2.2
Duty ratio. The value of the duty ratio D can be obtained from the electrical and
mechanical equations. The value of D can be expressed as a function of the motor parameters. From the torque equation, we have
55
T = J ^ + ba> + TT em dt KtI = J
1
(4.6)
dco dt
h bco + TT
(4.7)
In steady state,
!
Ks)=lHbCOss+TI-)
(4.8)
From the phase voltage equation, we have
an
= i
a+
a-^+ea
(4.9)
In steady state,
V
an=IRa+Kefflss
(4.10)
Substituting the value of the steady state current from equation 4.8, (TL + cossb) Kt
DV,dc
R + Kecoss
(4.11)
The duty ratio, in terms of the motor parameters can be expressed as, (TL+wssb)
K,
D=-
dc v,
R + Kecoss
(4.12)
4.3
Speed ripple calculation The steady state error is a function of the speed samples. It is necessary to find
out the effect of sampling time on the speed ripple. Figure 4.4 shows the speed response. The maximum deviation from the reference speed (ro*) due to the application of high duty DH, is denoted byAco H , and the maximum deviation from the reference speed
56 due to the application of a low duty DL, is denoted by AcoL. The speed response can be expressed as,
co
Figure 4.4. Speed response
T
00(t) = - S 2
T
^ +
to
Tem TL
(4.13)
From figure 4.3, at time t = t2 + T P , T T

AOH= ^
L T _T
C O
em
-co
(4.14)
At time t = ti + T P ,
^T^-TL
C O
Acoi
Tem-V
u
e ' +co
(4.15)
The speed ripple can be calculated as, Aco = A c o H + A c o L (4.16)
Aa^Îs-L
1-e
(4.17)
J
57
TP = - t m l n
Aw AT
(4.18)
TP=-tmln 1
Aco
^NLmax
(4.19)
From equation 4.19, for a desired speed ripple the sampling time can be calculated.
4.4
Steady State Analysis The proposed digital controller can be considered equivalent to a proportional
controller with high gain and saturation. It is desired to find out if at steady state the actual motor speed will reach the reference speed. The transfer function for a BLDC motor from equation 2.11 is as shown below
K
co(s)
JL. s2
2
V(s)
(jR
+
a +
BLa) s+
(BR
a +
KtKe)
(4.20)
JL.
JL.
where V = DVjn, D being the duty cycle. The transfer function can be written in another form as shown in equation 4.21.
JL a s 2 + ( J R a + B R a ) s + K T K E o(s)=K T V(s)+R a T L (s)
(4.21)
With a PI control for feedback, the transfer function becomes

[ j L a s 2 + ( J R a + B R a ) S + K T K E ] o ) ( s ) = KT((o*-coactual)|Kp + i i ] + R a T L ( s )
(4.22)
Rationalizing and collecting coefficients of the same order, we have
58
JL a s 3 +(JRa +BRa )s 2 +sK T K E ] co(s)=KT (co* -coactual) (sKp +Kj) +sRaTL (s) (4.23) JLas3 +(JRa +BRa)s2+(KTKE +KTKP)s+KTKj (s)=KT(D* (sKp +K}) +sRaTL(s) (4.24) At steady state, s=0, (4.24) reduces to
K
IKTactual=KIKT*
(4.25)
If Kj * o, it is observed that the measured speed equals the reference speed as in (4.26). In the proposed control strategy the value of Kp is ideally infinite and the value of Ki is very small.
00 =co
actual
(4.26)
Hence the proposed digital controller can be used to control the speed of a BLDC motor.
4.5
Simulation results Simulation results for the digital PWM control for a Brushless DC motor are
shown from figure 4.5 to figure 4.10.
Simulation was carried out for a maximum
variation from the reference speed of about 5 rpm. The sampling in the speed loop for the desired speed ripple can be calculated from equation 4.19. For a speed ripple of 5 rpm, the minimum sampling is 916 usee. The parameters of the BLDC machine used for simulation are shown in table 4.1. The sampling time is calculated as 916 micro seconds and the maximum speed ripple is observed to be about 4 rpm.
fl
u%
Speed in RPM Duty Current in Amperes
en o oi
& 3 C D "
>i
4^
C 3
bi
o4
o a
o m
cun ondi
~~
H
\ a
o a a T* a. a r-h
V! >
&
1/3
T3
C D
P-
C D
>-t ft
CO
O C O
a CO
5'
I
eco
3
n >
%
3>
">
>-!
P5 >-t C D Sf5 C D >-i C D
a o
CO
^D C
ft)
o.
O ^+5
1*
U\
o o
60
3 Q
s
s. Q
en
a
0) 0)
1502 b \________________, 1500 1498
\^\7^^ ~7\
/ \ /
/v,
a.
CO
_____________L____J
X7^
0.14
\y
\ N
<y
\y
0.18 Time in Seconds
Figure 4.6. Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under 30% rated load
61
A
!
h-jLL.
yf
4,1,:..:. .
.ii:
3 Q
iHjjtMlTjfc" îîil'rj.*

Idj.L
DL DH DL DH DL DH
.;!! :i-i ii|.i.;.: : ..;..... .j. Mi.rl
J-.-f-i'i: 1 ..:! :- : i
: " ' ' . ' . : ! - ! : i i..i;.i.-H...:.,.-J..:..|"-
i! J! ' : ; J:'ft
: ! ' . . !
'
*l
mm
Mil
' JMII 1 J H * . m 1
DL
DH
2 a.
VC a 0) 0)
2104
v
2100 2094
/.
x > ^
X
X
/x
/V \ \
~Jr _,,_,,,
\5 ^
a
CO
^w^
0.14
71
Figure 4.7. Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under no load condition
0) Q.
<
it
_c c
*-
2 o
i
w
illBll
:'
t'1Ji
.
- :
HP 1 :
:#.
v.* s
; v : ~ _ i . r - !
DH DH DH DL DH DL
DH
DL
DH
I
I
1 <z
5 peed c
C ^V
_ ^ ' \
x-rf**^
\_X
jiT
SLJ
V^ \
I
J*%^ ,
jf^
_ ^ ^ _ _ ^
ûy4
'
0.1
Time in Seconds
0.14
63
E <
0r
I
-. _ f1 L
-5
A) 1 ^
"T
DH
DL
DH
DL
DH
DL DH DL
DH
DL
DH
DL DH DL
DH
DL
DH DL DH
2502 2500
Q.
c a a.
'
\ A r A j/' \ A / A r nr^y \ /
___Ar~-
_JL
AAJ
/...\ A
01 .
Time in Seconds
0.175
Figure 4.9. Phase current, duty and speed response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under no load condition
64
M i M
n
3
19
ill
'l
l
3 Q
ill-'
.vt|TL
dp
r i
1
H DH DL DH DH
i
;
2*i
DL
1 ?yf&
DH DL
2502|
a. a.
a
2500
|
CO
2498
0.12
65 4.6 Hardware details An experimental set-up was constructed in order to implement and further validate the simulation results the proposed technique. The following section gives a brief description of the requirements and final designs for the experimental set-up. experimental set up is shown in figure 4.11. The
Figure 4.11. Final experimental set-up
The parameters of the BLDC machine are shown in appendix. For the mechanical load, constant load torque was required. Also it was necessary for the load's moment of inertia to be much smaller than the motor's moment of inertia. Those requirements were met by the characteristics of magnetic brake. The inverter block is built using Pwrx IGBT modules with its own drivers. Rated power of 3-phase inverter is 50A, 600V, and switching frequency used for turning on and
66 off IGBTs is 6 kHz. Inverter is connected to the DC link capacitor 1.8mF of capacity. Gate drivers are triggered from signals that are generated in FPGA controller and than buffered using inverted Schmidt circuit. Square wave BLDC drive is controlled using speed loop regulator that determines PWM duty-cycle due to the calculated speed error. Still, current protection is realized by putting one current transducer in DC link circuit. Therefore current sensor is sensing DC link current and keep it below certain (predefined) value in order to limit in-rush current when motor is speed up from zero speed. If the value of the DC link current is above predefined value, current regulator is sending the signal that automatically set the duty cycle to zero, which then does not allow current to rise anymore, until the value drops below limited value again. FPGA platform used for controlling the BLDC machine is Spartan 3 family, from Xilinx. Innovative digital voltage control algorithm is implemented into FPGA unit. Reference speed value is set digitally, and then speed loop simply compares actual speed and reference speed and based on error determines duty cycle for next period. Actual speed is easily calculated as a time between two Hall Effect signals. The schematic of the controller simulated in the FPGA is as shown in figure 4.12. Input signals for FPGA device are 3 Hall Effect sensors and reference speed information, while output signals are triggers for switching on and off IGBTs. In addition, DC link current is measured using LEM transducer and analog signal is sent firstly to A/D converter, and then to FPGA, for current protection. In order to show the speed error, 8-bit D/A (digital to analog) converter is used, and its analog value is shown on the oscilloscope. Experimental results are shown in figures 4.13 through 4.18.
67
Current Current Limiter
Reference Speed -A -A' Hall A Hall B HallC Sector Trigger signals for IGBT Drivers Actual Speed Digital PWM Algorithm -B -B' -C
Figure 4.12. Block diagram showing operations and functions implemented in FPGA device
68
Table 4.1. BLDC motor specification from poly-scientific (BN42-EU-02)
Parameter
Value
Units
Terminal Voltage Rated Speed Rated Torque Rated Current Rated Power Torque Sensitivity Back - EMF Terminal Resistance Terminal Inductance Motor Constant Rotor Inertia
24 3300 1.33 23 459 0.0653 6.83 0.069 0.2

0.275
Volts DC RPM Nm Amps. Watts Nm/ Amp. Volts/ krpm Ohms mH Nm/ sq.rt.watt g-cmA2
1271
69
fftt^^
iiittiAi ^sfiiyirilifllti iHilAj
1515
nk
1500
"lEfc-
nun
m m
?=4Î
HI mil
juiuq "US'
---fFTF-
tyj.
1485
y
i'ri wrl'lnil.ulkwirL, Wit,i-iiuimiiiiiii u HI nmi i _
i i immiiiil n ll TrinTfl
>
0.02
Figure 4.13. Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under no load condition
1515 1500 1485 rjnir nuwm

"HIBf"
M-tdi
-J
^n
anmi i ,
u
-Vr^ -l-jnuWUyft^.v-nnp^wv'T'M1"- - - *n*V nf^.r-î'îwt
0.02
gure 4.14. Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 1500 rpm under 30% rated load
71
'Ml
ilflitii^^
" fctrrfUiI "
uw_
mf
a. a:
2115 2100 2085
^J-#^%^..-^^
XI
<
0.02
72
tilii^^
fffcttTl^^
2110 2100
idiilmllUfllr"" mil JKWIi
TUr'
nirirf
urfkira 2080
r^;;;^
^m-
V
o! w--*M:
m -*M M ffifr--pw]
y\
0.02
Figure 4.16. Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2100 rpm under 30% rated load
73
M f c i i i i 11rfiilni\iifiJ'JilAiM'i^litiUlnnltiWNiiiiiAt"" "/W^npAii"fi"!TwdrfffHtoiiîiTiîw^BrifiTiT
ttstftrnTiiI
rnM^ffiimi
nil
2515 2500
CO
2 a
^,-^^z^-p-
U l i l i LUIMIHIW
TilllllTT
"TTTmi
2485
0.02
74
| a:
a
2515
g
Q.
2500 2485
r^FW
y
WJ
flRTUillJ
TTITTTl 1 I
' I
IW]
nnWUL
ir.
..
Iran
Kim
W
<JmA J
w
-i*W"J-Iki*-
,wW"
rt
-5 0.01
R
0.02
\h
Time in Seconds
Figure 4.18. Duty, speed and phase current response for a reference speed of 2500 rpm under 30% rated load
75
4.7
Advantages of the digital controller 1. State observer is not required. Even under dynamic load conditions the
proposed controller can regulate speed without the use of an observer. This can be easily verified from the simulation and experimental results. This reduces the size and the cost of the system. 2. Only the dc link current is sensed. It is not required to sense the current in all the three phases. Therefore the cost of the current sensing hardware is reduced.
4.8
Conclusion A new digital control concept for BLDC machines was introduced and
experimentally verified.
The aim of this thesis was to develop a low cost controller for Due to the
applications where inefficient single phase induction motors are used.
simplistic nature of this control, it has the potential to be implemented in a low cost ASIC. The controller exploits the characteristic of most electromechanical systems.
Since electrical time constants are much faster relative to the mechanical time constants, speed regulation with an acceptable amount of ripple is possible by rapid switching of states. Furthermore, this control strategy does not require a state observer. Under
dynamic load conditions, the proposed controller was found capable of regulating speed without the use of an observer. This results in a considerable reduction of size and the cost of the system
76 CHAPTER 5 DIGITAL PWM CONTROL - COMPREHENSIVE STABILITY ANALYSIS
5.1
Introduction When considering design and analysis of feedback control systems, stability is of
utmost importance. From a practical point of view, a closed-loop feedback system that is unstable is of little value. As with all the general statements, there are exceptions; there are many physical systems that are inherently open loop unstable, and some systems are even designed to be open-loop unstable. Most modern fighter aircrafts are open-loop unstable by design, and without active feedback control assisting the pilot, they cannot fly. Active control is introduced by engineers to stabilize the unstable plant - that is, the aircraft, so that other considerations such as transient performance can be addressed. Using feedback, it is possible to stabilize unstable plants and then with a judicious selection of controller parameters, transient performance can be adjusted. For open loop stable plants, feedback is still used to adjust the closed loop performance to meet the design specifications. These specifications take the form of steady-state tracking errors, percent overshoot, settling time, time to peak and other indices. A closed loop feedback system is either stable or it is not stable. This type of stable/ not stable characterization is referred to as absolute stability. A system possessing absolute stability is called a stable system; the label of absolute is dropped. Given that a closed loop system is stable, it is further possible to characterize the degree of stability. This is referred to as relative stability. The pioneers of aircraft design were familiar with the notion of relative stability. The more stable an aircraft is the more difficult it is to maneuver (that is, to turn). One outcome of the relative instability of modern fighter
77
aircraft is high maneuverability. A system is stable in the absolute sense by determining that all transfer function poles lie in the left half s-plane, or equivalently, that all the eigenvalues of the system matrix lie in the left half s plane. Given that all the poles (or eigenvalues) are in the left half s plane, it is possible to investigate the relative stability by examining the relative locations of the poles (or eigenvalues) A stable system is defined as a system with a bounded (limited) system response. That is, if the system is subjected to a bounded input or disturbance and the response is bounded in magnitude, the system is said to be stable [19, 20].
5.2
The describing function method One of the most classical and popular methods for dealing with the analysis and
design of nonlinear systems is the well-known describing function method. In order to apply this technique, the linear and nonlinear parts of the system must be arranged as indicated in figure 5.1. Furthermore, the linear element behaves as a low-pass filter (the transfer function is strictly proper). This requirement is necessary because the method approximates the response of the nonlinear element by truncating the Fourier series of its output to a finite number of terms, and higher order harmonics are neglected. The
method can be made accurate by giving precise bounds to the approximation error. One of the reasons for the success of the describing function method in control theory is that almost every real plant to be controlled fulfills the low-pass requirement. It must be pointed out that the describing function method is approximate. However, this is not relevant to the use of the method for analyzing the stability of the closed loop system, where the main concern is if the system is stable or not and not its concrete values.
78
r(t) = 0
ê(t)
u(t) Nonlinear element Linear element
c (t)
Figure 5.1. Nonlinear system to which the describing function method is applicable
Consider the block diagram of the nonlinear system as shown infigure5.2.
"^
I
J *
G1(s)
y
G2(s)
Figure 5.2. Nonlinear system
In the above system the blocks Gi(s) and G2(s) represents linear elements and the block N represent nonlinear element. Let x = X sincot be the input to the nonlinear element. Now the output y of the nonlinear element will be in general a non sinusoidal periodic function. The Fourier series representation of the output y can be expressed as shown in equation 5.1 (by assuming that the nonlinearity does not generate sub harmonics).
y = A 0 + A, Sincot + Bj Coscot + A 2 Sincot + B 2 Coscot + .
(5.1)
If the nonlinearity is symmetrical, the average value of y is zero and hence the output y is given by
y = A[ Sincot + B, Coscot+ A 2 Sincot+ B 2 Coscot + (5-2)
79 In the absence of an external input (i.e, when r = 0) the output y of the
nonlinearity N is feedback to its input through the linear elements G2(s) and Gi(s) in tandem. If Gi(s)G2(s) has low pass characteristics, then all the harmonics of y are
filtered, so that the input x to the nonlinear element N is mainly contributed by the fundamental component of y and hence x remains sinusoidal. Under such conditions the harmonics of the output are neglected and the fundamental component of y alone is considered for the purpose of analysis.
y = A, Sinmt + B, Cosfflt = Y 1 |O i =Y 1 Sin(cot+<D,) (5-3)
where,
YÂ,^2
(5.4)
(5.5)
a n d <t>1=tan"1(B,/A1)
Yi = Amplitude of the fundamental harmonic component of the output. <&i = Phase shift of the fundamental harmonic component of the output with respect to the input The coefficients Ai and B] of the Fourier series are given by
A
i = I y Sinotd(eot) o
"
(5.6)
B, = | y Cosrotd (wt)
0
(5.7)
When the input, x to the nonlinearity is sinusoidal (i.e., x = X sincot) the describing function of the nonlinearity is defined as, K ^ ^ L o , (5.8)
The nonlinear element N in the system can be replaced by the describing function as shown in figure 5.3.
80
X
J
-^
n
G1(jco)
K N (x,co)
c G2(p)
Figure 5.3. Nonlinear system with nonlinearity replaced by describing function If the nonlinearity is replaced by a describing function then all linear theory frequency domain techniques can be used for the analysis of the system. The describing functions are used only for stability analysis and it is not directly applied to the optimization of system design. The describing function is a frequency domain approach and no general correlation is possible between time and frequency responses. In the next section the describing function method applied to saturation nonlinearity is explained in detail.
5.3
Describing function of saturation nonlinearity The input output relationship of saturation non linearity is shown in figure 5.4.
The input-output relation is linear for x = 0 to S. When the input is greater than S, the output reaches a saturated value of KS. The response of the nonlinearity when the input is sinusoidal signal (x = XSincot) is shown in figure 5.5.
81
Figure 5.4. Input-output characteristic of saturation nonlinearity
The input x is sinusoidal,

x = X Sinwt
(5.9)
where X is the maximum value of the input. In figure 5, when cot = p, x = S. Hence equation 5.9 can be written as,
S = X Sin (5
(5.10) (5.11)
B = Sin"11
The output y of the nonlinearity can be divided into three regions in a period of p. The output equation for the three regions is given by equation 5.12.
Kx; 0<iot<B
y= K.S;
p<(0t<(j>P) (jr-P)<cot<jr
(5.12)
Kx;
The describing function is given by

K N (X, W ) = (Y,/X)(*i
(5.13)
where,
Y1=^JA12+B12
and o1=tan"'(B, /A,
82
Figure 5.5. Sinusoidal response of saturation non linearity
The output y has half wave and quarter wave symmetries
B!=0
and
A, = jySincotd(a
(5.14)
The output, y is given by two different expressions in the period 0 to p/2. Hence equation 5.14 can be written as shown in equation 5.15.
B 2
A, = I y Sinart d(o)t)+ I y Sincot d((ot) M" PJ pJ

0 B
(5.15)
On substituting the values of y from equation 5.12 into equation 5.15,
83
p. >
A1 = -fKxSincotd(cot)+-JKSSinojtd(o)t) o
0 B
(5.16)
On substituting x = X Sincot,
B B 2
= ^ L fX Sin2(ot d ( c o t ) + f Sincot d(tot) P p .J p J

0 fl
(5.17)
On substituting S = X Sin B from equation 5.10 into equation 5.17,

A, = r B + sinBcosBl P Y1=JAI2+B12 (5.18)
= p
[ B + sinBcosBl
(5.19)
f[Idll
!13|/rVjl
(5.20)
The describing function

KN(X,co) = (Y,/X)[0|= 2K r [ B + sinBcosB]|o^ P (5-21)
Depending on the maximum value of input X, the describing function can be written as, If X<S, then J3 = p / 2,
IfX>S,
KN(X,W)=K
(5.22)
(5.23)
K N (X.w) = [ p + sinpcosB]
5.4
Dynamics of the Novel Digital PWM Controller To find the stability of any system, it is necessary to come up with the block
diagram of the overall system [11, 12, 23]. The overall block diagram of the system is shown in figure 5.6.
84
Tolerated Error
Figure 5.6. Block diagram of the overall system
A novel constant frequency digital PWM controller has been designed and simulated for a BLDC motor drive system. The digital controller treats the BLDC motor like a digital system. The concept of this digital controller is very simple. Speed
regulation is achieved by using a high duty (DH) and a low duty (DL). The rules of the digital controller can be explained using simple IF THEN statements. 1. If the actual motor speed is less than the reference speed, and if the motor current is less than the limiting current, then apply a high duty (DH).
85
2. If the actual motor speed is more than the reference speed, and if the motor current is less than the limiting current, then apply a low duty (DL). 3. In any case, if the motor current exceeds the limiting current then apply a skip state. A skip state can be defined as a state with zero duty. The above control logic can be diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 5.7.
Dm
m
D.
DH
_ D, 0
c err
Mmt
Figure 5.7. Control Logic
It has already been proved that the BLDC motor is stable. It is necessary to prove that the system with the controller is stable. To prove that the system is stable as a whole it is necessary to come up with the transfer function of the individual blocks shown in figure 5.6.
5.5
Transfer function Gw (a>)err The describing function used to evaluate the transfer function can be
diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 5.8.
86
.
H
D
L C O
Figure 5.8. Describing function to find Gra(coen.)
The Fourier function of G^to^) can be expressed as given in equation 5.24.

3 Geo err n=l 3
y -- + V^ an cosncot + j
n=l
b n sinncot
(5.24)
Evaluating the constants ao, ai, a2, a^ and bi, b2 and b3 and substituting in equation 5.24 we have,
Gm(w) =
n H +r>L
. 2
+ - D H Sincot+ -=- (D H -D L ) Sin3cot 3p P
(5.25)
Taking Laplace Transform, we get,
Gjw) = ^ H 2 k' +- 1 " H D <V-en; o

2s p
" s2+co2
72IU
3p
(DH"DL)
g2+9a)2
(5.26)
5.6
Root locus plot for the transfer function Gw ((o)err From equation 5.26 it is clear that the function has three variables namely, DH, DL
87
and co. To plot the root locus the values of the high duty is set to 1 and low duty to 0.1 respectively. The speed is set to 1000 RPM. The root locus plot for these values of duty and speed is plotted as shown in figure 5.9.
1000
m 0 c en
to
-1000
-600
-400 Real Axis
-200
Figure 5.9. Root locus plot for the function Gw (co)e
5.7
Transfer function Gj (i)err The describing function used to evaluate the transfer function can be
diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 5.10.

G
The Fourier function of
co(fflerr) can be expressed as given in equation 5.27.

G
i(w)
3 -y- + / n=l
3
a
n COSnCOt +
! >
n=l
sinncot
(5.27)
88
Evaluating the constants ao, ai, a2, &3 and bi, b2 and b3 and substituting in equation 5.27 we have,
G; (i err ) = + Siny Costot + Cosy Sincot + P P P 4D 'l-Cos3y) Sin3wt 3p
(5.28)
Taking Laplace Transfonn, we get,

G
4Dy 4D i (ierr) = z^ + Siny ,

v ;
ps
S-+C02
+
P
Cosy ,
, +
s-+m-
4D / -, 3co 2 (l-Cos3y) s^+9co 2
(5.29)
| D I D H or D L
2p
|D DH
orDj
Figure 5.10. Describing function to find Gj(ierr)
5.8
Root locus plot for the transfer function Gi (i)err The transfer function for Gi(i)err has two variables namely, duty and speed. The
root locus plot can be plotted for low duty and low speed, low duty and high speed, high
89 duty and low speed and high duty and high speed. The root locus for high duty and high speeds is shown in figures 5.11
200
<
J5 0
to
-200
-100
-50 Real Axis
Figure 5.11. Root locus plot for G\i(i)eIT for D=l and co=3000 RPM
5.9
Transfer function Gjmax(toerr) The describing function used to evaluate the transfer function can be
diagrammatically represented as shown in figure 5.12. From the describing function the function for Giimt(oo)err can be shown as given by equation 5.30.
+Kuen.(0<cot<y) (y<cot<7t-y)
'lmt I "'err I *max " ^ ^ e r r Ji-Y<a)t<7i)
(5.30)
(n<(at<2Tt)
The Fourier function of Gimax(o>err) can be expressed as given in equation 5.31.
90
imax ( M err) = " y + 2_j
"
cosnmt
+ >
n E b n sinnwt
b
(5.31)
Mmti
ACQ
- * - CO,
C0
'err
2p
to , .t mech
Figure 5.12. Describing function to find Gimax(u>err)
Evaluating the constants ao, ai, a2, a3 and bi, b2 and b 3 and substituting in equation 5.31 we have,
91
1 I 1UY+KA(1
-Cosy) + W ( K - 2 Y ) +
GjlTBxW
2P [ u + KAfCosy-ljJ+UTi
Sin
y(l,rii,-W) + - J - (l-Cos2y) OOSfft + oos2ftt+ cos3ol +
U ^ - U ^ + S i n y
( W i " 'max/
+
Sin3y KA Cbs4y T 2 I0"27 2
(5.32)
Imax) (l-Cosy)+2ImaxG3sy-2IIt sinraH
KAf ,Sn2y 2-*-T+-Cbs2y)+-^.(2Cbs2ysin2a3H
iaa (-1-Cbs3y)+-22K (1+Cbs3y) sinM
Taking Laplace Transform, we get,

I l r i n y+KA(l-Cosy)j+W(7r-2y)+
J
imixl a M 2ng [W+KAlCosy-ljj+I^Ti KA,
SmYlU-Wl+^ll-CWT)^
T
Sin2
Sin2y
+ Siny
s2^2
(U-WJ^^^y-^ll]
(Inin+Imix)(l-G3SY)+2I1THXCosy
0)
(5.33)
- ^
Sin2y KAl 21 + ji-yT 2 J- I l r i n ( l - C b s 2 y ) + i ^ ( 2 C b s 2 y - i ; PL %(-l-QB3y)+if5-(l-tCfcs3y)
^ 2co
s2+4a? 3co s2+9a?
5.10
Root locus plot for the transfer function Gimax((Oerr) The transfer function for Gjmax(cGerr) has just speed as the variable.
Correspondingly the root locus can be plotted for either low speeds, medium speeds or
92 high speeds. The roots lie in the left half of the s plane when plotted for different values of speed. To see if the system is bounded for disturbances in the load torque and input voltage fluctuations, simulation of the overall system is carried out. Load torque
variations are done from low values of torque until rated values. Voltage fluctuations in the input are simulated for +/- 35% change in the input voltage. The simulation and experimental results for disturbances in input voltage, load torque and reference speed variations are shown from figure 5.13 through figure 5.16. From the simulation and experimental results it is very clear that the system is stable for various disturbances, which shows the effectiveness of the controller. Figure 5.13 shows the simulation results for a set speed of 2000 rpm. At 0.06 seconds load is increased from 20% to 80% of rated load. As seen from the speed response, the maximum deviation from the reference speed is about +/- 5 rpm in steady state conditions.
93
ao re o Zv/o LudU
I
a. a.
c
a C D (A O
I I 1 1 1
2010
^
U ( J U
I 1 1 1 1
~ ^ ^ ~~W~W,
~ W W J . ^ .
A V
A^
a > a.
i \
<
w
J
yv
8 o | a 5
m < re -
j _ AM<M _
ArvUArt
, ,_ MrtdV/ _,
j^
o w^r
-10 0.02
iw*
WMT
TWW
w
k
Figure 5.13. Simulation results: Speed response for change in load torque and for a reference speed of 1800 rpm
94
80% Load
ro o
20% Load
2025
Q.
2000
a.
I
1945 + iMiiiidiiiWiliiriiin'ir^
MM
I
10
rtlft
3
a
8 5
U
VV
-10 0.1
Time in Seconds 0.2
ID <
Figure 5.14. Experimental results for a change in load torque from 20% to 80% of rated load for a reference speed of 2000 rpm
95
2200
1300
2200
1300
*||iuuni[||ini|HH n
ITI fnirmiiFiUMirtiif 5|ini iflFrnm PI iinin
0.1 Time in Seconds
0.2
Figure 5.15. Experimental results for a change in reference speed from 2200 rpm to 1300 rpm under no load condition
96
Vrated
Vrated 30%
III inii|fiiiiitf numiiiMinimiiiii^piiiiiu(iiiiMJBfif iinir nniuiinu win i wu mi a i m nun M
0.2 Time in Seconds
0.4
Figure 5.16. Experimental results for a change in input voltage from rated voltage to 30% of rated voltage under no load condition
97 5.11 Conclusion A new digital control concept for BLDC machines was introduced and experimentally verified. Describing function and Fourier transform methods were used to prove the stability of the system. Simulation and experimental results agree with the analytical results. The dynamic response of the system when subjected to various For load torque
disturbances proves the effectiveness of the novel control strategy.
disturbance, voltage fluctuations in the input supply or for wide changes in the reference speed, the speed response settles within 5% from the reference speed. Thus this simple, low cost, stable control strategy can be used for applications which are subjected to wide disturbances.
98 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 6.1 Summary A review of Brush-Less DC motor drives, construction, operating principle and equivalent circuit were presented in chapter 2. Chapter 3 introduced an overview of the sensored and sensorless control for Brush-Less DC motor drives. Pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation and hysteresis control were introduced. A novel digital PWM control design strategy was introduced in chapter 4. Analytical results matched with the simulation and experimental results. Stability analysis for the digital PWM controller was introduced in chapter 5. Describing function and fourier transform methods were used to prove the stability of the system. Simulation and experimental results matched with the analytical results.
6.2
Conclusion and future work A novel digital PWM control design strategy was introduced for a trapezoidal
BLDC motor drive system. The effectiveness of the control strategy was verified through simulations and experiments. The goal of the thesis was to develop a low cost controller for efficient BLDC motors targeting applications where inefficient single phase induction motors are used. Due to the simplistic nature of the control, it has the potential to be implemented in a low cost FPGA or ASIC. Future work related to this thesis will focus on the development of an FPGA or ASIC chip delivering the benefits of BLDC motor drive at a lower cost.
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ORIGINAL ARCHIVAL COPY

DIGITAL PWM CONTROL OF BRUSH-LESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR DRIVES

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Chicago, Illinois December 2008

UMI Number: 3370892

Copyright 2009 by Sathyan, Anand

Copyright by ANAND SATHYAN 2008

Ts 9, co ^ref ^ss *dc Q

Permanent split capacitor AC

0.2 Motor Size, hp

AC Induction Motors. In AC motors, the magnetic field in the stator is created

DC Motors. As in AC motors, the driving force provided by DC motor results

Synchronous Speed Rotor Speed

Figure 1.2. Typical speed-torque relationship for AC induction motors

Best of both: Brushless DC Motors.

A brushless DC (BLDC) motor

Although the displacement power factor for BLDC

Figure 1.3. Typical speed-torque curves for a BLDC motor

10 CHAPTER 2 BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR

Figure 2.1. BLDC motor

Figure 2.2. Cross sectional view of the stator of a BLDC motor

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles.

+Vdc B Float -Vdc

+Vdc C Float -Vdc

Figure 2.6. Sensor versus drive timing

Figure 2.7. Three phase bridge

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

e a =k e o(t) where, kt.x = per-phase torque sensitivity ke_x = per-phase back-EMF

Xm(s) = W s > + W s > + Ke<<s)

/TV TL(s) 7X 1era(s)

Figure 2.12. Root locus plot for a BLDC motor

equivalent circuit were presented.

CHAPTER 3 BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) DRIVE STRATEGIES

Three-phase BLDC Motor

Figure 3.1. Typical inverter drive system for a BLDC motor

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Various strategies are described below.

150 180 210 240 270 30C 330 360

Figure 3.3. Gate waveforms for PAM

Figure 3.4. Basic Switch-Mode DC to DC converter

Figure 3.5. Output voltage of the switch-mode DC to DC converter

Substituting equation 3.1 in 3.4 yields,

Figure 3.6. PWM signal generation

Figure 3.7. PWM signals at various duty ratios

60 degree switching. This strategy realizes a symmetrical version of the previous

;80 210 240 270 300 330

Figure 3.9. Switch gate waveforms for 60 degree PWM switching

Figure 3.10. Switch gate waveforms for IR hard switching

Figure 3.11. Hysteresis current control

Conventional PWM current control.

The general structure of a current

Commutation Logic ~J Speed Command PI Current Ref * f

Figure 3.12. Schematic of conventional PWM current control

Commutation LogicSpeed Command PI

Current Feedback Speed Feedback

Figure 3.13. Schematic of PWM current control with current shaping

Torque Regulator Switching Table

Stator flux linkage

Figure 3.14. Schematic of DTC BLDC drive

3.10.2 Back EMF integration technique.

In this method, position information is