Caleb Schantz Chapter 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange 1. Contrast open and closed circulatory systems.

Give examples of animals that exhibit each type of circulatory system. Specify advantages of each type of system. Open circulatory systems has blood that does not flow in defined blood vessels. Examples are insects which basically have their organs covered constantly in blood. Closed circulatory systems have blood that flows in vessels. Humans have this system because blood flows in veins, arteries and capillaries. Advantages to open circulatory system are more based on certain animals. In open circulatory systems their is a limited capability for such animals to increase or decrease distribution and velocity of blood flow. There is not a lot of variability to oxygen uptake because changes are very slow. Because of the limits to diffusion, animals with open circulatory systems usually have relatively low metabolic rates. There are more advantages to having a closed circulatory system. First every cell of the body is, at maximum, only two or three cells distance from a capillary. These animals have the ability to have incredible control over oxygen delivery to tissues. Another advantage is the capability for a closed circulation to include the process of ultrafiltration. Since the lymphatic system is included as part of the circulatory system because of its circulation of excess fluid and large molecules, it decreases the pressure in tissues that extra fluid increases. Finally the most important advantages of the system of the closed circulatory system is the systemic and pulmonary branches of the system which can maintain their respective pressures. 2. Contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. What are the advantages of a four-chambered heart? In fish the heart consist of two chambers: an atrium and ventricle. 1 pass through the heart and back is called a single circulation. Blood enters the heart collects in the atrium then transfers to the ventricle. Contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to the gills where O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses out. Amphibians have a three chambered heart and two circuits of blood flow. In reptiles which have a 3 chambered heart have a septum which divides the single ventricle. Mammals and bird have a four chambered heart. The ventricle is completely divided such that there are two atria and two ventricles. The let side of the heart receives and pumps only oxygen rich blood while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen poor blood. The advantages of a four chambered heart is that it supports the endothermic way of life characteristic of mammals and birds. They use about ten times more energy as equal sized ectotherms. Therefor their circulatory systems need to deliver about ten times as much fuel and o2 to their tissues. This large amount of substance coming in and out is made possible by independently powered systemic and pulmonary circuits.

3.

Describe the flow of a drop of deoxygenated blood as it enters and leaves the mammalian

heart and eventually carries oxygen to the body. Name all blood vessels into and out of the heart as well as the heart valves and the heart chambers. First the contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Then the blood flows through to capillary beds in the left and right lungs. It loads o2 and unloads co2. Oxygen rich blood returns form the lungs via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the heart. Next the oxygen rich blood flows into the left ventricle with pumps the oxygen rich blood out of the body tissures through the systemic circuit. Blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta which carries blood to arteries leading throughout the body. First branch of the aorta are the coronary arteries. Then the branches lead to the capillary beds in the head and harms. The aorta goes into the abdomen gibing oxygen rich blood to arteries leading to capillary beds in the many abdominal organs. Inside the capillaries there is a net diffusion of o2 form the blood to the tissues and of co2 produced by cellular respiration into the blood. Oxygen poor blood form the head neck and forelimbs is channeled into a large vein, the superior vena cava. Also the inferior vena cava is there which drains blood form the trunk and hind limbs. The too venaecavae empty blood into the right atrium form which the oxygen poor blood flows. 4. Describe the cardiac cycle. Include the terms pulse, diastole, systole, and stroke volume. What keeps the blood flowing in one direction through the heart? Name factors that affect blood pressure. The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat. First during Diastole the chambers of the heart (atria and ventricles) are relaxed and filling up with blood from the veins. The atrioventricular valves are open and the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) are closed. This stage lasts for about 0.4 second. Ventricular systole: the ventricles contract and pump blood out of the heart into the arteries. During this stage the atrioventricular valves are closed and the semilunar valves are open. This takes about 0.3 second. Two factors determine cardiac output: The rate of contraction of heart rate and the stroke volume which is the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction. Four valves in the hear prevent backflow and keep blood mobbing in the correct direction. Pressure genertated by the powerful contration of the ventricles closes the AV valves keeping blood form flowing back into the Atria. Some factors that effect blood pressure are Stress, narrowing of arteries, thickness of blood, poor diet, decreased blood oxygen. Other factors can be caffeine, electrolite imbalances, obesity, diabetes, family history. 5. Describe the control mechanism of the heartbeat. Explain how hormones can influence this mechanism. The control mechanisms for the heart involve first cardiac muscle cells which contract and relax repeatedly without any signal form the nervous system. A group of cells wich coordinate contraction are called the sinoatrial node. And it sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. The SA node generates electrical impulses because the cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled through gap junctions. Impulses from the SA node first spread rapidly through the walls of the atria causing both atria to contract in unison. During atrial contraction the impulses originating at the SA node reach other auto rhythmic cells that are located in the wall between the left and right atria. These cells form a relay pint called the atrioventicular (AV) node. Here the impulses are delayed for .1 seconds before spreading to the walls of the ventricles. This delay allows the atria to empty completely before the ventricles contract. Hormones secreted into the blood also influence the SA node. An example is epinephrine, the fight or fight hormone secreted by the adrenal glands which causes the heart rate to increase. 6. Relate structure to function of: arteries, veins, and capillaries. The structure of the arteries: Walls of arteries contain smooth muscle fibre that contract and relax under the instructions of the sympathetic nervous system. Its function is to transport blood away from the heart. The structure of capillaries: Capillaries are tiny (extremely narrow) blood vessels. There are networks of capillaries in most of the organs and tissues of the body. These capillaries are supplied with blood by arterioles and drained by venules. Capillary walls are only one cell thick, which permits exchanges of material between the contents of the capillary and the surrounding tissue. Their function is to supply tissues with components of, the blood, and also to remove waste from the surrounding cells as opposed to simply moving the blood around the body which other vessels do. The Structure of Veins: The walls of

veins consist of three layers of tissues that are thinner and less elastic than the corresponding layers of arteries. Veins include valves that aid the return of blood to the heart by preventing blood from flowing in the reverse direction. Its function is to Transport blood towards the heart. They Transport deoxygenated blood only (except in the case of the pulmonary vein). 7. Describe the role of the lymphatic system. The official definition of the lymphatic system is: The network of vessels through which lymph drains from the tissues into the blood. Lymph is colorless fluid containing white blood cells, that engulfs the tissues and drains through the lymphatic system into the bloodstream. The lymphatic system helps to maintain fluid balance, defend the body against disease and absorb liquids from the intestine and transport them to the blood. Also it collects and returns fluid that leaks from blood vessels. It absorbs fats and vitamins. Lastly, it defends against invading microorganisms and disease. 8. Contrast red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets in structure and function. Describe the structure and functions of plasma. Red blood cells carry oxygen, while white cells do not, for example. Red blood cells in humans do not have nuclei, while white cells do. Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, are responsible for the characteristic color of blood. They are responsible for picking up carbon dioxide from our blood and for transporting oxygen. The essential component of red blood cells is hemoglobin, which can hold oxygen so the cells can then transport around the body. This process is what gives the body energy. For example anemia, low red blood cell count often feel tired and sleepy. While blood cells or leukocytes, on the other hand, are primarily responsible for fighting foreign organisms that enter the body. This includes everything from bacterial and parasitic infections to allergic response. For example T-cells, a form of white blood cells, are the ones that stop functioning properly in the presence of an HIV infection. In structure Red blood cells have a circular shape that resembles a shallow bowl, but they can change shape without breaking to squeeze through smaller spaces if necessary. White blood cells have different shapes, depending on their function. While they can multiply easily, they don't change shape. 9. Define: a. Hemophelia: A medical condition in which the blood has a difficult time clotting, causing the person to bleed severely from even a slight injury. b. Heart attack: A sudden A blockage of the flow of blood to the heart, caused by a blood clot in a coronary artery c. stroke: A sudden disabling attack or loss of consciousness caused by an interruption in the flow of blood to the brain. d. Atherosclerosis: A disease of the arteries characterized by the deposit of plaques of fatty material on their inner walls. e. Hypertension: Abnormally high blood pressure.

10.

Describe how the structure of the skin, gills, and lungs in various species of animals perform the function of gas exchange. Gills are outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in the water. Gills often have a total surface area much greater then that of the rest of the body. Moevement of respiratory medium over the respiratory surface is called ventilation which maintains partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across the gill. Many animals use the gills sort of as paddles to move water through gills. In the tracheal systems of insects which are made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body. The largest tubes called the tracheae open to the outside. The finest braches extend close to the surface of nearly every cell where gas is exchanged.

11. Explain countercurrent exchange. Arrangement of capillaries allows for this. It is the exchange of a substance between two fluids flowing in opposite directions. In a fish fill this process maximizes gas exchange efficiency. Because blood flows in the direction opposite to that of water passing overt the gills, at each point in its travel blood is less saturated with O2 than the water it meets. Thus a partial pressure gradient favoring the diffusion of o2 form water to blood exists along the entire length of the capillary. 12. Relate structure to the function of the: larynx, trachea, and lungs in mammals. The larynx is ahead in the throat and forms as part of the respiratory tract the transition to the trachea. It consists of three major cartilages: the thyroid cartilage, the cricoid, and epiglottis. From the outside you can see it in males as Adam's apple. The larynx has two functions: First, it protects the airway from food scraps, by the swallowing move, forward and up and is closed by the epiglottis. Second, it adjusts the vocal cords, and produces the vibrations of the voice. The trachea is the main channel of air to and from the lungs. It is surrounded by cartilage rings. It is connected to the bronchi which are like the branches of a tree. The bronchi carry the gases deep into the lungs. They branch into bronchioles that eventually go the alveoli where the gases are exchanged. Blood flows to the lungs and releases carbon dioxide in the alveoli and picks up oxygen which is carried to the rest of the body by red blood cells. The can easily be exchanged because of this large tree like system that creates quite a large surface area. 13. Describe the structures and how they function in inhalation (inspiration) and in exhalation (expiration) in humans. Mammals use negative pressure breathing which is pulling rather then pushing are itno their lungs. Using muscle contration to expand the thoracic cavity mammals lower air pressure in their lungs below that of the air outside their boyd. During exhalation the muscles controlling the thoracic cavity relax and the volume is reduced. The increased air pressure in the alveoli forces air up the breathing tubes out of the body. The muscle that expands the thoracic cavity during inhalation is the diaphragm which is a sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the bottom wall of the cavity. Contracting the rib muscles expands the rib cage. Within the thoracic cavity there is a double membrane that surrounds the lungs. The inner layer of this membrane adheres to the outside of the lungs. The outer layer connects to the wall. In the middle of these layers is a space filled with fluid. Surface tension in the fluid causes the two layers to stick together.

14.

Which has a stronger effect on breathing rate oxygen or carbon dioxide level? Describe the role of the nervous system in regulating the breathing rate. Oxygen because humans use oxygen and expel CO2 so they need higher levels of oxygen. So even the CO2 level was high it would not be as bad as if the oxygen level was low. To automatically control breathing the body has networks of neurons called breathing control centers which are located in two brain regions the medulla oblongata and the pons. Control circuits in the medulla establish the breathing rhythm while neurons in the pons regulate its speed. When you breath deeply a negative feedback mechanism prevents the lungs form over expanding. Sensors that detect stretching of lung tissue send nerve impulses to the control circuits in the medulla stopping further inhalation. In regulating breathing the medulla uses the pH of the surrounding tissue fluid as an indicator of blood CO2 concentration.

15.

Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are each carried in human blood. Describe how partial pressure of oxygen and pH can affect hemoglobins ability to carry oxygen.

Oxygen is breathed in through the lungs and diffuses into the circulatory system where it is transported moslty via the hemoglobin molecule), and about 1.5% in the plasma, which contributes to the partial pressure of oxygen in the body. When oxygen reaches its destination it is released. Carbon dioxide is excreted from cells transported by Bicarbonate, and also by hemoglobin. The bicarbonate reaction is carbon dioxide mixes with H20 in the presence of carbonic anhydrase to form H2Co3, which breaks up into the bicarbonate ion HCo3- and free H+. It is only transported in this way and when it reaches its destination the reaction occurs in reverse to reform CO2, which is then excreted from the body. The oxygen binding properties of hemoglobin exist because of the interaction between oxygen and the iron atom of the heme groups and hemoglobin's structure. However, the ability of hemoglobin to pick up or release oxygen also depends on the pO2, the partial pressure of the oxygen in its environment. When the partial pressure of the oxygen is high, as it is in the capillaries around the lung, each molecule of hemoglobin can carry its maximum load of four oxygen molecules. As the blood circulates around the body, the blood experiences lower levels of partial pressure. At these low levels of pO2, the hemoglobin releases some of the oxygen it is carrying. Ex. Graph