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Contents
Articles
Tide Sea level Tide table Slack water Bathymetry Lunitidal interval Amphidromic point Tidal force Theory of tides Tidal acceleration Tidal power Intertidal ecology Internal tide Earth tide Galactic tide Tidal locking Tidal prism Tidal range Tidal resonance Tide pool Tideline Tidal bore Storm surge Head of tide Tidal stream generator Tidal barrage Marine energy 1 22 30 31 32 35 36 37 41 46 52 57 63 66 70 74 80 82 83 84 88 88 94 101 101 108 113
References
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Tide
Tide
High tide, Alma, New Brunswick in the Bay of Fundy Low tide at the same fishing port in Bay of Fundy
Tides (from low-German 'tiet' = 'time') are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. Most places in the ocean usually experience two high tides and two low tides each day (semi-diurnal tide), but some locations experience only one high and one low tide each day (diurnal tide). The times and amplitude of the tides at the coast are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon, by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean and by the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry (see Timing).[1][2][3] Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to numerous influences. To make accurate records, tide gauges at fixed stations measure the water level over time. Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes. These data are compared to the reference (or datum) level usually called mean sea level.[4] While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations, sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes, resulting in storm surges, especially in shallow seas and near coasts. Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans, but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present. For example, the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides, though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements.
Tide
Characteristics
Tide changes proceed via the following stages: Sea level rises over several hours, covering the intertidal zone; flood tide. The water rises to its highest level, reaching high tide. Sea level falls over several hours, revealing the intertidal zone; ebb tide. The water stops falling, reaching low tide. Tides produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The moment that the tidal current ceases is called slack water or slack tide. The tide then reverses direction and is said to be turning. Slack water usually occurs near high water and low water. But there are locations where the moments of slack tide differ significantly from those of high and low water.[5] Tides are most commonly semi-diurnal (two high waters and two low waters each day), or diurnal (one tidal cycle per day). The two high waters on a given day are typically not the same height (the daily inequality); these are the higher high water and the lower high water in tide tables. Similarly, the two low waters each day are the higher low water and the lower low water. The daily inequality is not consistent and is generally small when the Moon is over the equator.[6]
Types of tides
Tidal constituents
Tidal changes are the net result of multiple influences that act over varying periods. These influences are called tidal constituents. The primary constituents are the Earth's rotation, the positions of the Moon and the Sun relative to Earth, the Moon's altitude (elevation) above the Earth's equator, and bathymetry. Variations with periods of less than half a day are called harmonic constituents. Conversely, cycles of days, months, or years are referred to as long period constituents. The tidal forces affect the entire earth, but the movement of the solid Earth is only centimeters. The atmosphere is much more fluid and compressible so its surface moves kilometers, in the sense of the contour level of a particular low pressure in the outer atmosphere.
Tide The Moon orbits the Earth in the same direction as the Earth rotates on its axis, so it takes slightly more than a dayabout 24 hours and 50 minutesfor the Moon to return to the same location in the sky. During this time, it has passed overhead (culmination) once and underfoot once (at an hour angle of 00:00 and 12:00 respectively), so in many places the period of strongest tidal forcing is the above mentioned, about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The moment of highest tide is not necessarily when the Moon is nearest to zenith or nadir, but the period of the forcing still determines the time between high tides. Because the gravitational field created by the Moon weakens with distance from the Moon, it exerts a slightly stronger force on the side of the Earth facing the Moon than average, and a slightly weaker force on the opposite side. The Moon thus tends to "stretch" the Earth slightly along the line connecting the two bodies. The solid Earth deforms a bit, but ocean water, being fluid, is free to move much more in response to the tidal force, particularly horizontally. As the Earth rotates, the magnitude and direction of the tidal force at any particular point on the Earth's surface change constantly; although the ocean never reaches equilibriumthere is never time for the fluid to "catch up" to the state it would eventually reach if the tidal force were constantthe changing tidal force nonetheless causes rhythmic changes in sea surface height. Semi-diurnal range differences When there are two high tides each day with different heights (and two low tides also of different heights), the pattern is called a mixed semi-diurnal tide.[7]
Tide
Lunar altitude
The changing distance separating the Moon and Earth also affects tide heights. When the Moon is closest, at perigee, the range increases, and when it is at apogee, the range shrinks. Every 7 lunations (the full cycles from full moon to new to full), perigee coincides with either a new or full moon causing perigean spring tides with the largest tidal range. Even at its most powerful this force is still weak[9] causing tidal differences of inches at most.[10]
Bathymetry
The shape of the shoreline and the ocean floor changes the way that tides propagate, so there is no simple, general rule that predicts the time of high water from the Moon's position in the Negative low tide at Ocean Beach in San Francisco sky. Coastal characteristics such as underwater bathymetry and coastline shape mean that individual location characteristics affect tide forecasting; actual high water time and height may differ from model predictions due to the coastal morphology's effects on tidal flow. However, for a given location the relationship between lunar altitude and the time of high or low tide (the lunitidal interval) is relatively constant and predictable, as is the time of high or low tide relative to other points on the same coast. For example, the high tide at Norfolk, Virginia, predictably occurs approximately two and a half hours before the Moon passes directly overhead. Land masses and ocean basins act as barriers against water moving freely around the globe, and their varied shapes and sizes affect the size of tidal frequencies. As a result, tidal patterns vary. For example, in the U.S., the East coast has predominantly semi-diurnal tides, as do Europe's Atlantic coasts, while the West coast predominantly has mixed tides.[11][12][13]
Tide
Other constituents
These include solar gravitational effects, the obliquity (tilt) of the Earth's equator and rotational axis, the inclination of the plane of the lunar orbit and the elliptical shape of the Earth's orbit of the sun. A compound tide (or overtide) results from the shallow-water interaction of its two parent waves.[14]
Tide
Physics
History of tidal physics
Tidal physics was important in the early development of heliocentrism and celestial mechanics, with the existence of two daily tides being explained by the Moon's gravity. Later the daily tides were explained more precisely by the interaction of the Moon's gravity and the sun's gravity to cause the variation of tides. An early explanation of tides was given by Galileo Galilei in his 1632 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, whose working title was Dialogue on the Tides. However, the resulting theory was incorrect he attributed the tides to water sloshing due to the Earth's movement around the sun, hoping to provide mechanical proof of the Earth's movement and the value of the theory is disputed, as discussed there. At the same time Johannes Kepler correctly suggested that the Moon caused the tides, based upon ancient observation and correlations, an explanation which was rejected by Galileo. It was originally mentioned in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos as being derived from ancient observation. Isaac Newton (16421727) was the first person to explain tides by the gravitational attraction of masses. His explanation of the tides (and many other phenomena) was published in the Principia (1687).[17][18] and used his theory of universal gravitation to account for the tide-generating forces as due to the lunar and solar attractions.[19] Newton and others before Pierre-Simon Laplace worked with an equilibrium theory, largely concerned with an approximation that describes the tides that would occur in a non-inertial ocean evenly covering the whole Earth.[17] The tide-generating force (or its corresponding potential) is still relevant to tidal theory, but as an intermediate quantity rather than as a final result; theory has to consider also the Earth's accumulated dynamic tidal response to the force, a response that is influenced by bathymetry, Earth's rotation, and other factors.[20] In 1740, the Acadmie Royale des Sciences in Paris offered a prize for the best theoretical essay on tides. Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Colin Maclaurin and Antoine Cavalleri shared the prize. Maclaurin used Newtons theory to show that a smooth sphere covered by a sufficiently deep ocean under the tidal force of a single deforming body is a prolate spheroid (essentially a three dimensional oval) with major axis directed toward the deforming body. Maclaurin was the first to write about the Earth's rotational effects on motion. Euler realized that the tidal force's horizontal component (more than the vertical) drives the tide. In 1744 Jean le Rond d'Alembert studied tidal equations for the atmosphere which did not include rotation. Pierre-Simon Laplace formulated a system of partial differential equations relating the ocean's horizontal flow to its surface height, the first major dynamic theory for water tides. The Laplace tidal equations are still in use today. William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, rewrote Laplace's equations in terms of vorticity which allowed for solutions describing tidally driven coastally trapped waves, known as Kelvin waves.[21][22][23] Others including Kelvin and Henri Poincar further developed Laplace's theory. Based on these developments and the lunar theory of E W Brown describing the motions of the Moon, Arthur Thomas Doodson developed and published in 1921[24] the first modern development of the tide-generating potential in harmonic form: Doodson distinguished 388 tidal frequencies.[25] Some of his methods remain in use.[26]
Forces
The tidal force produced by a massive object (Moon, hereafter) on a small particle located on or in an extensive body (Earth, hereafter) is the vector difference between the gravitational force exerted by the Moon on the particle, and the gravitational force that would be exerted on the particle if it were located at the Earth's center of mass. Thus, the tidal force depends not on the strength of the lunar gravitational field, but on its gradient (which falls off approximately as the inverse cube of the distance to the originating gravitational body).[27][28] The solar gravitational force on the Earth is on average 179 times stronger than the lunar, but because the sun is on average 389 times farther from the Earth, its field gradient is weaker. The solar tidal force is 46% as large as the lunar.[29] More precisely, the lunar tidal
Tide acceleration (along the moon-Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 1.1 107 g, while the solar tidal acceleration (along the sun-Earth axis, at the Earth's surface) is about 0.52 107 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface.[30] Venus has the largest effect of the other planets, at 0.000113 times the solar effect. Tidal forces can also be analysed this way: each point of the Earth experiences the moon's radially decreasing gravity differently. Only the tidal forces' horizontal components actually tidally accelerate the water particles since there is small resistance. The tidal force on a particle equals about one ten millionth that of Earth's gravitational force. The ocean's surface is closely approximated by an equipotential surface, (ignoring ocean currents) commonly referred to as the geoid. Since the gravitational force is equal to the potential's gradient, there The lunar gravity differential field at the Earth's are no tangential forces on such a surface, and the ocean surface is thus surface is known as the tide-generating force. in gravitational equilibrium. Now consider the effect of massive This is the primary mechanism that drives tidal action and explains two equipotential tidal external bodies such as the moon and sun. These bodies have strong bulges, accounting for two daily high waters. gravitational fields that diminish with distance in space and which act to alter the shape of an equipotential surface on the Earth. This deformation has a fixed spatial orientation relative to the influencing body. The Earth's rotation relative to this shape causes the daily tidal cycle. Gravitational forces follow an inverse-square law (force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance), but tidal forces are inversely proportional to the cube of the distance. The ocean surface moves to adjust to changing tidal equipotential, tending to rise when the tidal potential is high, which occurs on the part of the Earth nearest to and furthest from the moon. When the tidal equipotential changes, the ocean surface is no longer aligned with it, so that the apparent direction of the vertical shifts. The surface then experiences a down slope, in the direction that the equipotential has risen.
The boundary conditions dictate no flow across the coastline and free slip at the bottom. The Coriolis effect steers waves to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern allowing coastally trapped waves. Finally, a dissipation term can be added which is an analog to viscosity.[31]
Tide Earth, are elliptical, tidal amplitudes change somewhat as a result of the varying Earthsun and Earthmoon distances. This causes a variation in the tidal force and theoretical amplitude of about 18% for the moon and 5% for the sun. If both the sun and moon were at their closest positions and aligned at new moon, the theoretical amplitude would reach 93 centimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in). Real amplitudes differ considerably, not only because of depth variations and continental obstacles, but also because wave propagation across the ocean has a natural period of the same order of magnitude as the rotation period: if there were no land masses, it would take about 30 hours for a long wavelength surface wave to propagate along the equator halfway around the Earth (by comparison, the Earth's lithosphere has a natural period of about 57 minutes). Earth tides, which raise and lower the bottom of the ocean, and the tide's own gravitational self attraction are both significant and further complicate the ocean's response to tidal forces.
Dissipation
Earth's tidal oscillations introduce dissipation at an average rate of about 3.75 terawatt.[32] About 98% of this dissipation is by marine tidal movement.[33] Dissipation arises as basin-scale tidal flows drive smaller-scale flows which experience turbulent dissipation. This tidal drag creates torque on the moon that gradually transfers angular momentum to its orbit, and a gradual increase in Earthmoon separation. The equal and opposite torque on the Earth correspondingly decreases its rotational velocity. Thus, over geologic time, the moon recedes from the Earth, at about 3.8 centimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in)/year, lengthening the terrestrial day.[34] Day length has increased by about 2 hours in the last 600 million years. Assuming (as a crude approximation) that the deceleration rate has been constant, this would imply that 70 million years ago, day length was on the order of 1% shorter with about 4 more days per year.
Tide
9 The Naturalis Historia of Pliny the Elder collates many tidal observations, e.g., the spring tides are a few days after (or before) new and full moon and are highest around the equinoxes, though Pliny noted many relationships now regarded as fanciful. In his Geography, Strabo described tides in the Persian Gulf having their greatest range when the moon was furthest from the plane of the equator. All this despite the relatively small amplitude of Mediterranean basin tides. (The strong currents through the Euripus Strait and the Strait of Messina puzzled Aristotle.) Philostratus discussed tides in Book Five Brouscon's Almanach of 1546: Tidal diagrams of The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. Philostratus mentions the moon, "according to the age of the moon". but attributes tides to "spirits". In Europe around 730 AD, the Venerable Bede described how the rising tide on one coast of the British Isles coincided with the fall on the other and described the time progression of high water along the Northumbrian coast. In the 9th century, the Arabian earth-scientist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote a treatise entitled Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr (Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb), in which he presents an argument on tides which "depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature." He describes a precise laboratory experiment that proved his argument.[38] The first tide table in China was recorded in 1056 AD primarily for visitors wishing to see the famous tidal bore in the Qiantang River. The first known British tide table is thought to be that of John Wallingford, who died Abbot of St. Albans in 1213, based on high water occurring 48 minutes later each day, and three hours earlier at the Thames mouth than upriver at London. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) led the first systematic harmonic analysis of tidal records starting in 1867. The main result was the building of a tide-predicting machine using a system of pulleys to add together six harmonic time functions. It was "programmed" by resetting gears and chains to adjust phasing and amplitudes. Similar machines were used until the 1960s.[39] The first known sea-level record of an entire springneap cycle was made in 1831 on the Navy Dock in the Thames Estuary. Many large ports had automatic tide gage stations by 1850. William Whewell first mapped co-tidal lines ending with a nearly global chart in 1836. In order to make these maps consistent, he hypothesized the existence of amphidromes where co-tidal lines meet in the mid-ocean. These points of no tide were confirmed by measurement in 1840 by Captain Hewett, RN, from careful soundings in the North Sea.[21]
Tide
10
Timing
There is a delay between the phases of the moon and the effect on the tide. Springs and neaps in the North Sea, for example, are two days behind the new/full moon and first/third quarter moon. This is called the tide's age.[40][41] The local bathymetry greatly influences the tide's exact time and height at a particular coastal point. The same tidal forcing has different results depending on many factors, including coast There are some extreme cases: the Bay orientation, continental shelf margin, water body dimensions. of Fundy, on the east coast of Canada, features the world's largest [42] well-documented tidal ranges, 17 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) because of its shape. Some experts believe Ungava Bay in northern Quebec to have even higher tidal ranges, but it is free of pack ice for only about four months every year, while the Bay of Fundy rarely freezes. Southampton in the United Kingdom has a double high water caused by the interaction between the region's different tidal harmonics, caused primarily by the east/west orientation of the English Channel and the fact that when it is high water at Dover it is low water at Land's End (some 300 nautical miles distant) and vice versa. This is contrary to the popular belief that the flow of water around the Isle of Wight creates two high waters. The Isle of Wight is important, however, since it is responsible for the 'Young Flood Stand', which describes the pause of the incoming tide about three hours after low water.[43] Because the oscillation modes of the Mediterranean Sea and the Baltic Sea do not coincide with any significant astronomical forcing period, the largest tides are close to their narrow connections with the Atlantic Ocean. Extremely small tides also occur for the same reason in the Gulf of Mexico and Sea of Japan. Elsewhere, as along the southern coast of Australia, low tides can be due to the presence of a nearby amphidrome.
Analysis
Isaac Newton's theory of gravitation first enabled an explanation of why there were generally two tides a day, not one, and offered hope for detailed understanding. Although it may seem that tides could be predicted via a sufficiently detailed knowledge of the A regular water level chart instantaneous astronomical forcings, the actual tide at a given location is determined by astronomical forces accumulated over many days. Precise results require detailed knowledge of the shape of all the ocean basinstheir bathymetry and coastline shape. Current procedure for analysing tides follows the method of harmonic analysis introduced in the 1860s by William Thomson. It is based on the principle that the astronomical theories of the motions of sun and moon determine a large number of component frequencies, and at each frequency there is a component of force tending to produce tidal motion, but that at each place of interest on the Earth, the tides respond at each frequency with an amplitude and phase peculiar to that locality. At each place of interest, the tide heights are therefore measured for a period of time sufficiently long (usually more than a year in the case of a new port not previously studied) to enable the response at
Tide each significant tide-generating frequency to be distinguished by analysis, and to extract the tidal constants for a sufficient number of the strongest known components of the astronomical tidal forces to enable practical tide prediction. The tide heights are expected to follow the tidal force, with a constant amplitude and phase delay for each component. Because astronomical frequencies and phases can be calculated with certainty, the tide height at other times can then be predicted once the response to the harmonic components of the astronomical tide-generating forces has been found. The main patterns in the tides are the twice-daily variation the difference between the first and second tide of a day the springneap cycle the annual variation
11
The Highest Astronomical Tide is the perigean spring tide when both the sun and the moon are closest to the Earth. When confronted by a periodically varying function, the standard approach is to employ Fourier series, a form of analysis that uses sinusoidal functions as a basis set, having frequencies that are zero, one, two, three, etc. times the frequency of a particular fundamental cycle. These multiples are called harmonics of the fundamental frequency, and the process is termed harmonic analysis. If the basis set of sinusoidal functions suit the behaviour being modelled, relatively few harmonic terms need to be added. Orbital paths are very nearly circular, so sinusoidal variations are suitable for tides. For the analysis of tide heights, the Fourier series approach has in practice to be made more elaborate than the use of a single frequency and its harmonics. The tidal patterns are decomposed into many sinusoids having many fundamental frequencies, corresponding (as in the lunar theory) to many different combinations of the motions of the Earth, the moon, and the angles that define the shape and location of their orbits. For tides, then, harmonic analysis is not limited to harmonics of a single frequency.[44] In other words, the harmonies are multiples of many fundamental frequencies, not just of the fundamental frequency of the simpler Fourier series approach. Their representation as a Fourier series having only one fundamental frequency and its (integer) multiples would require many terms, and would be severely limited in the time-range for which it would be valid. The study of tide height by harmonic analysis was begun by Laplace, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), and George Darwin. A.T. Doodson extended their work, introducing the Doodson Number notation to organise the hundreds of resulting terms. This approach has been the international standard ever since, and the complications arise as follows: the tide-raising force is notionally given by sums of several terms. Each term is of the form Acos(wt + p) where A is the amplitude, w is the angular frequency usually given in degrees per hour corresponding to t measured in hours, and p is the phase offset with regard to the astronomical state at time t = 0. There is one term for the moon and a second term for the sun. The phase p of the first harmonic for the moon term is called the lunitidal interval or high water interval. The next step is to accommodate the harmonic terms due to the elliptical shape of the orbits. Accordingly, the value of A is not a constant but also varying with time, slightly, about some average figure. Replace it then by A(t) where A is another sinusoid, similar to the cycles and epicycles of Ptolemaic theory. Accordingly, A(t) = A(1 + Aacos(wat + pa)), which is to say an average value A with a sinusoidal variation about it of magnitude Aa, with frequency wa and phase pa. Thus the simple term is now the product of two cosine factors: A[1 + Aacos(wa + pa)]cos(wt + p) Given that for any x and y cos(x)cos(y) = cos( x + y ) + cos( xy ),
Tide it is clear that a compound term involving the product of two cosine terms each with their own frequency is the same as three simple cosine terms that are to be added at the original frequency and also at frequencies which are the sum and difference of the two frequencies of the product term. (Three, not two terms, since the whole expression is (1 + cos(x))cos(y).) Consider further that the tidal force on a location depends also on whether the moon (or the sun) is above or below the plane of the equator, and that these attributes have their own periods also incommensurable with a day and a month, and it is clear that many combinations result. With a careful choice of the basic astronomical frequencies, the Doodson Number annotates the particular additions and differences to form the frequency of each simple cosine term. Remember that astronomical tides do not include weather effects. Also, changes to local conditions (sandbank movement, dredging harbour mouths, etc.) away from those prevailing at the measurement time affect the tide's actual timing and magnitude. Organisations quoting a "highest astronomical tide" for some location may exaggerate the figure as a safety factor against analytical uncertainties, distance from the nearest measurement point, changes since the last observation time, ground subsidence, etc., to avert liability should an engineering work be overtopped. Special care is needed when assessing the size of a "weather surge" by subtracting the astronomical tide from the observed tide. Careful Fourier data analysis over a nineteen-year period (the National Tidal Datum Epoch in the U.S.) uses frequencies called the tidal harmonic constituents. Nineteen years is preferred because the Earth, moon and sun's relative positions repeat almost exactly in the Metonic cycle of 19years, Tidal prediction summing constituent parts. which is long enough to include the 18.613 year lunar nodal tidal constituent. This analysis can be done using only the knowledge of the forcing period, but without detailed understanding of the mathematical derivation, which means that useful tidal tables have been constructed for centuries.[45] The resulting amplitudes and phases can then be used to predict the expected tides. These are usually dominated by the constituents near 12hours (the semi-diurnal constituents), but there are major constituents near 24hours (diurnal) as well. Longer term constituents are 14day or fortnightly, monthly, and semiannual. Semi-diurnal tides dominated coastline, but some areas such as the South China Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are primarily diurnal. In the semi-diurnal areas, the primary constituents M2(lunar) and S2(solar) periods differ slightly, so that the relative phases, and thus the amplitude of the combined tide, change fortnightly (14day period).[46] In the M2 plot above, each cotidal line differs by one hour from its neighbors, and the thicker lines show tides in phase with equilibrium at Greenwich. The lines rotate around the amphidromic points counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere so that from Baja California Peninsula to Alaska and from France to Ireland the M2 tide propagates northward. In the southern hemisphere this direction is clockwise. On the other hand M2 tide propagates counterclockwise around New Zealand, but this is because the islands act as a dam and permit the tides to have different heights on the islands' opposite sides. (The tides do propagate northward on the east side and southward on the west coast, as predicted by theory.)
12
Tide The exception is at Cook Strait where the tidal currents periodically link high to low water. This is because cotidal lines 180 around the amphidromes are in opposite phase, for example high water across from low water at each end of Cook Strait. Each tidal constituent has a different pattern of amplitudes, phases, and amphidromic points, so the M2 patterns cannot be used for other tide components.
13
Example calculation
Further information: The article on A.T. Doodson has a fully worked example calculation for Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S.A. Because the moon is moving in its orbit around the earth and in the same sense as the Earth's rotation, a point on the earth must rotate slightly further to catch up so that the time between semidiurnal tides is not twelve but 12.4206 hoursa bit over twenty-five minutes extra. The two peaks are not equal. The two high tides a day alternate in maximum heights: lower high (just under three feet), higher high (just over three feet), and again lower high. Likewise for the low tides. When the Earth, moon, and sun are in line (sunEarthmoon, or sunmoonEarth) the two main influences combine to produce spring tides; when the two forces are opposing each other as when the angle moonEarthsun is close to ninety degrees, neap tides result. As the moon moves around its orbit it changes from north of the equator to south of the equator. The alternation in high tide heights becomes smaller, until they are the same (at the lunar equinox, the moon is above the equator), then redevelop but with the other polarity, waxing to a maximum difference and then waning again.
Current
The tides' influence on current flow is much more difficult to analyse, and data is much more difficult to collect. A tidal height is a simple number which applies to a wide region simultaneously. A flow has both a magnitude and a direction, both of which can vary substantially with depth and over short distances due to local bathymetry. Also, although a water channel's center is the most useful measuring site, mariners Tides at Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S.A. during a 400 day period. object when current-measuring equipment obstructs waterways. A flow proceeding up a curved channel is the same flow, even though its direction varies continuously along the channel. Surprisingly, flood and ebb flows are often not in opposite directions. Flow
Tide
14 direction is determined by the upstream channel's shape, not the downstream channel's shape. Likewise, eddies may form in only one flow direction. Nevertheless, current analysis is similar to tidal analysis: in the simple case, at a given location the flood flow is in mostly one direction, and the ebb flow in another direction. Flood velocities are given positive sign, and ebb velocities negative sign. Analysis proceeds as though these are tide heights. In more complex situations, the main ebb and flood Two spring tides per month vs. one. flows do not dominate. Instead, the flow direction and magnitude trace an ellipse over a tidal cycle (on a polar plot) instead of along the ebb and flood lines. In this case, analysis might proceed along pairs of directions, with the primary and secondary directions at right angles. An alternative is to treat the tidal flows as complex numbers, as each value has both a magnitude and a direction. Tide flow information is most commonly seen on nautical charts, presented as a table of flow speeds and bearings at hourly intervals, with separate tables for spring and neap tides. The timing is relative to high water at some harbour where the tidal behaviour is similar in pattern, though it may be far away. As with tide height predictions, tide flow predictions based only on astronomical factors do not incorporate weather conditions, which can completely change the outcome. The tidal flow through Cook Strait between the two main islands of New Zealand is particularly interesting, as the tides on each side of the strait are almost exactly out of phase, so that one side's high water is simultaneous with the other's low water. Strong currents result, with almost zero tidal height change in the strait's center. Yet, although the tidal surge normally flows in one direction for six hours and in the reverse direction for six hours, a particular surge might last eight or ten hours with the reverse surge enfeebled. In especially boisterous weather conditions, the reverse surge might be entirely overcome so that the flow continues in the same direction through three or more surge periods. A further complication for Cook Strait's flow pattern is that the tide at the north side (e.g. at Nelson) follows the common bi-weekly springneap tide cycle (as found along the west side of the country), but the south side's tidal pattern has only one cycle per month, as on the east side: Wellington, and Napier. Figure 12 shows separately the high water and low water height and time, through November 2007; these are not measured values but instead are calculated from tidal parameters derived from years-old measurements. Cook Strait's nautical chart offers tidal current information. For instance the January 1979 edition for 41139S 174296E (north west of Cape Terawhiti) refers timings to Westport while the January 2004 issue refers to Wellington. Near Cape Terawhiti in the middle of Cook Strait the tidal height variation is almost nil while the tidal current reaches its maximum, especially near the notorious Karori Rip. Aside from weather effects, the actual currents through Cook Strait are influenced by the tidal height differences between the two ends of the strait and as can be seen, only one of the two spring tides at the north end (Nelson) has a counterpart spring tide at the south end (Wellington), so the resulting behaviour follows neither reference harbour.
Tide
15
Power generation
Tidal energy can be extracted by two means: inserting a water turbine into a tidal current, or building ponds that release/admit water through a turbine. In the first case, the energy amount is entirely determined by the timing and tidal current magnitude. However, the best currents may be unavailable because the turbines would obstruct ships. In the second, the impoundment dams are expensive to construct, natural water cycles are completely disrupted, ship navigation is disrupted. However, with multiple ponds, power can be generated at chosen times. So far, there are few installed systems for tidal power generation (most famously, La Rance by Saint Malo, France) which faces many difficulties. Aside from environmental issues, simply withstanding corrosion and biological fouling pose engineering challenges. Tidal power proponents point out that, unlike wind power systems, generation levels can be reliably predicted, save for weather effects. While some generation is possible for most of the tidal cycle, in practice turbines lose efficiency at lower operating rates. Since the power available from a flow is proportional to the cube of the flow speed, the times during which high power generation is possible are brief.
Navigation
Tidal flows are important for navigation, and significant errors in position occur if they are not accommodated. Tidal heights are also important; for example many rivers and harbours have a shallow "bar" at the entrance which prevents boats with significant draft from entering at low tide. Until the advent of automated navigation, competence in calculating tidal effects was important to naval officers. The certificate of examination for lieutenants in the Royal Navy once declared that the prospective officer
was able to "shift his tides".[47] Tidal flow timings and velocities appear in tide charts or a tidal stream atlas. Tide charts come in sets. Each chart covers a single hour between one high water and another (they ignore the leftover 24 minutes) and show the average tidal flow for that hour. An arrow on the tidal chart indicates the direction and the average flow speed (usually in knots) for spring and neap tides. If a tide chart is not available, most nautical charts have "tidal diamonds" which relate specific points on the chart to a table giving tidal flow direction and speed. The standard procedure to counteract tidal effects on navigation is to (1) calculate a "dead reckoning" position (or DR) from travel distance and direction, (2) mark the chart (with a vertical cross like a plus sign) and (3) draw a line from the DR in the tide's direction. The distance the tide moves the boat along this line is computed by the tidal speed, and this gives an "estimated position" or EP (traditionally marked with a dot in a triangle).
Tide
16 Nautical charts display the water's "charted depth" at specific locations with "soundings" and the use of bathymetric contour lines to depict the submerged surface's shape. These depths are relative to a "chart datum", which is typically the water level at the lowest possible astronomical tide (although other datums are commonly used, especially historically, and tides may be lower or higher for meteorological reasons) and are therefore the minimum possible water depth during the tidal cycle. "Drying heights" may also be shown on the chart, which are the heights of the exposed seabed at the lowest astronomical tide. Tide tables list each day's high and low water heights and times. To calculate the actual water depth, add the charted depth to the published tide height. Depth for other Tidal Indicator, Delaware River, Delaware c. 1897. At the time shown in the times can be derived from tidal curves figure, the tide is 1 feet above mean low water and is still falling, as indicated by published for major ports. The rule of pointing of the arrow. Indicator is powered by system of pulleys, cables and a float. (Report Of The Superintendent Of The Coast & Geodetic Survey Showing The twelfths can suffice if an accurate curve is Progress Of The Work During The Fiscal Year Ending With June 1897 (p. 483)) not available. This approximation presumes that the increase in depth in the six hours between low and high water is: first hour 1/12, second 2/12, third 3/12, fourth 3/12, fifth 2/12, sixth 1/12.
Biological aspects
Tide
17
Intertidal ecology
Intertidal ecology is the study of intertidal ecosystems, where organisms live between the low and high water lines. At low water, the intertidal is exposed (or emersed) whereas at high water, the intertidal is underwater (or immersed). Intertidal ecologists therefore study the interactions between intertidal organisms and their environment, as well as among the different species. The most important interactions may vary according to the type of intertidal community. The broadest classifications are based on substrates rocky shore or soft bottom. Intertidal organisms experience a highly variable and often hostile environment, and have adapted to cope with and even exploit these conditions. One easily visible feature is vertical zonation, in which the community divides into distinct horizontal bands of specific species at each elevation above low water. A species' ability to cope with desiccation determines its upper limit, while competition with other species sets its lower limit. Humans use intertidal regions for food and recreation. Overexploitation can damage intertidals directly. Other anthropogenic actions such as introducing invasive species and climate change have large negative effects. Marine Protected Areas are one option communities can apply to protect these areas and aid scientific research.
Biological rhythms
The approximately fortnightly tidal cycle has large effects on intertidal organisms. Hence their biological rhythms tend to occur in rough multiples of this period. Many other animals such as the vertebrates, display similar rhythms. Examples include gestation and egg hatching. In humans, the menstrual cycle lasts roughly a lunar month, an even multiple of the tidal period. Such parallels at least hint at the common descent of all animals from a marine ancestor.[48]
Other tides
When oscillating tidal currents in the stratified ocean flow over uneven bottom topography, they generate internal waves with tidal frequencies. Such waves are called internal tides. Shallow areas in otherwise open water can experience rotary tidal currents, flowing in directions that continually change and thus the flow direction (not the flow) completes a full rotation in 12 hours (for example, the Nantucket Shoals.[49] In addition to oceanic tides, large lakes can experience small tides and even planets can experience atmospheric tides and Earth tides. These are continuum mechanical phenomena. The first two take place in fluids. The third affects the Earth's thin solid crust surrounding its semi-liquid interior (with various modifications).
Tide
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Lake tides
Large lakes such as Superior and Erie can experience tides of 1 to 4cm, but these can be masked by meteorologically induced phenomena such as seiche.[50] The tide in Lake Michigan is described as 0.5 to 1.5 inches (unknown operator: u'strong' to unknown operator: u'strong' mm)[51] or 1inches.[52]
Atmospheric tides
Atmospheric tides are negligible at ground level and aviation altitudes, masked by weather's much more important effects. Atmospheric tides are both gravitational and thermal in origin and are the dominant dynamics from about 80120 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong' unknown operator: u'strong') above which the molecular density becomes too low to support fluid behavior.
Earth tides
Earth tides or terrestrial tides affect the entire Earth's mass, which acts similarly to a liquid gyroscope with a very thin crust. The Earth's crust shifts (in/out, east/west, north/south) in response to lunar and solar gravitation, ocean tides, and atmospheric loading. While negligible for most human activities, terrestrial tides' semi-diurnal amplitude can reach about 55 centimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in) at the equator15 centimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in) due to the sunwhich is important in GPS calibration and VLBI measurements. Precise astronomical angular measurements require knowledge of the Earth's rotation rate and nutation, both of which are influenced by Earth tides. The semi-diurnal M2 Earth tides are nearly in phase with the moon with a lag of about two hours. Some particle physics experiments must adjust for terrestrial tides.[53] For instance, at CERN and SLAC, the very large particle accelerators account for terrestrial tides. Among the relevant effects are circumference deformation for circular accelerators and particle beam energy.[54][55] Since tidal forces generate currents in conducting fluids in the Earth's interior, they in turn affect the Earth's magnetic field. Earth tides have also been linked to the triggering of earthquakes[56] (see also earthquake prediction).
Galactic tides
Galactic tides are the tidal forces exerted by galaxies on stars within them and satellite galaxies orbiting them. The galactic tide's effects on the Solar System's Oort cloud are believed to cause 90 percent of long-period comets.[57]
Misapplications
Tsunamis, the large waves that occur after earthquakes, are sometimes called tidal waves, but this name is given by their resemblance to the tide, rather than any actual link to the tide. Other phenomena unrelated to tides but using the word tide are rip tide, storm tide, hurricane tide, and black or red tides.
Tide
19
Notes
[1] M. P. M. Reddy, M. Affholder (2002). Descriptive physical oceanography: State of the Art (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2NC3JmKI7mYC& pg=PA436& dq=tides+ centrifugal+ "equilibrium+ theory"+ date:2000-2010). Taylor and Francis. p.249. ISBN90-5410-706-5. OCLC223133263 47801346. . [2] Richard Hubbard (1893). Boater's Bowditch: The Small Craft American Practical Navigator (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=nfWSxRr8VP4C& pg=PA54& dq=centrifugal+ revolution+ and+ rotation+ date:1970-2009). McGraw-Hill Professional. p.54. ISBN0-07-136136-7. OCLC44059064. . [3] Coastal orientation and geometry affects the phase, direction, and amplitude of amphidromic systems, coastal Kelvin waves as well as resonant seiches in bays. In estuaries seasonal river outflows influence tidal flow. [4] "Tidal lunar day" (http:/ / www. oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ tides/ media/ supp_tide05. html). NOAA. . Do not confuse with the astronomical lunar day on the Moon. A lunar zenith is the Moon's highest point in the sky. [5] Mellor, George L. (1996). Introduction to physical oceanography. Springer. p.169. ISBN1-56396-210-1. [6] Tide tables usually list mean lower low water (mllw, the 19 year average of mean lower low waters), mean higher low water (mhlw), mean lower high water (mlhw), mean higher high water (mhhw), as well as perigean tides. These are mean values in the sense that they derive from mean data. "Glossary of Coastal Terminology: HM" (http:/ / www. ecy. wa. gov/ programs/ sea/ swces/ products/ publications/ glossary/ words/ H_M. htm). Washington Department of Ecology, State of Washington. . Retrieved 5 April 2007. [7] "Types and causes of tidal cycles" (http:/ / oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ tides/ tides07_cycles. html). U S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Ocean Service (Education section). . [8] Swerdlow, Noel M.; Neugebauer, Otto (1984). Mathematical astronomy in Copernicus's De revolutionibus, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4YDvAAAAMAAJ& q=Syzygy& dq=Syzygy& cd=30). Springer-Verlag. p.76. ISBN0-387-90939-7, 9780387909394. [9] Plait, Phil (11 March 2011). "No, the supermoon didnt cause the Japanese earthquake" (http:/ / blogs. discovermagazine. com/ badastronomy/ 2011/ 03/ 11/ no-the-supermoon-didnt-cause-the-japanese-earthquake/ ). Discover Magazine. . Retrieved 16 May 2012. [10] Rice, Tony (4 May 2012). "Super moon looms Saturday" (http:/ / www. wral. com/ weather/ blogpost/ 11061791/ ). WRAL-TV. . Retrieved 5 May 2012. [11] U S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Ocean Service (Education section), map showing world distribution of tide patterns (http:/ / oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ tides/ media/ supp_tide07b. html), semi-diurnal, diurnal and mixed semi-diurnal. [12] Thurman, H V (1994). Introductory Oceanography (7 ed.). New York, NY: Macmillan. pp.252276.ref [13] Ross, D A (1995). Introduction to Oceanography. New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp.236242. [14] Le Provost, Christian(1991). Generation of Overtides and compound tides (review). In Bruce B. Parker, ed Tidal Hydrodynamics. John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-51498-5 [15] Y. Accad, C. L. Pekeris (November 28, 1978). "Solution of the Tidal Equations for the M2 and S2 Tides in the World Oceans from a Knowledge of the Tidal Potential Alone". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 290 (1368): 235266. [16] "Tide forecasts" (http:/ / www. niwa. cri. nz/ rc/ prog/ chaz/ news/ coastal#tide). New Zealand: National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research. . Retrieved 2008-11-07. Including animations of the M2, S2 and K1 tides for New Zealand. [17] E Lisitzin (1974). "2 "Periodical sea-level changes: Astronomical tides"". Sea-Level Changes, (Elsevier Oceanography Series). 8. p.5. [18] "What Causes Tides?" (http:/ / oceanservice. noaa. gov/ education/ kits/ tides/ tides02_cause. html). U S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Ocean Service (Education section). . [19] See for example, in the 'Principia' (Book 1) (1729 translation), Corollaries 19 and 20 to Proposition 66, on pages 251254 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tm0FAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA251), referring back to page 234 et seq.; and in Book 3 Propositions 24, 36 and 37, starting on page 255 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC& pg=PA255). [20] J Wahr (1995). Earth Tides in "Global Earth Physics", American Geophysical Union Reference Shelf #1,. pp.4046. [21] Yang Zuosheng, K. O. Emery, Xui Yui (July 1989). "Historical Development and Use of Thousand-Year-Old Tide-Prediction Tables". Limnology and Oceanography 34 (5): 953957. doi:10.4319/lo.1989.34.5.0953. [22] David E. Cartwright (1999). Tides: A Scientific History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [23] Case, James (March 2000). "Understanding TidesFrom Ancient Beliefs to Present-day Solutions to the Laplace Equations". SIAM News 33 (2). [24] A T Doodson (December, 1921). "The Harmonic Development of the Tide-Generating Potential". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A 100 (704): 305329. Bibcode1921RSPSA.100..305D. [25] S Casotto, F Biscani (April 2004). "A fully analytical approach to the harmonic development of the tide-generating potential accounting for precession, nutation, and perturbations due to figure and planetary terms". AAS Division on Dynamical Astronomy 36 (2): 67. [26] See e.g. T D Moyer (2003), "Formulation for observed and computed values of Deep Space Network data types for navigation", vol.3 in Deep-space communications and navigation series, Wiley (2003), e.g. at pp.1268. [27] NASA (May 4, 2000). "Interplanetary Low Tide" (http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ headlines/ y2000/ ast04may_1m. htm). . Retrieved September 26, 2009. [28] Two points on either side of the Earth sample the imposed gravity at two nearby points, effectively providing a finite difference of the gravitational force that varies as the inverse square of the distance. The derivative of 1/r2, with r = distance to originating body, varies as the
Tide
inverse cube. [29] According to NASA (http:/ / imagine. gsfc. nasa. gov/ docs/ ask_astro/ answers/ 961029b. html) the lunar tidal force is 2.21 times larger than the solar. [30] See Tidal force Mathematical treatment and sources cited there. [31] Hypothetically, if the ocean were a constant depth, there were no land, and the Earth did not rotate, high water would occur as two bulges in the oceans' height, one facing the moon and the other facing away from the moon. There would also be smaller, superimposed bulges on the sides facing toward and away from the sun. [32] Munk, W.; Wunsch, C (1998). "Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind mixing". Deep Sea Research Part I Oceanographic Research Papers 45 (12): 1977. Bibcode1998DSRI...45.1977M. doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3. [33] Ray, R. D.; Eanes, R. J.; Chao, B. F. (1996). "Detection of tidal dissipation in the solid Earth by satellite tracking and altimetry". Nature 381 (6583): 595. Bibcode1996Natur.381..595R. doi:10.1038/381595a0. [34] Lecture 2: The Role of Tidal Dissipation and the Laplace Tidal Equations by Myrl Hendershott. GFD Proceedings Volume, 2004, WHOI Notes by Yaron Toledo and Marshall Ward. [35] Flussi e riflussi. Milano: Feltrinelli. 2003. ISBN88-07-10349-4. [36] "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (500 (1)): 525545 [527]. 1987. [37] Baike.baidu.com (http:/ / baike. baidu. com/ view/ 135336. htm) [38] Prioreschi, Plinio (2002). "Al-Kindi, A Precursor Of The Scientific Revolution". Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine (2): 1719 [17]. [39] "The DoodsonLg Tide Predicting Machine" (http:/ / www. pol. ac. uk/ home/ insight/ doodsonmachine. html). Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-10-03. [40] Glossary of Meteorology (http:/ / amsglossary. allenpress. com/ glossary/ search?id=age1) American Meteorological Society. [41] Webster, Thomas (1837). The elements of physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dUwEAAAAQAAJ). Printed for Scott, Webster, and Geary. p.168. ., Extract of page 168 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dUwEAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA168) [42] "FAQ" (http:/ / www. waterlevels. gc. ca/ english/ FrequentlyAskedQuestions. shtml#importantes). . Retrieved June 23, 2007. [43] English Channel double tides. Retrieved April 24, 2008. (http:/ / www. bristolnomads. org. uk/ stuff/ double_tides. htm) [44] To demonstrate this Tides Home Page (http:/ / www. arachnoid. com/ tides/ index. html) offers a tidal height pattern converted into an .mp3 sound file, and the rich sound is quite different from a pure tone. [45] Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services, National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (January 2000). "Tide and Current Glossary" (http:/ / tidesandcurrents. noaa. gov/ publications/ glossary2. pdf). Silver Spring, MD. . [46] Harmonic Constituents (http:/ / tidesandcurrents. noaa. gov/ harmonic_cons_defs. html), NOAA. [47] Society for Nautical Research (1958). The Mariner's Mirror (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=lagPAAAAIAAJ& q="shift+ his+ tides"& dq="shift+ his+ tides"). . Retrieved 2009-04-28. [48] The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray. 1871. [49] Le Lacheur, Embert A. Tidal currents in the open sea: Subsurface tidal currents at Nantucket Shoals Light Vessel (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 208104) Geographical Review, April 1924. Accessed: 4 February 2012. [50] "Do the Great Lakes have tides?" (http:/ / www. great-lakes. net/ teach/ chat/ answers/ 100100_tides. html). Great Lakes Information Network. October 1, 2000. . Retrieved 2010-02-10. [51] "Tides on Lake Michigan" (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ phy00/ phy00330. htm). Argonne National Laboratory. . Retrieved 2010-02-10. [52] Duane Dunkerson. "moon and Tides" (http:/ / www. thespaceguy. com/ moontides. htm). Astronomy Briefly. . Retrieved 2010-02-10. [53] "Linac" (http:/ / news-service. stanford. edu/ news/ 2000/ march29/ linac-329. html). Stanford. . [54] "Effects of Tidal Forces on the Beam Energy in LEP" (http:/ / accelconf. web. cern. ch/ accelconf/ e00/ PAPERS/ MOP5A04. pdf). PAC (IEEE). 1993. . [55] "Long term variation of the circumference of the spring-8 storage ring" (http:/ / accelconf. web. cern. ch/ accelconf/ p93/ PDF/ PAC1993_0044. PDF). Proceedings of EPAC. 2000 Location=Vienna, Austria. . [56] Tanaka, Sachiko (2010). "Tidal triggering of earthquakes precursory to the recent Sumatra megathrust earthquakes of 26 December 2004 (Mw9.0), 28 March 2005 (Mw8.6), and 12 September 2007 (Mw8.5)". Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 (2): L02301. Bibcode2010GeoRL..3702301T. doi:10.1029/2009GL041581. [57] Nurmi P., Valtonen M.J. & Zheng J.Q. (2001). "Periodic variation of Oort Cloud flux and cometary impacts on the Earth and Jupiter". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 327 (4): 13671376. Bibcode2001MNRAS.327.1367N. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04854.x.
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External links
150 Years of Tides on the Western Coast: The Longest Series of Tidal Observations in the Americas (http:// tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/150_years_of_tides.pdf) NOAA (2004). Eugene I. Butikov: A dynamical picture of the ocean tides (http://faculty.ifmo.ru/butikov/Projects/tides1.pdf) Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences MIT Open Courseware; Ch 8 3 (http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/ rdonlyres/Earth--Atmospheric--and-Planetary-Sciences/12-090Spring-2007/LectureNotes/earthsurface_8.pdf) Myths about Gravity and Tides (http://www.jal.cc.il.us/~mikolajsawicki/Tides_new2.pdf) by Mikolaj Sawicki (2005). Ocean Motion: Open-Ocean Tides (http://www.oceanmotion.org/html/background/tides-ocean.htm) Oceanography: tides (http://www.seafriends.org.nz/oceano/tides.htm) by J. Floor Anthoni (2000). Our Restless Tides (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles1.html): NOAA's practical & short introduction to tides. Planetary alignment and the tides (NASA) (http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast04may_1m.htm) Tidal Misconceptions (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/scenario/tides.htm) by Donald E. Simanek. Tides and centrifugal force (http://www.vialattea.net/maree/eng/index.htm): Why the centrifugal force does not explain the tide's opposite lobe (with nice animations). O. Toledano et al. (2008): Tides in asynchronous binary systems (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0610563v1) Gif Animation of TPX06 tide model based on TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) satellite radar altimetry (http://volkov. oce.orst.edu/tides) Gaylord Johnson "How Moon and Sun Generate the Tides" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=uSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA50&dq=Popular+Science+1932+plane&hl=en& ei=qXo-TZy2MMP88AaF_NSQCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CCgQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q&f=true) Popular Science, April 1934 Tide gauge observation reference networks (http://refmar.shom.fr) (French designation REFMAR: Rseaux de rfrence des observations margraphiques)
Tide predictions
NOAA Tide Predictions (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/tide_predictions.shtml) NOAA Tides and Currents information and data (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/) History of tide prediction (http://www.co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/predhist.html) Department of Oceanography, Texas A&M University (http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/ chapter17/chapter17_04.htm) Mapped, graphical and tabular tide charts for US displayed as calendar months (http://www.protides.com/) Mapped, graphical US tide tables/charts in calendar form from NOAA data (http://tidesite.appspot.com/) SHOM Tide Predictions (http://www.shom.fr/fr_page/fr_serv_prediction/ann_marees.htm) UK Admiralty Easytide (http://easytide.ukho.gov.uk/EasyTide/EasyTide/index.aspx) UK, South Atlantic, British Overseas Territories and Gibraltar tide times from the UK National Tidal and Sea Level Facility (http://www.pol.ac.uk/ntslf/tidalp.html) Tide Predictions for Australia, South Pacific & Antarctica (http://www.bom.gov.au/oceanography/tides/ index.shtml) Tide and Current Predictor, for stations around the world (http://tbone.biol.sc.edu/tide/index.html) World Tide Tables (http://www.tides4fishing.com) Famous Tidal Prediction Pioneers and Notable Contributions (http://www.juliantrubin.com/schooldirectory/ tide_prediction.html)
Sea level
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Sea level
Mean sea level (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the halfway point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide); used as a standard in reckoning land elevation.[1] MSL also plays an extremely important role in aviation, where standard sea level pressure is used as the measurement datum of altitude at flight levels.
This marker indicating the sea level is placed on the path from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea.
Measurement
To an operator of a tide gauge, MSL means the "still water level"the level of the sea with motions such as wind waves averaged outaveraged over a period of time such that changes in sea level, e.g., due to the tides, also get averaged out. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land. Hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the Ordnance Datum (the 0 metres height on UK maps) is the mean sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921 the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, Liverpool.
In France, the Margraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and offers the longest collapsed data about the sea level. It is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001 and the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2 satellite in 2008.
Sea level measurements from 23 long tide gauge records in geologically stable environments show a rise of around 200 millimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in) during the 20th century (2 mm/year).
Sea level
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Difficulties in utilization
To extend this definition far from the sea means comparing the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level" reference surface, or datum, called the geoid. In a state of rest or absence of external forces, the mean sea level would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field. In reality, due to currents, air pressure variations, 1. Ocean. 2. Reference ellipsoid. temperature and salinity variations, etc., this 3. Local plumb line. 4. Continent. 5. Geoid does not occur, not even as a long term average. The location-dependent, but persistent in time, separation between mean sea level and the geoid is referred to as (stationary) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a range of 2 m. Traditionally, one had to process sea-level measurements to take into account the effect of the 228-month Metonic cycle and the 223-month eclipse cycle on the tides. Mean sea level is not constant over the surface of the Earth. For instance, mean sea level at the Pacific end of the Panama Canal stands 20cm (unknown operator: u'strong'in) higher than at the Atlantic end.
Sea level sign (2/3 of the way up the cliff face) above Badwater Basin, Death Valley National Park, USA
On other planets that lack a liquid ocean, planetologists can calculate a "mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea level", serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features.
Sea level
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Meteorological and oceanographic fluctuations Atmospheric pressure Winds (storm surges) Hours to months 15 days 0.7 to 1.3 m Up to 5 m
Evaporation and precipitation (may also follow long-term pattern) Days to weeks Ocean surface topography (changes in water density and currents) Days to weeks El Nio/southern oscillation Seasonal variations Seasonal water balance among oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian) Seasonal variations in slope of water surface River runoff/floods Seasonal water density changes (temperature and salinity) Seiches Seiches (standing waves) Earthquakes Tsunamis (generate catastrophic long-period waves) Abrupt change in land level Hours Minutes Up to 10 m Up to 10 m Minutes to hours Up to 2 m 2 months 6 months 1m 0.2 m Up to 1 m
Sea level
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Sea level Climate changes during the 20th century are estimated from modelling studies to have led to contributions of between 0.2 and 0.0mm/yr from Antarctica (the results of increasing precipitation) and 0.0 to 0.1mm/yr from Greenland (from changes in both precipitation and runoff). Estimates suggest that Greenland and Antarctica have contributed 0.0 to 0.5mm/yr over the 20th century as a result of long-term adjustment to the end of the last ice age. The current rise in sea level observed from tide gauges, of about 1.8mm/yr, is within the estimate range from the combination of factors above[5] but active research continues in this field. The terrestrial storage term, thought to be highly uncertain, is no longer positive, and shown to be quite large. Geological influences At times during Earth's long history, the configuration of the continents and seafloor have changed due to plate tectonics. This affects global sea level by determining the depths of the ocean basins and how glacial-interglacial cycles distribute ice across the Earth. The depth of the ocean basins is a function of the age of oceanic lithosphere: as lithosphere becomes older, it becomes denser and sinks. Therefore, a configuration with many small oceanic plates that rapidly recycle lithosphere will produce shallower Comparison of two sea level reconstructions during the last 500 Ma. The scale of ocean basins and (all other things being change during the last glacial/interglacial transition is indicated with a black bar. equal) higher sea levels. A configuration Note that over most of geologic history, long-term average sea level has been significantly higher than today. with fewer plates and more cold, dense oceanic lithosphere, on the other hand, will result in deeper ocean basins and lower sea levels. When there were large amounts of continental crust near the poles, the rock record shows unusually low sea levels during ice ages, because there was lots of polar land mass upon which snow and ice could accumulate. During times when the land masses clustered around the equator, ice ages had much less effect on sea level. Over most of geologic time, long-term sea level has been higher than today (see graph above). Only at the Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was long-term sea level lower than today. Long term changes in sea level are the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long term.[6] During the glacial/interglacial cycles over the past few million years, sea level has varied by somewhat more than a hundred metres. This is primarily due to the growth and decay of ice sheets (mostly in the northern hemisphere) with water evaporated from the sea. The Mediterranean Basin's gradual growth as the Neotethys basin, begun in the Jurassic, did not suddenly affect ocean levels. While the Mediterranean was forming during the past 100 million years, the average ocean level was generally 200 metres above current levels. However, the largest known example of marine flooding was when the Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar at the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis about 5.2 million years ago. This restored Mediterranean sea levels at the sudden end of the period when that basin had dried up, apparently due to geologic forces in the area of the Strait.
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Sea level
27
Long-term causes
Range of effect
Vertical effect
Change in volume of ocean basins Plate tectonics and seafloor spreading (plate divergence/convergence) and change in seafloor elevation (mid-ocean volcanism) Marine sedimentation Change in mass of ocean water Melting or accumulation of continental ice Climate changes during the 20th century Antarctica (the results of increasing precipitation) Eustatic -0.2 to 0.0mm/yr 0.0 to 0.1mm/yr Eustatic 10mm/yr Eustatic 0.01mm/yr
Eustatic
< 0.01mm/yr
Greenland (from changes in both precipitation and runoff) Long-term adjustment to the end of the last ice age Greenland and Antarctica contribution over 20th century Release of water from earth's interior Release or accumulation of continental hydrologic reservoirs Uplift or subsidence of Earth's surface (Isostasy) Thermal-isostasy (temperature/density changes in earth's interior) Glacio-isostasy (loading or unloading of ice) Hydro-isostasy (loading or unloading of water) Volcano-isostasy (magmatic extrusions) Sediment-isostasy (deposition and erosion of sediments) Tectonic uplift/subsidence Vertical and horizontal motions of crust (in response to fault motions) Sediment compaction Sediment compression into denser matrix (particularly significant in and near river deltas) Loss of interstitial fluids (withdrawal of groundwater or oil) Earthquake-induced vibration Departure from geoid Shifts in hydrosphere, aesthenosphere, core-mantle interface Shifts in earth's rotation, axis of spin, and precession of equinox External gravitational changes Evaporation and precipitation (if due to a long-term pattern)
Eustatic
0.0 to 0.5mm/yr
Local effect Local effect Local effect Local effect Local effect < 4mm/yr 10mm/yr
Local effect
13mm/yr
Sea level
28
Comparison of two sea level reconstructions during the last 500 Ma. The scale of change during the last glacial/interglacial transition is indicated with a black bar. Note that over most of geologic history long-term average sea level has been significantly higher than today.
Recent changes
For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of about 1.8mm per year.[8] The majority of this rise can be attributed to the increase in temperature of the sea and a slight resulting thermal expansion of the upper 500m of sea water. Additional contributions, as much as one-fourth of the total, come from water sources on land such as melting snow and glaciers and extraction of groundwater for irrigation and other agricultural and human needs. (see global warming).[9]
Sea level
29
Aviation
Using pressure to measure altitude results in two other types of altitude. Distance above true or MSL (mean sea level) is the next best measurement to absolute. MSL altitude is the distance above where sea level would be if there were no land. If one knows the elevation of terrain, the distance above the ground is calculated by a simple subtraction. An MSL altitudecalled pressure altitude by pilotsis useful for predicting physiological responses in unpressurized aircraft (see hypoxia). It also correlates with engine, propeller, and wing performance, which all decrease in thinner air. Pilots can estimate height above terrain with an altimeter set to a defined barometric pressure. Generally, the pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over. This pressure is referred to as either QNH or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from air traffic control (ATC) or an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading. Aviation charts are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated. Once above the transition altitude (see below), the altimeter is set to the international standard atmosphere (ISA) pressure at MSL which is 1013.2 HPa or 29.92 inHg.[10]
Flight level
MSL is useful for aircraft to avoid terrain, but at high enough altitudes, there is no terrain to avoid. Above that level, pilots are primarily interested in avoiding each other, so they adjust their altimeter to standard temperature and pressure conditions (average sea level pressure and temperature) and disregard actual barometric pressureuntil descending below transition level. To distinguish from MSL, such altitudes are called flight levels. Standard pilot shorthand is to express flight level as hundreds of feet, so FL 240 is 24000 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm). Pilots use the international standard pressure setting of 1013.25 hPa (29.92 inHg) when referring to Flight Levels. The altitude at which aircraft are mandated to set their altimeter to flight levels is called "transition altitude". It varies from country to country. For example in the U.S. it is 18,000 feet, in many European countries it is 3,000 or 5,000 feet.
Notes
[1] What is "Mean Sea Level"? (http:/ / www. straightdope. com/ columns/ read/ 148/ what-is-sea-level#1) Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory [2] "Eustatic sea level" (http:/ / www. glossary. oilfield. slb. com/ Display. cfm?Term=eustatic sea level). Oilfield Glossary. Schlumberger Limited. . Retrieved 10 June 2011. [3] "Some physical characteristics of ice on Earth" (http:/ / www. grida. no/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg1/ 412. htm#tab113). Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. . [4] Geologic Contral on Fast Ice Flow - West Antarctic Ice Sheet (http:/ / www. ldeo. columbia. edu/ ~mstuding/ wais. html). by Michael Studinger, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory [5] GRID-Arendal. "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis" (http:/ / www. grida. no/ climate/ ipcc_tar/ wg1/ 428. htm). . Retrieved 2005-12-19. [6] Mller, R. Dietmar; et al. (2008-03-07). "Long-Term Sea-Level Fluctuations Driven by Ocean Basin Dynamics". Science 319 (5868): 13571362. doi:10.1126/science.1151540. PMID18323446. [7] Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 322/ 5898/ 64). Science 322 (5898): 648. doi:10.1126/science.1161648. PMID18832639. . [8] Bruce C. Douglas (1997). "Global Sea Rise: A Redetermination". Surveys in Geophysics 18 (2/3): 279292. doi:10.1023/A:1006544227856. [9] Bindoff, N.L.; Willebrand, J.; Artale, V.; Cazenave, A.; Gregory, J.; Gulev, S.; Hanawa, K.; Le Qur, C. et al (2007). "Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level" (http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ pdf/ assessment-report/ ar4/ wg1/ ar4-wg1-chapter5. pdf). In Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M. et al. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. . [10] US Federal Aviation Administration, Code of Federal Regulations Sec. 91.121 (http:/ / rgl. faa. gov/ Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/ rgFar. nsf/ 3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/ da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocument)
Sea level
30
External links
Sea Level Rise:Understanding the past - Improving projections for the future (http://www.cmar.csiro.au/ sealevel) Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (http://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/) Global sea level change: Determination and interpretation (http://www.agu.org/revgeophys/dougla01/ dougla01.html) Environment Protection Agency Sea level rise reports (http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/ content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.html) Properties of isostasy and eustasy (http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/index. htm) Measuring Sea Level from Space (http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/) Rising Tide Video: Scripps Institution of Oceanography (http://www.scivee.tv/node/8324) Sea Levels Online: National Ocean Service (CO-OPS) (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends. shtml) Systme d'Observation du Niveau des Eaux Littorales (SONEL) (http://www.sonel.org/) Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries? (http://ice.tsu.ru/index. php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=138)
Tide table
A tide table, sometimes called a tide chart, is used for tidal prediction and shows the daily times and height of high water and low water for a particular location. Tide heights at intermediate times (between high and low water) can be approximately calculated using the rule of twelfths or more accurately by using a published tidal curve for the location. Tide tables are published as small booklets in their own right, as part of nautical almanacs, on the Internet, in some newspapers (generally those serving readers in coastal regions or having maritime interests) and as the output of tidal prediction software. Tide tables are only calculated and published for major commercial ports called standard ports. The tides for nearby minor ports can be estimated by time and height differences between a "standard" port and these minor ports. The dates of spring tides and neap tides, approximately seven days apart, can be determined by the heights of the tides on the tide table: a small range indicates neaps and large indicates springs.
A tide table for Monterey Bay Aquarium
On the Atlantic coast of northwest Europe, the interval between each low and high tide averages about 6 hours and 10 minutes, giving two high tides and two low tides each day. Tide prediction was long beset by the problem of laborious calculations; and in earlier times, before the use of digital computers, official tide tables were often generated by the use of a special-purpose calculating machine, the tide-predicting machine.
Tide table
31
External links
Canadian tide tables (http://www.waterlevels.gc.ca/english/Canada.shtml) Dutch tide tables (http://www.getij.nl/) German Bight tide tables (http://www.bsh.de/de/Meeresdaten/Vorhersagen/Gezeiten/index.jsp) UK tide tables (http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/coast/tides/) US tide tables (NOAA) (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/) XTide tide prediction software (http://www.flaterco.com/xtide/) Free Tides Tables, Charts and Scripts for NOAA Coasts and Harbors (http://www.freetidetables.com/) Mapped, graphical US tide tables/charts in calendar form from NOAA data (http://tidesite.appspot.com/) Tide tables, graphs and maps for US and Canada using XTide (http://gofishingforum.net/tide_stations.pl) Tide Wizard - Windows based tide prediction and tide tables software (http://www.smartcomsoftware.com/ tidewizard.html) Tidely - Tide table web app (http://www.tidely.com)
Slack water
Slack water, which used to be known as 'The stand of the tide', is a short period in a body of tidal water either side of high water or low water essentially when the water is completely unstressed, and therefore with no rise or fall of the tide and no movement either way in the tidal stream, and which occurs before the direction of the tidal stream reverses.[1] Slack water can be estimated using a tide table, a tidal atlas or the tidal diamond information on a nautical chart.[2] Tide tables, which tabulate the time of high and low water, are generally only published for Standard Ports. To determine the time of slack water at less important locations, the time difference (or Tidal Constant) between the time of high water at the Standard Port and at that location also needs to be known. For scuba divers, the absence of a flow means that less effort is required to swim, and there is less likelihood of drifting away from a vessel or shore. Slack water can reduce underwater visibility, as there is no flow to remove debris such as sand or mud. In areas with potentially dangerous tides and currents, it is standard practice for divers to plan a dive at slack times. For any vessel, a favourable flow will improve the vessel's speed over the bottom for a given speed in the water. Difficult channels are also more safely navigated during slack water, as any flow may set a vessel out of a channel and into danger. In many locations, in addition to the tidal streams there is also a current causing the tidal stream in the one direction to be stronger than, and last for longer than the stream in the opposite direction six hours later. Variations in the strength of that current will also vary the time when the stream reverses, thus altering the time and duration of slack water. Variations in wind stress also reflect directly on the height of the tide, and the inverse relationship between the height of the tide and atmospheric pressure is well understood (1 cm change in sea level for each 1 mb change in pressure) while the duration of slack water at a given location is inversely related to the height of the tide at that location. Slack water is a much misused term, often used to describe a period of equilibrium between two opposing streams when the water is anything but slack, but highly stressed. Although there may be no flow in either direction there may be many eddies, and since this so-called slack water occurs before high water while the tide is still rising, the tide may continue to rise even after the direction of the stream has reversed. Conversely, since it occurs after low water while the tide is rising, the tide may also continue to rise during this so-called low water slack period. Such conditions typically occur at river mouths, or in straits open at both ends where their entrances have markedly different physical characteristics. Examples include The Rip between Point Nepean and Point Lonsdale at the entrance to Port Philip Bay, Victoria, Australia; the Menai Strait [3] between Anglesey and Wales; or the Strait of
Slack water Gibraltar at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. Slack water may also be misused to refer to a process in caves. This occurs when a stream cave, or fluviokarst, is completely filled with water during flooding.
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Dodge tides
Some localities have unusual tidal characteristics, such as Gulf St Vincent, South Australia, where the amplitudes of the main semi-diurnal tide constituents are almost identical. At neap tides the semi-diurnal tide is virtually absent, resulting in the phenomenon known as a "dodge tide"a day-long period of slack wateroccurring twice a month; this effect is accentuated near the equinoxes when the diurnal component also vanishes, resulting in a period of 2-3 days of slack water.[4][5][6]
References
[1] The American Practical Navigator, Chapter 9:Tides and Tidal Currents (http:/ / msi. nga. mil/ MSISiteContent/ StaticFiles/ NAV_PUBS/ APN/ Chapt-09. pdf), page 139. Accessed 3 September 2011. [2] Sport Diving, British Sub Aqua Club, ISBN 0-09-163831-3, page 167 [3] www.lodestoneman.com (http:/ / www. lodestoneman. com/ 2Bdge/ Two_Bridges_Too_Far/ narative/ p_1. htm): Two Bridges Too Far. Accessed 2 September 2011. [4] Bye, J.A.T. (1976): Physical oceanography of Gulf St Vincent and Investigator Strait. In: Twidale, C.R., Tyler, M.J. & Webb, B.P. (Eds.), Natural history of the Adelaide Region. Royal Society of SA Inc, Adelaide. [5] Bye, J.A.T. & Kmpf, J. (2008): Physical oceanography. In: Shepherd, S.A., Bryars, S., Kirkegaard, I.R., Harbison, P. & Jennings, J.T. (Eds.): Natural history of Gulf St Vincent. Royal Society of South Australia Inc, Adelaide. [6] The American Practical Navigator, Chapter 9:Tides and Tidal Currents (http:/ / msi. nga. mil/ MSISiteContent/ StaticFiles/ NAV_PUBS/ APN/ Chapt-09. pdf), pages 134-5. Accessed 3 September 2011.
Bathymetry
Bathymetry is the study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography. The name comes from Greek (bathus), "deep",[2] and (metron), "measure".[3] Bathymetric (or hydrographic) charts are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths) and selected depths (soundings), and typically also provide surface navigational information. Bathymetric maps (a more general term where navigational safety is not a concern) may also use a Digital Terrain Model and artificial illumination techniques to illustrate the depths being portrayed. Paleobathymetry is the study of past underwater depths.
Present day Earth bathymetry (and altimetry). Data from the National Geophysical Data [1] Center's TerrainBase Digital Terrain Model .
Bathymetry
33
Measurement
Originally, bathymetry involved the measurement of ocean depth through depth sounding. Early techniques used pre-measured heavy rope or cable lowered over a ship's side.This technique measures the depth only a single point at a time, and so is inefficient. It is also subject to movements of the ship and currents moving the line out of true and therefore is inaccurate. The data used to make bathymetric maps today typically comes from an echosounder (sonar) mounted beneath or over the side of a boat, "pinging" a beam of sound downward at the seafloor or from remote sensing LIDAR or LADAR systems.[4] The amount of time it First printed map of oceanic bathymetry, produced with data from USS Dolphin (1836) takes for the sound or light to travel through the water, bounce off the seafloor, and return to the sounder tells the equipment what the distance to the seafloor is. LIDAR/LADAR surveys are usually conducted by airborne systems. Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today, multibeam echosounders (MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams arranged in a fan-like swath of typically 90 to 170 degrees across. The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high angular resolution and accuracy. In general a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes. The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1-50 Hz depending on water depth), allowing faster boat The seafloor topography near the Puerto Rico Trench speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor. Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's roll, pitch and yaw on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel yaw. (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.) A boat-mounted Global Positioning System (GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth. Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure. A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam. The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area. As of 2010 a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated Digital Terrain Models (DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in hydrographic applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc. Since ca. 2003-2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.
Bathymetry Satellites are also used to measure bathymetry. Satellite radar maps deep-sea topography by detecting the subtle variations in sea level caused by the gravitational pull of undersea mountains, ridges, and other masses. On average, sea level is higher over mountains and ridges than over abyssal plains and trenches.[5] In the United States the United States Army Corps of Engineers performs or commissions most surveys of navigable inland waterways, while the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) performs the same role for ocean waterways. Coastal bathymetry data is available from NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) [6] [7] . Bathymetric data is usually referenced to tidal vertical datums.[8] For deep-water bathymetry, this is typically Mean Sea Level (MSL), but most data used for nautical charting is referenced to Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) in American surveys, and Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) in other countries. Many other datums are used in practice, depending on the locality and tidal regime. Occupations or careers related to bathymetry include the study of oceans and rocks and minerals on the ocean floor, and the study of underwater earthquakes or volcanoes. The taking and analysis of bathymetric measurements is one of the core areas of modern hydrography, and a fundamental component in ensuring the safe transport of goods worldwide.
34
References
[1] http:/ / www. ngdc. noaa. gov/ seg/ fliers/ se-1104. shtml [2] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=baqu/ s), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus [3] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=me/ tron), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus [4] Olsen, R. C. (2007), Remote Sensing from Air and Space, SPIE, ISBN978-0-8194-6235-0 [5] Thurman, H. V. (1997), Introductory Oceanography, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall College, ISBN0-13-262072-3 [6] http:/ / www. ngdc. noaa. gov [7] NGDC-Bathymetry, Topography, & Relief (http:/ / www. ngdc. noaa. gov/ mgg/ bathymetry/ relief. html) [8] NGDC/WDC MGG, Boulder-Coastal relief model development (http:/ / www. ngdc. noaa. gov/ mgg/ coastal/ model. html)
External links
Overview for underwater terrain, data formats, etc. (http://www.vterrain.org/Elevation/Bathy/) (vterrain.org) High resolution bathymetry for the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea (http://e-atlas.org.au/content/ gbr_jcu_bathymetry-3dgbr) A.PO.MA.B.-Academy of Positioning Marine and Bathymetry (http://apomabdoc.altervista.org/index.html)
Lunitidal interval
35
Lunitidal interval
The lunitidal interval,[1] measures the time lag from the moon passing overhead, to the next high or low tide. It is also called the high water interval (HWI)/[2][3] Tides are known to be mainly caused by the moon's gravity. Theoretically, peak tidal forces at a given location occur when the moon is at the meridian, but there is usually a delay before high tide that depends largely on the shape of the coastline, and the sea floor, therefore, the lunitidal interval varies from place to place. The lunitidal interval further varies within about +/- 30 minutes according to the lunar phase. The approximate lunitidal interval can be calculated if the moon-rise, moon-set and high tide times are known for a location. In the northern hemisphere, the moon is at its highest point when it is southernmost in the sky. Lunar data are available from printed tables and online [4]. Tide tables tell the time of the next high water [5] [6]. The difference between these two times is the lunitidal interval. This value can be used to calibrate certain clocks and wristwatches to allow for simple but crude tidal predictions.
References
[1] Australian Hydrographic Service definition (http:/ / www. hydro. gov. au/ prodserv/ tides/ lunitidal-intervals. htm) [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] NOAA HWI definition (http:/ / tidesandcurrents. noaa. gov/ datum_options. html) Proudman Oceanographic laboratory definition (http:/ / www. pol. ac. uk/ ntslf/ sharing_knowledge. php) Time And Date (http:/ / www. timeanddate. com) UK Tidal Predictions (http:/ / www. pol. ac. uk/ ntslf/ tidalp. html) NOAA Tides & Currents (http:/ / tidesandcurrents. noaa. gov/ tide_predictions. shtml)
External links
HWI Datum table for locations in the US (http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/station_retrieve.shtml?type=Datums& sort=A.STATION_ID&state=&id1=) HWI table for UK (http://www.pol.ac.uk/ntslf/sharing_knowledge.php) HWI map for france (http://www.shom.fr/fr_page/fr_act_oceano/img/etablissement_moyen.jpg) Table of values for Australia (http://www.hydro.gov.au/prodserv/tides/lunitidal-intervals.htm) Values for the Netherlands (http://live.waternormalen.nl/waternormalen_waterstanden.cfm?taal=en)
Amphidromic point
36
Amphidromic point
An amphidromic point is a point of zero amplitude of one harmonic constituent of the tide.[1] The tidal range (the amplitude, or height difference between high tide and low tide) for that harmonic constituent increases with distance from this point.[2] These points are sometimes called tidal nodes. The term amphidromic point derives from the Greek words amphi (around) and dromos (running), referring to the rotary tides running around them.[3] Amphidromic points occur because of the Coriolis effect and interference within oceanic basins, seas and bays creating a wave pattern called an amphidromic system which rotates around the amphidromic point.[5][6] At the amphidromic points of the dominant tidal constituent, there is almost no vertical movement from tidal action. There can be tidal currents as the water levels on either side of the amphidromic point are not the same. A separate amphidromic system is created by each periodic tidal component.[7]
The M2 tidal constituent, the amplitude indicated by color. The white lines are cotidal [4] lines spaced at phase intervals of 30 (a bit over 1 hr). The amphidromic points are the dark blue areas where the lines come together.
In most locations M2 is the largest (semidiurnal) tidal constituent, with an amplitude of roughly half of the full tidal range. Cotidal points means they reach high tide at the same time and low tide at the same time. In the accompanying figure, the low tide lags or leads by 1 hr 2 min from its neighboring lines. Where the lines meet are amphidromes and the tide rotates around them; for example: along the Chilean coast, and from southern Mexico to Peru the tide propagates southward, while from Baja California to Alaska the tide propagates northward.
Counterclockwise amphidromic points include: near Sri Lanka north of New Guinea at Tahiti between Mexico and Hawaii near the Leeward Islands
Amphidromic point east of Newfoundland midway between Rio de Janeiro and Angola east of Iceland The islands of Madagascar and New Zealand are amphidromic points in the sense that the tide goes around them (counterclockwise in both cases) in about 12 and a half hours, but the amplitude of the tides on their coasts is in some places large. Note that the rotational direction of tides around an amphidromic point bears no relationship to its location relative to the equator.
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Tidal force
The tidal force is a secondary effect of the force of gravity and is responsible for the tides. It arises because the gravitational force per unit mass exerted on one body by a second body is not constant across its diameter, the side nearest to the second being more attracted by it than the side farther away. Stated differently, the tidal Figure 1: Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 in 1994 after breaking up under the influence force is a differential force. Consider three of Jupiter's tidal forces during a previous pass in 1992. things being pulled by the moon: the oceans nearest the moon, the solid earth, and the oceans farthest from the moon. The moon pulls on the solid earth, but it pulls harder on the near oceans, so they approach the moon more causing a high tide; and the moon pulls least of all on the far oceans (on the other side of the planet), so they stay behind more, causing another high tide at the same time. If we imagine looking at the Earth from space, we see that the whole Earth was pulled, but the near oceans more and the far oceans less; the far oceans stayed behind since they are pulled less (since they are farther away). In a more general usage in celestial mechanics, the expression 'tidal force' can refer to a situation in which a body or material (for example, tidal water, or the Moon) is mainly under the gravitational influence of a second body (for example, the Earth), but is also perturbed by the gravitational effects of a third body (for example, by the Moon in the case of tidal water, or by the Sun in the case of the Moon). The perturbing force is sometimes in such cases called a tidal force[1] (for example, the perturbing force on the Moon): it is the difference between the force exerted by the third body on the second and the force exerted by the third body on the first.[2]
Tidal force
38
Explanation
When a body (body 1) is acted on by the gravity of another body (body 2), the field can vary significantly on body 1 between the side of the body facing body 2 and the side facing away from body 2. Figure 2 shows the differential force of gravity on a spherical body (body 1) exerted by another body (body 2). These so called tidal forces cause strains on both bodies and may distort them or even, in extreme cases, break one or the other apart.[3] The Roche limit is the distance from a planet at which tidal effects would cause an object to disintegrate because the differential force of gravity from the planet overcomes the attraction of the parts of the object for one another.[4] These strains would not occur if the gravitational field were uniform, because a uniform field only causes the entire body to accelerate together in the same direction and at the same rate.
Figure 2: The Moon's gravity differential field at the surface of the Earth is known (along with another and weaker differential effect due to the Sun) as the Tide Generating Force. This is the primary mechanism driving tidal action, explaining two tidal equipotential bulges, and accounting for two high tides per day. In this figure, the Moon is either on the right side or on the left side of the Earth (at center). The outward direction of the arrows on the right and left indicates that where the Moon is overhead (or at the nadir) its perturbing force opposes and weakens the Earth's net attraction; and the inward direction of the arrows at top and bottom indicates that where the Moon is 90 degrees away from overhead, its perturbing effect reinforces and strengthens the Earth's net attraction.
Tidal force When a body rotates while subject to tidal forces, internal friction results in the gradual dissipation of its rotational kinetic energy as heat. If the body is close enough to its primary, this can result in a rotation which is tidally locked to the orbital motion, as in the case of the Earth's moon. Tidal heating produces dramatic volcanic effects on Jupiter's moon Io. Stresses caused by tidal forces also cause a regular monthly pattern of moonquakes on Earth's Moon. Tidal forces contribute to ocean currents, which moderate global temperatures by transporting heat energy toward the poles. It has been suggested that in addition to other factors, harmonic beat variations in tidal forcing may contribute to climate changes.[7] Tidal effects become particularly pronounced near small bodies of high mass, such as neutron stars or black holes, where they are responsible for the "spaghettification" of infalling matter. Tidal forces create the oceanic tide of Earth's oceans, where the attracting bodies are the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun. Tidal forces are also responsible for tidal locking and tidal acceleration.
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Mathematical treatment
For a given (externally-generated) gravitational field, the tidal acceleration at a point with respect to a body is obtained by vectorially subtracting the gravitational acceleration at the center of the body (due to the given externally-generated field) from the gravitational acceleration (due to the same field) at the given point. Correspondingly, the term tidal force is used to describe the forces due to tidal acceleration. Note that for these purposes the only gravitational field considered is the external one; the gravitational field of the body (as shown in the graphic) is not relevant. (In other words the comparison is with the conditions at the given point as they would be if there were no externally-generated field acting unequally at the given point and at the center of the reference body. The externally-generated field is usually that produced by a perturbing third body, often the Sun or the Moon in the frequent example-cases of points on or above the Earth's surface in a geocentric reference frame.). Tidal acceleration does not require rotation or orbiting bodies; for example, the body may be freefalling in a straight line under the influence of a gravitational field while still being influenced by (changing) tidal acceleration. By Newton's law of universal gravitation and laws of motion, a body of mass m a distance R from the center of a sphere of mass M feels a force equivalent to an acceleration , where: . . . , and . . . where ...,
acceleration from m towards M has negative sign). Consider now the acceleration due to the sphere of mass M is generated by a body to the right. The top picture shows the gravitational forces; the bottom experienced by a particle in the vicinity of the body of mass m. With R shows their residual once the field of the sphere is as the distance from the center of M to the center of m, let r be the subtracted; this is the tidal force. See Figure 2 for (relatively small) distance of the particle from the center of the body of a more exact version mass m. For simplicity, distances are first considered only in the direction pointing towards or away from the sphere of mass M. If the body of mass m is itself a sphere of radius r, then the new particle considered may be located on its surface, at a distance (R r) from the centre of the sphere of mass M, and r may be taken as positive where the particle's distance from M is greater than R. Leaving aside whatever gravitational acceleration may be experienced by the particle towards m on account of m's own mass, we have the acceleration on the particle due to gravitational force towards M as:
Tidal force
40
The Maclaurin series of 1/(1 + x)2 is 1 2x + 3x2 ..., which gives a series expansion of:
The first term is the gravitational acceleration due to M at the center of the reference body , i.e. at the point where is zero. This term does not affect the observed acceleration of particles on the surface of m because with respect to M, m (and everything on its surface) is in free fall. When the force on the far particle is subtracted from the force on the near particle, this first term cancels, as do all other even-order terms. The remaining (residual) terms represent the difference mentioned above and are tidal force (acceleration) terms. When r is small compared to R, the terms after the first residual term are very small and can be neglected, giving the approximate tidal acceleration (axial) for the distances r considered, along the axis joining the centers of m and M: (axial) When calculated in this way for the case where r is a distance along the axis joining the centers of m and M, directed outwards from to the center of m (where r is zero). Tidal accelerations can also be calculated away from the axis connecting the bodies m and M, requiring a vector calculation. In the plane perpendicular to that axis, the tidal acceleration is directed inwards (towards the center where r is zero), and its magnitude is (axial) in linear approximation as in Figure 2. The tidal accelerations at the surface of planets in the Solar System are generally very small. For example, the lunar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Moon-Earth axis is about 1.1 107 g, while the solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Sun-Earth axis is about 0.52 107 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. Modern estimates put the size of the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun at about 45% of that due to the Moon.[8] The solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface was first given by Newton in the 'Principia'[9] is
References
[1] "On the tidal force" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 1977SvAL. . . . 3. . . 96A), I N Avsiuk, in "Soviet Astronomy Letters", vol.3 (1977), pp.96-99 [2] See p.509 in "Astronomy: a physical perspective" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2QVmiMW0O0MC& pg=PA509& lpg=PA509& dq="tidal+ force"+ perturb& source=bl& ots=46yDoQd9k7& sig=bep2Wi1UfMQhsfmHAd1N2VfWTso& hl=en& ei=J1GYSvTeDIKNjAe8lvm_BQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10#v=onepage& q="tidal force" perturb& f=false), M L Kutner (2003). [3] R Penrose (1999). The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oI0grArWHUMC& pg=PA264& vq=tidal& dq=tidal+ force). Oxford University Press. p.264. ISBN0-19-286198-0. . [4] Thrse Encrenaz, J -P Bibring, M Blanc (2003). The Solar System (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Je61Y7UbqWgC& pg=PA16& vq=tide& dq=tidal+ force#PPA16,M1). Springer. p.16. ISBN3-540-00241-3. . [5] R. S. MacKay, J. D. Meiss (1987). Hamiltonian Dynamical Systems: A Reprint Selection (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uTeqNsyj86QC& pg=PA36& dq=tidal+ force). CRC Press. p.36. ISBN0-85274-205-3. .
Tidal force
[6] Rollin A Harris (1920). The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r8BPAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA612& dq=tidal+ force#PPA612,M1) (Vol. 26 ed.). Encyclopedia Americana Corp.. pp.611617. . [7] "Millennial Climate Variability: Is There a Tidal Connection?" (http:/ / ams. allenpress. com/ archive/ 1520-0442/ 15/ 4/ pdf/ i1520-0442-15-4-370. pdf). . [8] Gran Bretaa (1987). Admiralty manual of navigation, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GCgXCxG4VLcC). The Stationery Office. p.277. ISBN0-11-772880-2. ., Chapter 11, p. 277 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GCgXCxG4VLcC& pg=PA277) [9] Newton, Isaac (1729). The mathematical principles of natural philosophy, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC). p.307. ISBN0-11-772880-2. ., Book 3, Proposition 36, Page 307 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6EqxPav3vIsC& pg=PA307) Newton put the force to depress the sea at places 90 degrees distant from the Sun at "1 to 38604600" (in terms of g), and wrote that the force to raise the sea along the Sun-Earth axis is "twice as great", i.e. 2 to 38604600, which comes to about 0.52 10-7 g as expressed in the text.
41
External links
Gravitational Tides (http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/Gravity/tides.html) by J. Christopher Mihos of Case Western Reserve University Audio: Cain/Gay - Astronomy Cast (http://www.astronomycast.com/solar-system/episode-47-tidal-forces/) Tidal Forces - July 2007.
Theory of tides
The theory of tides is the application of continuum mechanics to interpret and predict the tidal deformations of planetary and satellite bodies and their atmospheres and oceans, under the gravitational loading of another astronomical body or bodies. It commonly refers to the fluid dynamic motions for the Earth's oceans.
Origin of theory
In 1616, Galileo Galilei wrote Discourse on the Tides (in Italian: Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare),[1] a paper in which he tried to explain the occurrence of the tides as the result of the Earth's rotation around the Sun. However, Galileo's theory was, in the later Newtonian terms, an error.[1] Later analysis over the centuries had led to the current tidal physics.
Tidal physics
Tidal forcing
A. Lunar gravitational potential: this depicts the Moon directly over 30 N (or 30 S) viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere.
B. This view shows same potential from 180 from view A. Viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere. Red up, blue down.
Theory of tides The forces discussed here apply to body (Earth tides), oceanic and atmospheric tides. Atmospheric tides on Earth, however, tend to be dominated by forcing due to solar heating. On the planet (or satellite) experiencing tidal motion consider a point at latitude from the center of mass, then this point can be written in cartesian coordinates as and longitude where at distance
42
Let
be the right ascension of the deforming body, the Moon for example, then the
vector direction is
and point is
where For a circular orbit the angular momentum mass centripetal acceleration balances gravity at the planetary center of
where
is the distance between the center of mass for the orbit and planet and
Consider the point in the reference fixed without rotation, but translating at a fixed translation with respect to the center of mass of the planet. The body's centripetal force acts on the point so that the total force is
In ocean tidal forcing, the radial force is not significant, the next step is to rewrite the then where zenith. This means that
coefficient. Let
is the inner product determining the angle z of the deforming body or Moon from the
if is small. If particle is on the surface of the planet then the local gravity is
and set
. Note also that force is attractive toward the Moon when the
and repulsive
Theory of tides
43
where is the angular frequency of the planet's rotation, g is the planet's gravitational acceleration at the mean ocean surface, and U is the external gravitational tidal-forcing potential. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) rewrote Laplace's momentum terms using the curl to find an equation for vorticity. Under certain conditions this can be further rewritten as a conservation of vorticity.
Theory of tides
44
Tidal constituents
Tidal constituents combine to give an endlessly-varying aggregate because of their different and incommensurable frequencies: the effect is visualized in an animation of the American Mathematical Society [8] illustrating the way in which the components used to be mechanically combined in the tide-predicting machine. Amplitudes of tidal constituents are given below for the following example locations: ME Eastport, MS Biloxi, PR San Juan, AK Kodiak, CA San Francisco, and HI Hilo. Higher harmonics
Species Darwin Period Phase Doodson coefs Doodson Amplitude at example location (cm) n4 (mp) number ME MS PR AK CA HI NOAA
Symbol (hr)
rate(/hr)
n1 (L) 4
n2 (m)
n3 (y)
order
Shallow water overtides of principal lunar Shallow water overtides of principal lunar Shallow water terdiurnal Shallow water overtides of principal solar
M4
6.210300601 57.9682084
455.555
6.0
0.6
0.9
2.3
M6
4.140200401 86.9523127
655.555
5.1
0.1
1.0
MK3 S4
8.177140247 44.0251729
365.555
0.5
1.9
60
-4
491.555
0.1
Shallow water quarter MN4 diurnal Shallow water overtides S6 of principal solar Lunar terdiurnal Shallow water terdiurnal Shallow water eighth diurnal Shallow water quarter diurnal M3 2"MK3 M8 MS4
6.269173724 57.4238337
-1
445.655
2.3
0.3
0.9
10
90
-6
0.1
12
3 3 -1
0.5 1.4
32 34
3.105150301 115.9364166 8
855.555
0.5
0.1
36
6.103339275 58.9841042
-2
473.555
1.8
0.6
1.0
37
Semi-diurnal
Species
Darwin Period
Phase
Doodson coefs
NOAA
Symbol (hr)
(/hr)
n1 (L) 2
n2 (m)
n3 (y)
order
M2 S2
12.4206012
28.9841042
255.555
268.7 3.9
12
30
-2
273.555
42.0
3.3
2.1
Theory of tides
45
N2 2 MU2 2"N2 12.65834751 28.4397295 2 -1 1 245.655 54.3 1.1 3.7 20.1 12.3 4.4 3
Larger lunar elliptic semidiurnal Larger lunar evectional Variational Lunar elliptical semidiurnal second-order
2 2 2
-1 -2 -2
2 2
-1
247.455 237.555
11 13 14
12.90537297 27.8953548
235.755
Smaller lunar evectional 2 Larger solar elliptic Smaller solar elliptic Shallow water semidiurnal Smaller lunar elliptic semidiurnal Lunisolar semidiurnal T2 R2 2SM2 L2 K2
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 4
-2 -3 -1 -4
0.1 0.1
16 27 28 31
12.19162085 29.5284789
-1
265.455
13.5
0.1
0.5
2.4
1.6
0.5
33
275.555
11.6
0.9
0.6
9.0
4.0
2.8
35 NOAA
Diurnal
Species
Darwin Period
Doodson coefs
Symbol (hr)
(/hr)
n1 (L) 1 1 1 1 1
n2 (m) 1 -1 3 1
n3 (y)
order
Lunar diurnal Lunar diurnal Lunar diurnal Solar diurnal Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal Smaller lunar elliptic diurnal Larger lunar evectional diurnal Larger lunar elliptic diurnal Larger elliptic diurnal Solar diurnal
K1 O1 OO1 S1 M1 J1
39.8 36.8 16.7 '4 25.9 23.0 9.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.1 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.5 6 15 17 18
24.84120241 14.4920521
23.09848146 15.5854433
-1
175.455
0.9
1.3
0.6
2.3
1.9
1.1
19
26.72305326 13.4715145
-2
-1
137.455
0.3
0.6
0.3
0.9
0.9
0.3
25
Q1 2Q1 P1
26.868350
13.3986609
-2
135.655
2.0
3.3
1.4
4.7
4.0
1.6
26
1 1
-3 1 -2
125.755 163.555
0.3 5.2
0.4 5.4
0.2 2.9
0.7
0.4
0.2
29 30 NOAA
Long period
Species
Darwin Period
Doodson coefs
Symbol (hr)
(/hr)
n1 (L) 0 0 0 0
n2 (m) 1
n3 (y)
order
Lunar monthly Solar semiannual Solar annual Lunisolar synodic fortnightly Lunisolar fortnightly
Mm Ssa Sa Msf Mf
20 21 22 23
2 1 2 -2
354.3670666 1.0158958
327.8599387 1.0980331
75.555
1.4
2.0
0.7
24
Theory of tides
46
References
[1] Rice University - Galileo's Theory of the Tides (http:/ / galileo. rice. edu/ sci/ observations/ tides. html) - by Rossella Gigli, retrieved 10 March 2010 [2] http:/ / kiwi. atmos. colostate. edu/ group/ dave/ pdf/ LTE. frame. pdf [3] http:/ / siam. org/ pdf/ news/ 621. pdf [4] A T Doodson (1921), "The Harmonic Development of the Tide-Generating Potential", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Vol. 100, No. 704 (Dec. 1, 1921), pp. 305-329. [5] S Casotto, F Biscani, "A fully analytical approach to the harmonic development of the tide-generating potential accounting for precession, nutation, and perturbations due to figure and planetary terms", AAS Division on Dynamical Astronomy, April 2004, vol.36(2), 67. [6] D E Cartwright, "Tides: a scientific history", Cambridge University Press 2001, at pages 163-4 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sSesNjG96JYC& pg=PA163). [7] See e.g. T D Moyer (2003), "Formulation for observed and computed values of Deep Space Network data types for navigation", vol.3 in Deep-space communications and navigation series, Wiley (2003), e.g. at pp.126-8. [8] http:/ / www. ams. org/ featurecolumn/ archive/ tidesIII3. html
Tidal acceleration
Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite (e.g. the Moon), and the primary planet that it orbits (e.g. the Earth). The acceleration is usually negative, as it causes a gradual slowing and recession of a satellite in a prograde orbit away from the primary, and a corresponding slowdown of the primary's rotation. The process eventually leads to tidal locking of first the smaller, and later the larger body. The Earth-Moon system is the best studied case. The similar process of tidal deceleration occurs for satellites that have an orbital period that is shorter than the primary's rotational period, or that orbit in a retrograde direction.
Earth-Moon system
Discovery history of the secular acceleration
Edmond Halley was the first to suggest, in 1695,[1] that the mean motion of the Moon was apparently getting faster, by comparison with ancient eclipse observations, but he gave no data. (It was not yet known in Halley's time that what is actually occurring includes a slowing-down of the Earth's rate of rotation: see also Ephemeris time - History. When measured as a function of mean solar time rather than uniform time, the effect appears as a positive acceleration.) In 1749 Richard Dunthorne confirmed Halley's suspicion after re-examining ancient records, and produced the first quantitative estimate for the size of this apparent effect:[2] a centurial rate of +10" (arcseconds) in lunar longitude (a surprisingly good result for its time, not far different from values assessed later, e.g. in 1786 by de Lalande,[3] and to compare with values from about 10" to nearly 13" being derived about century later.)[4][5] Pierre-Simon Laplace produced in 1786 a theoretical analysis giving a basis on which the Moon's mean motion should accelerate in response to perturbational changes in the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth around the Sun. Laplace's initial computation accounted for the whole effect, thus seeming to tie up the theory neatly with both modern and ancient observations.
A picture of the Earth and the Moon from Mars. The presence of the moon (which has about 1/81 the mass of the Earth), is slowing Earth's rotation and lengthening the day by about 2 ms every one hundred years.
Tidal acceleration However, in 1854, J C Adams caused the question to be re-opened by finding an error in Laplace's computations: it turned out that only about half of the Moon's apparent acceleration could be accounted for on Laplace's basis by the change in the Earth's orbital eccentricity.[6] Adams' finding provoked a sharp astronomical controversy that lasted some years, but the correctness of his result, agreed by other mathematical astronomers including C E Delaunay, was eventually accepted.[7] The question depended on correct analysis of the lunar motions, and received a further complication with another discovery, around the same time, that another significant long-term perturbation that had been calculated for the Moon (supposedly due to the action of Venus) was also in error, was found on re-examination to be almost negligible, and practically had to disappear from the theory. A part of the answer was suggested independently in the 1860s by Delaunay and by William Ferrel: tidal retardation of the Earth's rotation rate was lengthening the unit of time and causing a lunar acceleration that was only apparent. It took some time for the astronomical community to accept the reality and the scale of tidal effects. But eventually it became clear that three effects are involved, when measured in terms of mean solar time. Beside the effects of perturbational changes in the Earth's orbital eccentricity, as found by Laplace and corrected by Adams, there are two tidal effects (a combination first suggested by Emmanuel Liais). First there is a real retardation of the Moon's angular rate of orbital motion, due to tidal exchange of angular momentum between the Earth and Moon. This increases the Moon's angular momentum around the Earth (and moves the Moon to a higher orbit with a slower period). Secondly there is an apparent increase in the Moon's angular rate of orbital motion (when measured in terms of mean solar time). This arises from the Earth's loss of angular momentum and the consequent increase in length of day.[8]
47
A diagram of the Earth-Moon system showing how the tidal bulge is pushed ahead by the Earth's rotation. This offset bulge exerts a net torque on the Moon, boosting it while slowing the Earth's rotation.
As a result of this process, the mean solar day, which is nominally 86400 seconds long, is actually getting longer when measured in SI seconds with stable atomic clocks. (The SI second, when adopted, was already a little shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.[9]) The small difference accumulates every day, which leads to an increasing difference between our clock time (Universal Time) on the one hand, and Atomic Time and Ephemeris Time on the other hand: see T. This makes it necessary to insert a leap second at irregular intervals. In addition to the effect of the ocean tides, there is also a tidal acceleration due to flexing of the earth's crust, but this accounts for only about 4% of the total effect when expressed in terms of heat dissipation.[10]
Tidal acceleration If other effects were ignored, tidal acceleration would continue until the rotational period of the Earth matched the orbital period of the Moon. At that time, the Moon would always be overhead of a single fixed place on Earth. Such a situation already exists in the Pluto-Charon system. However, the slowdown of the Earth's rotation is not occurring fast enough for the rotation to lengthen to a month before other effects make this irrelevant: About 2.1 billion years from now, the continual increase of the Sun's radiation will cause the Earth's oceans to vaporize, removing the bulk of the tidal friction and acceleration. Even without this, the slowdown to a month-long day would still not have been completed by 4.5 billion years from now when the Sun will evolve into a red giant and likely destroy both the Earth and Moon. Tidal acceleration is one of the few examples in the dynamics of the Solar System of a so-called secular perturbation of an orbit, i.e. a perturbation that continuously increases with time and is not periodic. Up to a high order of approximation, mutual gravitational perturbations between major or minor planets only cause periodic variations in their orbits, that is, parameters oscillate between maximum and minimum values. The tidal effect gives rise to a quadratic term in the equations, which leads to unbounded growth. In the mathematical theories of the planetary orbits that form the basis of ephemerides, quadratic and higher order secular terms do occur, but these are mostly Taylor expansions of very long time periodic terms. The reason that tidal effects are different is that unlike distant gravitational perturbations, friction is an essential part of tidal acceleration, and leads to permanent loss of energy from the dynamical system in the form of heat. In other words, we do not have a Hamiltonian system here.
48
Tidal acceleration which is totally swamped by oceanic tides that can exceed one metre.
49
Historical evidence
This mechanism has been working for 4.5 billion years, since oceans first formed on the Earth. There is geological and paleontological evidence that the Earth rotated faster and that the Moon was closer to the Earth in the remote past. Tidal rhythmites are alternating layers of sand and silt laid down offshore from estuaries having great tidal flows. Daily, monthly and seasonal cycles can be found in the deposits. This geological record is consistent with these conditions 620 million years ago: the day was 21.90.4 hours, and there were 13.10.1 synodic months/year and 4007 solar days/year. The length of the year has remained virtually unchanged during this period because no evidence exists that the constant of gravitation has changed. The average recession rate of the Moon between then and now has been 2.170.31cm/year, which is about half the present rate.[13]
Tidal acceleration Opposing the tidal deceleration of the Earth is a mechanism that is in fact accelerating the rotation. The Earth is not a sphere, but rather an ellipsoid that is flattened at the poles. SLR has shown that this flattening is decreasing. The explanation is, that during the ice age large masses of ice collected at the poles, and depressed the underlying rocks. The ice mass started disappearing over 10000 years ago, but the Earth's crust is still not in hydrostatic equilibrium and is still rebounding (the relaxation time is estimated to be about 4000 years). As a consequence, the polar diameter of the Earth increases, and since the mass and density remain the same, the volume remains the same; therefore the equatorial diameter is decreasing. As a consequence, mass moves closer to the rotation axis of the Earth. This means that its moment of inertia is decreasing. Because its total angular momentum remains the same during this process, the rotation rate increases. This is the well-known phenomenon of a spinning figure skater who spins ever faster as she retracts her arms. From the observed change in the moment of inertia the acceleration of rotation can be computed: the average value over the historical period must have been about 0.6 ms/cy. This largely explains the historical observations.
50
Tidal deceleration
This comes in two varieties: 1. Fast satellites: Some inner moons of the gas giant planets and Phobos orbit within the synchronous orbit radius so that their orbital period is shorter than their planet's rotation. In this case the tidal bulges raised by the moon on their planet lag behind the moon, and act to decelerate it in its orbit. The net effect is a decay of that moon's orbit as it gradually spirals towards the planet. The planet's rotation also speeds up slightly in the process. In the distant future these moons will impact the planet or cross within their Roche limit and be tidally disrupted into fragments. However, all such moons in the Solar System are very small bodies and the tidal bulges raised by them on the planet are also small, so the effect is usually weak and the orbit decays slowly. The moons affected are: Around Mars: Phobos Around Jupiter: Metis and Adrastea Around Saturn: none, except for the ring particles (like Jupiter, Saturn is a very rapid rotator but has no satellites close enough) Around Uranus: Cordelia, Ophelia, Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosalind, Cupid, Belinda, and Perdita Around Neptune: Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea and Larissa 2. Retrograde satellites: All retrograde satellites experience tidal deceleration to some degree because the moon's orbital motion and the planet's rotation are in opposite directions, causing restoring forces from their tidal bulges. A difference to the previous "fast satellite" case here is that the planet's rotation is also slowed down rather than sped up (angular momentum is still conserved because in such a case the values for the planet's rotation and the moon's revolution have opposite signs). The only satellite in the Solar System for which this effect is non-negligible is Neptune's moon Triton. All the other retrograde satellites are on distant orbits and tidal forces between them and the planet are negligible. The planet Venus is believed to have no satellites chiefly because any hypothetical satellites would have suffered deceleration long ago, from either cause; Venus has a very slow and retrograde rotation.
Tidal acceleration
51
References
[1] E Halley (1695), "Some Account of the Ancient State of the City of Palmyra, with Short Remarks upon the Inscriptions Found there" (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 19/ 215-235/ 160. full. pdf), Phil. Trans., vol.19 (1695-1697), pages 160-175; esp. at pages 174-175. [2] Richard Dunthorne (1749), "A Letter from the Rev. Mr. Richard Dunthorne to the Reverend Mr. Richard Mason F. R. S. and Keeper of the Wood-Wardian Museum at Cambridge, concerning the Acceleration of the Moon" (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 46/ 491-496/ 162. full. pdf), Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775), Vol. 46 (1749 - 1750) #492, pp.162-172; also given in Philosophical Transactions (abridgements) (1809), vol.9 (for 1744-49), p669-675 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ philosophicaltra09royarich#page/ 669/ mode/ 2up) as "On the Acceleration of the Moon, by the Rev. Richard Dunthorne". [3] J de Lalande (1786): "Sur les equations seculaires du soleil et de la lune" (http:/ / www. academie-sciences. fr/ membres/ in_memoriam/ Lalande/ Lalande_pdf/ Mem1786_p390. pdf), Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, pp.390-397, at page 395. [4] J D North (2008), "Cosmos: an illustrated history of astronomy and cosmology", (University of Chicago Press, 2008), chapter 14, at page 454 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qq8Luhs7rTUC& pg=PA454). [5] See also P Puiseux (1879), "Sur l'acceleration seculaire du mouvement de la Lune" (http:/ / archive. numdam. org/ article/ ASENS_1879_2_8__361_0. pdf), Annales Scientifiques de l'Ecole Normale Superieure, 2nd series vol.8 (1879), pp.361-444, at pages 361-5. [6] Adams, J C (1853). "On the Secular Variation of the Moon's Mean Motion" (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 143/ 397. full. pdf) (PDF). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 143: 397406. doi:10.1098/rstl.1853.0017. . [7] D E Cartwright (2001), "Tides: a scientific history" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=78bE5U7TVuIC& pg=PA144), (Cambridge University Press 2001), chapter 10, section: "Lunar acceleration, earth retardation and tidal friction" at pages 144-146. [8] F R Stephenson (2002), "Harold Jeffreys Lecture 2002: Historical eclipses and Earth's rotation" (http:/ / articles. adsabs. harvard. edu/ full/ 2003A& G. . . . 44b. . 22S), in Astronomy & Geophysics, vol.44 (2002), pp. 2.22-2.27. [9] :(1) In "The Physical Basis of the Leap Second", by D D McCarthy, C Hackman and R A Nelson, in Astronomical Journal, vol.136 (2008), pages 1906-1908, it is stated (page 1908), that "the SI second is equivalent to an older measure of the second of UT1, which was too small to start with and further, as the duration of the UT1 second increases, the discrepancy widens." :(2) In the late 1950s, the cesium standard was used to measure both the current mean length of the second of mean solar time (UT2) (result: 9192631830 cycles) and also the second of ephemeris time (ET) (result:9192631770 +/-20 cycles), see "Time Scales", by L. Essen (http:/ / www. leapsecond. com/ history/ 1968-Metrologia-v4-n4-Essen. pdf), in Metrologia, vol.4 (1968), pp.161-165, on p.162. As is well known, the 9192631770 figure was chosen for the SI second. L Essen in the same 1968 article (p.162) stated that this "seemed reasonable in view of the variations in UT2". [10] Munk, Progress in Oceanography 40 (1997) 7; http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S0079661197000219 [11] Munk, Walter (1997). "Once again: once againtidal friction". Progress in Oceanography 40 (14): 735. Bibcode1997PrOce..40....7M. doi:10.1016/S0079-6611(97)00021-9. [12] Munk, W.; Wunsch, C (1998). "Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind mixing". Deep Sea Research Part I Oceanographic Research Papers 45 (12): 1977. Bibcode1998DSRI...45.1977M. doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3 [13] Williams, George E. (2000). "Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit". Reviews of Geophysics 38 (1): 3760. Bibcode2000RvGeo..38...37W. doi:10.1029/1999RG900016. [14] Most laser pulses, 78%, are to the Apollo 15 site. See Williams, et al. (2008), p. 5. [15] Another reflector emplaced by Lunokhod 1 in 1970 is no longer functioning. See Lunar Lost & Found: The Search for Old Spacecraft by Leonard David (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 060327_mystery_monday. html) [16] J. G. Williams, D. H. Boggs and W. M. Folkner (2008). DE421 Lunar orbit, physical librations, and surface coordinates (http:/ / naif. jpl. nasa. gov/ pub/ naif/ generic_kernels/ spk/ planets/ de421_lunar_ephemeris_and_orientation. pdf) p. 7. "These derived values depend on a theory which is not accurate to the number of digits given." [17] F.R. Stephenson, L.V. Morrison (1995): " Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990 (http:/ / rsta. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 351/ 1695/ 165. full. pdf)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A, pp.165202. doi:10.1098/rsta.1995.0028 [18] Jean O. Dickey (1995): "Earth Rotation Variations from Hours to Centuries". In: I. Appenzeller (ed.): Highlights of Astronomy. Vol. 10 pp.17..44. [19] http:/ / www. iers. org/ nn_10910/ IERS/ EN/ Science/ EarthRotation/ UT1-TAI. html [20] LOD (http:/ / www. iers. org/ iers/ earth/ rotation/ ut1lod/ table3. html) [21] Dickey, Jean O.; Bender, PL; Faller, JE; Newhall, XX; Ricklefs, RL; Ries, JG; Shelus, PJ; Veillet, C et al (1994). "Lunar Laser ranging: a continuing legacy of the Apollo program" (http:/ / www. physics. ucsd. edu/ ~tmurphy/ apollo/ doc/ Dickey. pdf). Science 265 (5171): 48290. Bibcode1994Sci...265..482D. doi:10.1126/science.265.5171.482. PMID17781305. . [22] F.R. Stephenson (1997): Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DTb4DDuJNa4C). Cambridge Univ.Press. [23] Zahn, J.-P. (1977). "Tidal Friction in Close Binary Stars". Astron. Astrophys. 57: 383394. Bibcode1977A&A....57..383Z.
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External links
The Recession of the Moon and the Age of the Earth-Moon System (http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/moonrec. html) Tidal Heating as Described by University of Washington Professor Toby Smith (http://www.astro.washington. edu/users/smith/Astro150/Tutorials/TidalHeat/TidalHeat.html)
Tidal power
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels. Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North America. The incoming water was contained in large storage ponds, and as the tide went out, it turned waterwheels that used the mechanical power it produced to mill grain. [1] The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times.[2][3] It was only in the 19th century that the process of using falling water and spinning turbines to create electricity was introduced in the U.S. and Europe. [4] The world's first large-scale tidal power plant (the Rance Tidal Power Station) became operational in 1966.
Tidal power
53
Tidal power
54
Generating methods
Tidal power can be classified into three generating methods:
The world's first commercial-scale and grid-connected tidal stream generator SeaGen [8] in Strangford Lough. The strong wake shows the power in the tidal current.
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or head) between high and low tides. When using tidal barrages to generate power, the potential energy from a tide is seized through strategic placement of specialized dams. When the sea level rises and the tide beings to come in, the temporary increase in tidal power is channeled into a large basin behind the dam, holding a large amount of potential energy. With the receding tide, this energy is then converted into mechanical energy as the water is released through large turbines that create electrical power though the use of generators. [10] Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary.
Top-down view of a DTP dam. Blue and dark red colors indicate low and high tides, respectively.
Tidal power the Fundy Bay estuary. There were three sites determined to be financially feasible: Shepody Bay (1550 MW), Cumberline Basin (1085 MW) and Cobequid Bay (3800 MW). These were never built despite their apparent feasibility in 1977.[12]
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Notes
Baker, A. C. 1991, Tidal power, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London. Baker, G. C., Wilson E. M., Miller, H., Gibson, R. A. & Ball, M., 1980. "The Annapolis tidal power pilot project", in Waterpower '79 Proceedings, ed. Anon, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp 550559. Hammons, T. J. 1993, "Tidal power", Proceedings of the IEEE, [Online], v81, n3, pp 419433. Available from: IEEE/IEEE Xplore. [July 26, 2004]. Lecomber, R. 1979, "The evaluation of tidal power projects", in Tidal Power and Estuary Management, eds. Severn, R. T., Dineley, D. L. & Hawker, L. E., Henry Ling Ltd., Dorchester, pp 3139.
Tidal power
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References
[1] Ocean Energy Council (2011). "Tidal Energy: Pros for Wave and Tidal Power" (http:/ / www. oceanenergycouncil. com/ index. php/ Tidal-Energy/ Tidal-Energy. html). . [2] "Microsoft Word - RS01j.doc" (http:/ / www. kentarchaeology. ac/ authors/ 005. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [3] Minchinton, W. E. (October 1979). "Early Tide Mills: Some Problems". Technology and Culture (Society for the History of Technology) 20 (4): 777786. doi:10.2307/3103639. JSTOR3103639. [4] Dorf, Richard (1981). The Energy Factbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. [5] DiCerto, JJ (1976). The Electric Wishing Well: The Solution to the Energy Crisis. New York: Macmillan. [6] Turcotte, D. L.; Schubert, G. (2002). "4". Geodynamics (2 ed.). Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.136137. ISBN978-0-521-66624-4. [7] George E. Williams (2000). "Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit". Reviews of Geophysics 38 (1): 3760. Bibcode2000RvGeo..38...37W. doi:10.1029/1999RG900016. [8] Douglas, C. A.; Harrison, G. P.; Chick, J. P. (2008). "Life cycle assessment of the Seagen marine current turbine". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment 222 (1): 112. doi:10.1243/14750902JEME94. [9] Blue Energy Canada (2010). "Tidal Power: Blue Energy" (http:/ / www. bluenergy. com/ technology_method_tidal_bridge. html). . [10] Evans, Robert (2007). Fueling Our Future: An Introduction to Sustainable Energy. New York: Cambridge University Press. [11] "Niagra's Power From The Tides" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zigDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA29& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1933+ plane+ "Popular+ Science"& hl=en& ei=MIb5TZaFEajx0gGxtaHPAw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzhQ#v=onepage& q& f=true) May 1924 Popular Science Monthly [12] Chang, Jen (2008), Hydrodynamic Modeling and Feasibility Study of Harnessing Tidal Power at the Bay of Fundy (http:/ / digitallibrary. usc. edu/ assetserver/ controller/ item/ etd-Chang-20080312. pdf) (PhD thesis), Los Angeles: University of Southern California, , retrieved 2011-09-27 [13] L'Usine marmotrice de la Rance (http:/ / membres. lycos. fr/ chezalex/ projets/ rance/ sommaire_rance. htm) [14] "Hunt for African Projects" (http:/ / www. newsworld. co. kr/ cont/ article2009/ 0909-52. htm). Newsworld.co.kr. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [15] Tidal power plant nears completion (http:/ / engsales. yonhapnews. co. kr/ YNA/ ContentsSales/ EngSales/ YISW_PopupPhotoPreview. aspx?CID=PYH20110411088100341) [16] "Nova Scotia Power - Environment - Green Power- Tidal" (http:/ / www. nspower. ca/ en/ home/ environment/ renewableenergy/ tidal/ annapolis. aspx). Nspower.ca. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [17] "China Endorses 300 MW Ocean Energy Project" (http:/ / www. renewableenergyworld. com/ rea/ news/ article/ 2004/ 11/ china-endorses-300-mw-ocean-energy-project-17685). Renewableenergyworld.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [18] "Race Rocks Demonstration Project" (http:/ / www. cleancurrent. com/ technology/ rrproject. htm). Cleancurrent.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [19] "Tidal Energy, Ocean Energy" (http:/ / www. racerocks. com/ racerock/ energy/ tidalenergy/ tidalenergy2. htm). Racerocks.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [20] "Information for media inquiries" (http:/ / www. cleancurrent. com/ media/ index. htm). Cleancurrent.com. 2009-11-13. . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [21] Korea's first tidal power plant built in Uldolmok, Jindo (http:/ / www. korea. net/ news/ News/ newsView. asp?serial_no=20090518009& part=101& SearchDay=2009. 05. 18& page=1) [22] "Tidal energy system on full power" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ northern_ireland/ 7790494. stm). BBC News. December 18, 2008. . Retrieved March 26, 2010. [23] $ 3-B tidal power plant proposed near Korean islands (http:/ / ecoseed. org/ en/ general-green-news/ green-politics/ green-policies/ asia-pacific/ 3457) [24] "Microsoft PowerPoint - presentation_t4_1_kim" (http:/ / pemsea. org/ eascongress/ international-conference/ presentation_t4-1_kim. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-04-05. [25] "Islay to get major tidal power scheme" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ uk-scotland-glasgow-west-12767211). BBC. March 17, 2011. . Retrieved 2011-03-19. [26] "India plans Asian tidal power first" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ science-environment-12215065). BBC News. January 18, 2011. . [27] "Turbines Off NYC East River Will Create Enough Energy to Power 9,500 Homes" (http:/ / energy. gov/ articles/ turbines-nyc-east-river-will-create-enough-energy-power-9500-homes). U.S. Department of Energy. . Retrieved 13 February 2012.
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External links
Enhanced tidal lagoon with pumped storage and constant output (http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/ sustainable/book/tex/Lagoons.pdf) as proposed by David J.C. MacKay, Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, UK. Marine and Hydrokinetic Technology Database (http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/ default.aspx) The U.S. Department of Energy's Marine and Hydrokinetic Technology Database provides up-to-date information on marine and hydrokinetic renewable energy, both in the U.S. and around the world. Severn Estuary Partnership: Tidal Power Resource Page (http://www.severnestuary.net/sep/resource.html) Location of Potential Tidal Stream Power sites in the UK (http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?hl=en&q=& ie=UTF8&msa=0&msid=107402675945400268346.0000011377c9bc61b8af9&ll=54.977614,-5.800781& spn=11.389793,29.179688&z=5&om=1) University of Strathclyde ESRU (http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/05-06/marine_renewables/ home/1st_page.htm)-- Detailed analysis of marine energy resource, current energy capture technology appraisal and environmental impact outline Coastal Research - Foreland Point Tidal Turbine and warnings on proposed Severn Barrage (http://www. coastalresearch.co.uk/index.html) Sustainable Development Commission (http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/publications.php?id=607) - Report looking at 'Tidal Power in the UK', including proposals for a Severn barrage World Energy Council (http://www.worldenergy.org/publications/survey_of_energy_resources_2007/ tidal_energy/754.asp) - Report on Tidal Energy European Marine Energy Centre (http://www.emec.org.uk/tidal_developers.asp) - Listing of Tidal Energy Developers -retrieved 1 July 2011 Resources on Tidal Energy (http://www.environmentportal.in/category/thesaurus/tidal-energy)
Intertidal ecology
Intertidal ecology is the study of intertidal ecosystems, where organisms live between the low and high tide lines. At low tide, the intertidal is exposed whereas at high tide, the intertidal is underwater. Intertidal ecologists therefore study the interactions between intertidal organisms and their environment, as well as between different species of intertidal organisms within a particular intertidal community. The most important environmental and species interactions may vary based on the type of intertidal community being studied, the broadest of classifications being based on substrates rocky shore and soft bottom communities.
Organisms living in this zone have a highly variable and often hostile environment, and have evolved various adaptations to cope with and even exploit these conditions. One easily visible feature of intertidal communities is vertical zonation, where the community is divided into distinct vertical bands of specific species going up the shore. Species ability to cope with abiotic factors associated with emersion stress, such as desiccation determines their upper limits, while biotic interactions e.g.competition with other species sets their lower limits.
Intertidal ecology Intertidal regions are utilized by humans for food and recreation, but anthropogenic actions also have major impacts, with overexploitation, invasive species and climate change being among the problems faced by intertidal communities. In some places Marine Protected Areas have been established to protect these areas and aid in scientific research.
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Environment
Because intertidal organisms endure regular periods of immersion and emersion, they essentially live both underwater and on land and must be adapted to a large range of climatic conditions. The intensity of climate stressors varies with relative tide height because organisms living in areas with higher tide heights are emersed for longer periods than those living in areas with lower tide heights. This gradient of climate with tide height leads to patterns of intertidal zonation, with high intertidal species being more adapted to emersion stresses than low intertidal species. These adaptations may be behavioral (i.e. movements or actions), morphological (i.e. characteristics of external body structure), or physiological (i.e. internal functions of cells and organs).[1] In addition, such adaptations generally cost the organism in terms of energy (e.g. to move or to grow certain structures), leading to trade-offs (i.e. spending more energy on deterring predators leaves less energy for other functions like reproduction). Intertidal organisms, especially those in the high intertidal, must cope with a large range of temperatures. While they are underwater, temperatures may only vary by a few degrees over the year. However, A rock, seen at low tide, exhibiting typical at low tide, temperatures may dip to below freezing or may become intertidal zonation. scaldingly hot, leading to a temperature range that may approach 30 C (86 F) during a period of a few hours. Many mobile organisms, such as snails and crabs, avoid temperature fluctuations by crawling around and searching for food at high tide and hiding in cool, moist refuges (crevices or burrows) at low tide.[2] Besides simply living at lower tide heights, non-motile organisms may be more dependent on coping mechanisms. For example, high intertidal organisms have a stronger stress response, a physiological response of making proteins that help recovery from temperature stress just as the immune response aids in the recovery from infection. Intertidal organisms are also especially prone to desiccation during periods of emersion. Again, mobile organisms avoid desiccation in the same way as they avoid extreme temperatures: by hunkering down in mild and moist refuges. Many intertidal organisms, including Littorina snails, prevent water loss by having waterproof outer surfaces, pulling completely into their shells, and sealing shut their shell opening. Limpets (Patella) do not use such
Intertidal ecology a sealing plate but occupy a home-scar to which they seal the lower edge of their flattened conical shell using a grinding action. They return to this home-scar after each grazing excursion, typically just before emersion. On soft rocks, these scars are quite obvious. Still other organisms, such as the algae Ulva and Porphyra, are able to rehydrate and recover after periods of severe desiccation. The level of salinity can also be quite variable. Low salinities can be caused by rainwater or river inputs of freshwater. Estuarine species must be especially euryhaline, or able to tolerate a wide range of salinities. High salinities occur in locations with high evaporation rates, such as in salt marshes and high intertidal pools. Shading by plants, especially in the salt marsh, can slow evaporation and thus ameliorate salinity stress. In addition, salt marsh plants tolerate high salinities by several physiological mechanisms, including excreting salt through salt glands and preventing salt uptake into the roots. In addition to these exposure stresses (temperature, desiccation, and salinity), intertidal organisms experience strong mechanical stresses, especially in locations of high wave action. There are myriad ways in which the organisms prevent dislodgement due to waves. Morphologically, many mollusks (such as limpets and chitons) have low-profile, hydrodynamic shells. Types of substrate attachments include mussels tethering byssal threads and glues, sea stars thousands of suctioning tube feet, and isopods hook-like appendages that help them hold onto intertidal kelps. Higher profile organisms, such as kelps, must also avoid breaking in high flow locations, and they do so with their strength and flexibility. Finally, organisms can also avoid high flow environments, such as by seeking out low flow microhabitats. Additional forms of mechanical stresses include ice and sand scour, as well as dislodgment by water-borne rocks, logs, etc. For each of these climate stresses, species exist that are adapted to and thrive in the most stressful of locations. For example, the tiny crustacean copepod Tigriopus thrives in very salty, high intertidal tidepools, and many filter feeders find more to eat in wavier and higher flow locations. Adapting to such challenging environments gives these species competitive edges in such locations.
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Intertidal ecology
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Species interactions
In addition to being shaped by aspects of climate, intertidal habitatsespecially intertidal zonation patternsare strongly influenced by species interactions, such as predation, competition, facilitation, and indirect interactions. Ultimately, these interactions feed into the food web structure, described above. Intertidal habitats have been a model system for many classic ecological studies, including those introduced below, because the resident communities are particularly amenable to experimentation.
Tide pools with sea stars and sea anemone in Santa Cruz
One dogma of intertidal ecologysupported by such classic studiesis that species lower tide height limits are set by species interactions whereas their upper limits are set by climate variables. Classic studies by Robert Paine[3][4] established that when sea star predators are removed, mussel beds extend to lower tide heights, smothering resident seaweeds. Thus, mussels lower limits are set by sea star predation. Conversely, in the presence of sea stars, mussels lower limits occur at a tide height at which sea stars are unable to tolerate climate conditions. Competition, especially for space, is another dominant interaction structuring intertidal communities. Space competition is especially fierce in rocky intertidal habitats, where habitable space is limited compared to soft-sediment habitats in which three-dimensional space is available. As seen with the previous sea star example, mussels are competitively dominant when they are not kept in check by sea star predation. Joseph Connell's research on two types of high intertidal barnacles, Balanus balanoides, now Semibalanus balanoides, and a Chthamalus stellatus, showed that zonation patterns could also be set by competition between closely related organisms.[5] In this example, Balanus outcompetes Chthamalus at lower tide heights but is unable to survive at higher tide heights. Thus, Balanus conforms to the intertidal ecology dogma introduced above: its lower tide height limit is set by a predatory snail and its higher tide height limit is set by climate. Similarly, Chthamalus, which occurs in a refuge from competition (similar to the temperature refuges discussed above), has a lower tide height limit set by competition with Balanus and a higher tide height limit is set by climate.
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Although intertidal ecology has traditionally focused on these negative interactions (predation and competition), there is emerging evidence that positive interactions are also important.[6] Facilitation refers to one organism helping another without harming itself. For example, salt marsh plant species of Juncus and Iva are unable to tolerate the high soil salinities when evaporation rates are high, thus they depend on neighboring plants to shade the sediment, slow evaporation, and help maintain tolerable salinity levels.[7] In similar examples, many intertidal organisms Hermit Crabs and live Tegula snails on a dead Gumboot chiton, Cryptochiton provide physical structures that are used as stelleri, in a tide pool at low tide in central California refuges by other organisms. Mussels, although they are tough competitors with certain species, are also good facilitators as mussel beds provide a three-dimensional habitat to species of snails, worms, and crustaceans. All of the examples given so far are of direct interactions: Species A eat Species B or Species B eats Species C. Also important are indirect interactions[8] where, using the previous example, Species A eats so much of Species B that predation on Species C decreases and Species C increases in number. Thus, Species A indirectly benefits Species C. Pathways of indirect interactions can include all other forms of species interactions. To follow the sea star-mussel relationship, sea stars have an indirect negative effect on the diverse community that lives in the mussel bed because, by preying on mussels and decreasing mussel bed structure, those species that are facilitated by mussels are left homeless. Additional important species interactions include mutualism, which is seen in symbioses between sea anemones and their internal symbiotic algae, and parasitism, which is prevalent but is only beginning to be appreciated for its effects on community structure.
Current topics
Humans are highly dependent on intertidal habitats for food and raw materials[9], and over 50% of humans live within 100km of the coast. Therefore, intertidal habitats are greatly influenced by human impacts to both ocean and land habitats. Some of the conservation issues associated with intertidal habitats and at the head of the agendas of managers and intertidal ecologists are: 1. Climate change: Intertidal species are challenged by several of the effects of global climate change, including increased temperatures, sea level rise, and increased storminess. Ultimately, it has been predicted that the distributions and numbers of species will shift depending on their abilities to adapt (quickly!) to these new environmental conditions.[9] Due to the global scale of this issue, scientists are mainly working to understand and predict possible changes to intertidal habitats. 2. Invasive species: Invasive species are especially prevalent in intertidal areas with high volumes of shipping traffic, such as large estuaries, because of the transport of non-native species in ballast water.[10] San Francisco Bay, in which an invasive Spartina cordgrass from the east coast is currently transforming mudflat communities into Spartina meadows, is among the most invaded estuaries in the world. Conservation efforts are focused on trying to eradicate some species (like Spartina) in their non-native habitats as well as preventing further species introductions (e.g. by controlling methods of ballast water uptake and release).
Intertidal ecology 3. Marine protected areas: Many intertidal areas are lightly to heavily exploited by humans for food gathering (e.g. clam digging in soft-sediment habitats and snail, mussel, and algal collecting in rocky intertidal habitats). In some locations, marine protected areas have been established where no collecting is permitted. The benefits of protected areas may spill over to positively impact adjacent unprotected areas. For example, a greater number of larger egg capsules of the edible snail Concholepus in protected vs. non-protected areas in Chile indicates that these protected areas may help replenish snail stocks in areas open to harvesting.[11] The degree to which collecting is regulated by law differs with the species and habitat.
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References
Cited
[1] Somero, G. N. 2002. Thermal physiology and vertical zonation of intertidal animals: optima, limits, and cost of living. Integrative and Comparative Biology 42:780-789. [2] Burnaford, J. L. 2004. Habitat modification and refuge from sublethal stress drive a marine plant-herbivore association. Ecology 85:2837-2849. [3] Paine, R. T. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100:65-75. [4] Paine, R. T. 1974. Intertidal community structure: experimental studies on the relationship between a dominant competitor and its principal predator. Oecologia 15:93-120. [5] Connell, J. H. 1961. The influence of interspecific competition and other factors on the distribution of the barnacle Chthamalus stellatus. Ecology 42:710-723. [6] Bruno, J. F., J. J. Stachowicz, and M. D. Bertness. 2003. Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18:119-125. [7] Bertness, M. D., and S. D. Hacker. 1994. Physical stress and positive associations among marsh plants. American Naturalist 144:363-372. [8] Menge, B. A. 1995. Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs: patterns and importance. Ecological Monographs 65:21-74. [9] Harley, C. D. G., A. R. Hughes, K. M. Hultgren, B. G. Miner, C. J. B. Sorte, C. S. Thornber, L. F. Rodriguez, L. Tomanek, and S. L. Williams. 2006. The impacts of climate change in coastal marine systems. Ecology Letters 9:228-241. [10] Cohen, A. N., and J. T. Carlton. 1998. Accelerating invasion rate in a highly invaded estuary. Science 279:555-558. [11] Manriquez, P. H., and J. C. Castilla. 2001. Significance of marine protected areas in central Chile as seeding grounds for the gastropod Concholepus concholepus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 215:201-211.
General
Bertness MD, SD Gaines, and ME Hay (2001) Marine community ecology. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Kozloff EN (1973) Seashore life of the northern Pacific coast. University of Washington Press. Ricketts EF, J Calvin and JW Hedgpeth (1939) Between Pacific Tides (5th Ed.) Stanford University Press.
External links
Rocky intertidal species, Australia (http://www.rockyshores.auz.info/back_info04.htm#)
Internal tide
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Internal tide
Internal tides are generated as the surface tides move stratified water up and down sloping topography, which produces a wave in the ocean interior. So internal tides are internal waves at a tidal frequency. The other major source of internal waves is the wind which produces internal waves near the inertial frequency. When a small water parcel is displaced from its equilibrium position, it will return either downwards due to gravity or upwards due to buoyancy. The water parcel will overshoot its original equilibrium position and this disturbance will set off an internal gravity wave. Munk (1981) notes, "Gravity waves in the ocean's interior are as common as waves at the sea surface-perhaps even more so, for no one has ever reported an interior calm." [1]
Simple explanation
The surface tide propagates as a wave, in which water parcels in the whole water column oscillate in the same direction at a given phase (i.e., in the trough or at the crest, Fig. 1, top). At the simplest level, an internal wave can be thought of as an interfacial wave (Fig. 1, bottom). If there are two levels in the ocean, such as a warm surface layer and cold deep layer separated by a thermocline,then motions on the interface are possible. The interface movement is large compared to surface movement. The restoring force for internal waves and tides is still gravity but its effect is reduced because the densities of the 2 layers are relatively similar compared to the large density difference at the air-sea interface. Thus larger displacements are possible inside the ocean than at the sea surface. Tides occur mainly at diurnal and semidiurnal periods. The principal lunar semidiurnal constituent is known as M2 and generally has the largest amplitudes. (See external links for more information.)
Location
Figure 1: Water parcels in the whole water column move together with the surface tide (top), while shallow and deep waters move in opposite directions in an internal tide (bottom). The surface displacement and interface displacement are the same for a surface wave (top), while for an internal wave the surface displacements are very small, while the interface displacements are large (bottom). This figure is a modified version [2] of one appearing in Gill (1982).
The largest internal tides are generated at steep, midocean topography such as the Hawaiian Ridge, Tahiti, the Macquarie Ridge, and submarine ridges in the Luzon Strait. [3] Continental slopes such as the Australian North West Shelf also generate large internal tides. [4] These internal tide may propagate onshore and dissipate much like surface waves. Or internal tides may propagate away from the topography into the open ocean. For tall, steep, midocean topography, such as the Hawaiian Ridge, it is estimated that about 85% of the energy in the internal tide propagates away into the deep ocean with about 15% of its energy being lost within about 50km of the generation site. The lost energy contributes to turbulence and mixing near the generation sites. [5] [6] It is not clear where the energy that leaves the generation site is dissipated, but there are 3 possible processes: 1) the internal tides scatter and/or break at distant midocean topography, 2) interactions with other internal waves remove energy from the internal tide, or 3) the internal tides shoal and break on continental shelves.
Internal tide
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Internal tide both heated and cooled at its surface cannot develop a deep overturning circulation. [17] Most global models have incorporated uniform mixing throughout the ocean because they do not include or resolve internal tidal flows. However, models are now beginning to include spatially variable mixing related to internal tides and the rough topography where they are generated and distant topography where they may break. Wunsch and Ferrari (2004) describe the global impact of spatially inhomogeneous mixing near midocean topography: A number of lines of evidence, none complete, suggest that the oceanic general circulation, far from being a heat engine, is almost wholly governed by the forcing of the wind eld and secondarily by deep water tides... The now inescapable conclusion that over most of the ocean signicant vertical mixing is conned to topographically complex boundary areas implies a potentially radically different interior circulation than is possible with uniform mixing. Whether ocean circulation models... neither explicitly accounting for the energy input into the system nor providing for spatial variability in the mixing, have any physical relevance under changed climate conditions is at issue. There is a limited understanding of the sources controlling the internal wave energy in the ocean and the rate at which it is dissipated and are only now developing some parameterizations of the mixing generated by the interaction of internal waves, mesoscale eddies, high-frequency barotropic uctuations, and other motions over sloping topography.
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References
[1] Munk, W. (1981). B. A. Warren and C. Wunsch. ed. "Internal Waves and Small-Scale Processes". Evolution of Physical Oceanography (MIT Press): 264291. [2] Gill, A. E. (1982). Atmosphere-ocean dynamics. Academic. pp.662. ISBN0-12-283522-0. [3] Simmons, H. L., R. W. Hallberg, and B. K. Arbic (2004). "Internal wave generation in a global baroclinic tide model". Deep-Sea Res. II 51 (2526): 30433068. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2004.09.015. [4] Holloway, P. E. (2001). "A regional model of the semidiurnal tide on the Australian North West Shelf". J. Geophys. Res.. 106 (C9): 19,62519,638.
Figure 3: The internal tide produces large vertical differences in temperature at the research pier at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The black line shows the surface tide elevation relative to mean lower low water (MLLW). Figure provided by Eric Terrill, Scripps Institution of Oceanography with funding from the U.S. Office of Naval Research
[5] Carter, G. S., M. A. Merrifield, J. M. Becker, K. Katsumata, M. C. Gregg, D. S. Luther, M. D. Levine, T. J. Boyd, and Y. L. Firing (2008). "Energetics of M2 Barotropic-to-Baroclinic Tidal Conversion at the Hawaiian Islands". J. Phys. Oceanogr. 38 (10): 22052223. doi:10.1175/2008JPO3860.1. [6] Klymak, J. M., J. N. Moum, J. D. Nash, E. Kunze, J. B. Girton, G. S. Carter, C. M. Lee, T. B. Sanford, and M. C. Gregg (2006). "An Estimate of Tidal Energy Lost to Turbulence at the Hawaiian Ridge". J. Phys. Oceanogr. 36 (6): 11481164. doi:10.1175/JPO2885.1. [7] Briscoe, M. (1975). "Introduction to a collection of papers on oceanographic internal waves". J. Geophys. Res. 80 (3): 289290. Bibcode1975JGR....80..289B. doi:10.1029/JC080i003p00289. [8] Johnston, T. M. S., and M. A. Merrifield (2003). "Internal tide scattering at seamounts, ridges and islands". J. Geophys. Res.. 108 (C6) 3126 (C6): 3180. Bibcode2003JGRC..108.3180J. doi:10.1029/2002JC001528. [9] Johnston, T. M. S., M. A. Merrifield, and P. E. Holloway (2003). "Internal tide scattering at the Line Islands Ridge". J. Geophys. Res.. 108 (C11) 3365 (C11): 3365. Bibcode2003JGRC..108.3365J. doi:10.1029/2003JC001844. [10] St. Laurent, L. C., and C. Garrett (2002). "The Role of Internal Tides in Mixing the Deep Ocean". J. Phys. Oceanogr. 32 (10): 28822899. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(2002)032<2882:TROITI>2.0.CO;2. ISSN1520-0485. [11] MacKinnon, J. A., and K. B. Winters (2005). "Subtropical catastrophe: Significant loss of low-mode tidal energy at 28.9 degrees". Geophys. Res. Lett.. 32 L15605 (15): L15605. Bibcode2005GeoRL..3215605M. doi:10.1029/2005GL023376.
Internal tide
[12] Nash, J. D., E. Kunze, J.M. Toole, and R.W. Schmitt (2004). "Internal tide reection and turbulent mixing on the continental slope". J. Phys. Oceanogr. 34 (5): 11171134. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(2004)034<1117:ITRATM>2.0.CO;2. ISSN1520-0485. [13] Garrett, C., and E. Kunze (2007). "Internal tide generation in the deep ocean". Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 39 (1): 5787. doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.050905.110227. [14] Wunsch, C., and R. Ferrari (2004). "Vertical mixing, energy, and the general circulation of the ocean". Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 36 (1): 281314. doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122121. [15] Munk, W., and Wunsch, C. (1998). "Abyssal recipes II: Energetics of tidal and wind mixing". Deep-Sea Res. 45 (12): 19772010. Bibcode1998DSRI...45.1977M. doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3. [16] Munk, W. (1966). "Abyssal recipes". Deep-Sea Res. 13: 707730. [17] Sandstrom, J. W. (1908). "Dynamische Versuche mit Meerwasser". Ann. Hydrodyn. Marine Meteorology: 6.
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External links
(http://sio.ucsd.edu) Scripps Institution of Oceanography (http://www.sccoos.org/) Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing System (http://www.arsc.edu/challenges/2004/oceans.html) Internal Tides of the Oceans, Harper Simmons, by Jenn Wagaman of Arctic Region Supercomputing Center (http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter17/chapter17_04.htm) Principal tidal constituents in Physical oceanography textbook, Bob Stewart of Texas A&M University (http://web.uvic.ca/~kunze) Eric Kunze's work on internal waves, internal tides, mixing, and more
Earth tide
Earth tide or body tide is the sub-meter motion of the Earth surface at periods of about 12 hours and longer. The motion is caused by the gravity of the Moon and Sun. The largest body tide constituents are semidiurnal, but there are also significant diurnal, semi-annual, and fortnightly contributions. Though the gravitational forcing causing earth tides and ocean tides is the same, the responses are quite different.
Tidal forcing
A. Lunar tidal forcing: this depicts the Moon directly over 30 N (or 30 S) viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere.
B. This view shows same forcing from 180 from view A. Viewed from above the Northern Hemisphere. Red up, blue down.
The larger of the periodic gravitational forcings is from the Moon but that of the Sun is also important. The images here show lunar tidal forcing when the Moon appears directly over 30 N (or 30 S). This pattern remains fixed with the red area directed toward (or directly away from) the Moon. Red indicates upward pull, blue downward. If, for example the Moon is directly over 90 W (or 90 E), the center of the red areas are centered on the western northern
Earth tide hemisphere, on upper right. Red up, blue down. If for example the Moon is directly over 90 W (90 E), the center of the red area is 30 N, 90 W and 30 S, 90 E, and the center of the bluish band follows the great circle equidistant from those points. At 30 latitude a strong peak occurs once per lunar day, giving significant diurnal forcing at that latitude. Along the equator two equally sized peaks (and depressions) are equally sized, giving semi-diurnal forcing there.
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Body tide
The Earth tide encompasses the entire body of the Earth and is unhindered by the thin crust and land masses of the surface, on scales that make the rigidity of rock irrelevant. Ocean tides are a consequence of the resonance of the same driving forces with water movement periods in ocean basins accumulated over many days, so that their amplitude and timing are quite different and vary over short distances of just a few hundred kilometres. The oscillation periods of the earth as a whole are not near the astronomical periods, so its flexing is due to the forces of the moment. The tide components with a period near twelve hours have a lunar amplitude (earth bulge/depression distances) that are a little more than twice the height of the solar amplitudes, as tabulated below. At new and full moon, the Sun
Earth tide and the Moon are aligned, and the lunar and the solar tidal maxima and minima (bulges and depressions) add together for the greatest tidal range at particular latitudes. At first- and third-quarter phases of the moon, lunar and solar tides are in opposition, and the tidal range is at a minimum. The semi-diurnal tides go through one full cycle (a high and low tide) about once every 12 hours and one full cycle of maximum height (a spring and neap tide) about once every 14 days. The classical theory of Earth tides first became established in 1905,[1] primarily to explain nutations, but are also used in Earth rotation predictions. The semi-diurnal tide (one maximum every 12 or so hours) is primarily lunar (only S2 is purely solar) and gives rise to sectorial deformations which rise and fall at the same time along the same longitude.[2] Sectorial variations of vertical and east-west displacements are maximum at the equator and vanish at the poles. There are two cycles along each latitude, the bulges opposite one another, and the depressions similarly opposed. The diurnal tide is lunisolar, and gives rise to tesseral deformations. The vertical and east-west movement is maximum at 45 latitude and is zero on the equator and at the poles. Tesseral variation have one cycle per latitude, one bulge and one depression; the bulges are opposed (antipodal), that is to say the western part of the northern hemisphere and the eastern part of the southern hemisphere, for example, and similarly the depressions are opposed, the eastern part of the northern hemisphere and the western part of the southern hemisphere, in this case. Finally, fortnightly and semi-annual tides have 'zonal' deformations (constant along a circle of latitude), as the Moon or Sun gravitation is directed alternately away from the northern and southern hemispheres due to tilt. There is zero vertical displacement at 3516' latitude. Since these displacements affect the vertical direction east-west and north-south variations are often tabulated in milliarc seconds for astronomical use. The vertical displacement is frequent tabulated in gal, since the gradient of gravity is location dependent so that the distance conversion is only approximately 3 gal per cm
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Tidal constituents
Principal body tide constituents. The amplitudes may vary from those listed within several per cent.[3][4]
Semi-diurnal
Tidal constituent M2 Period 12.421 hr Vertical amplitude (mm) Horizontal amplitude (mm) 384.83 179.05 73.69 48.72 53.84 25.05 10.31 6.82
Diurnal
Tidal constituent K1 O1 P1 1 Period 23.934 hr 25.819 hr 24.066 hr 23.804 hr Vertical amplitude (mm) Horizontal amplitude (mm) 191.78 158.11 70.88 3.44 32.01 22.05 10.36 0.43
Earth tide
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1 S1 (solar diurnal) 23.869 hr 24.000 hr 2.72 1.65 0.21 0.25
Long term
Tidal constituent Mf Mm (moon monthly) Period Vertical amplitude (mm) Horizontal amplitude (mm) 5.59 2.96 2.60 2.34 0.41 13.661 days 40.36 27.555 days 21.33 18.79 16.92 2.97
Ssa (solar semi-annual) 0.50000 yr Lunar node Sa (solar annual) 18.613 yr 1.0000 yr
Notes
[1] A.E.H. Love, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 82, 1905 [2] Paul Melchior, "Earth Tides", Surveys in Geophysics, 1, pp. 275-303, March, 1974. [3] John Wahr, "Earth Tides", Global Earth Physics, A Handbook of Physical Constants, AGU Reference Shelf, 1, pp. 40-46, 1995. [4] Michael R. House, "Orbital forcing timescales: an introduction", Geological Society, London, Special Publications; 1995; v. 85; p. 1-18. http:/ / sp. lyellcollection. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 85/ 1/ 1 [5] Sottili G., Martino S., Palladino D.M., Paciello A., Bozzano F. (2007), Effects of tidal stresses on volcanic activity at Mount Etna, Italy, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L01311, doi:10.1029/2006GL028190, 2007. [6] Volcano watch (http:/ / hvo. wr. usgs. gov/ volcanowatch/ 1998/ 98_05_28. html), USGS. [7] Accelerator on the move, but scientists compensate for tidal effects (http:/ / news-service. stanford. edu/ news/ 2000/ march29/ linac-329. html), Stanford online. [8] CERN circumference deformation (http:/ / accelconf. web. cern. ch/ accelconf/ e00/ PAPERS/ MOP5A04. pdf); CERN particle beam energy (http:/ / accelconf. web. cern. ch/ accelconf/ p93/ PDF/ PAC1993_0044. PDF) affects.
References
Paul Melchior, Earth Tides, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1983.
Galactic tide
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Galactic tide
A galactic tide is a tidal force experienced by objects subject to the gravitational field of a galaxy such as the Milky Way. Particular areas of interest concerning galactic tides include galactic collisions, the disruption of dwarf or satellite galaxies, and the Milky Way's tidal effect on the hypothesized Oort Cloud of our own solar system.
The Mice Galaxies NGC 4676
Origin
When one body (like the blue object in the diagrams at left) is in the gravitational field of a large mass (the yellow object), it becomes tidally distorted. Gravitational attraction increases with decreasing distance; the closer any object A is to another object B, the more intensely A is affected by the object B's gravity, according to Newton's law of universal gravitation. This is also true of the different parts of an object; The surface of object A feels a stronger attraction to object B than the core of object A. When the other object's gravity is particularly strong, this causes the smaller object's surface to pull away from the core, and the object to distend and flatten in the direction of the larger object. The large body feels a similar but far weaker distortion caused in the same A body in proximity to a larger mass becomes stretched out by tidal way by the gravitational field of the small body. In forces technical terms, the equilibrium shape of the small body is the one that minimizes its gravitational potential energy. In empty space, this would be a sphere. However, in the proximity of the large body, the lowest potential energy shape is an ovoid stretched along the axis connecting the two bodies. For example, the tides on Earth are caused by the distortion that the Moon and the Sun cause to the Earth's gravitational field. In this case, the Earth's rotation is slow enough that the Earth is able to reshape itself so that the distortions remain oriented approximately in the direction of the Moon and the Sun. From the point of view of a person on the surface, we pass over the long axes of the distortions approximately twice a day for each, at which points high tide are experienced. Since the relative positions of the Earth, Sun and Moon are constantly changing, the tidal effects reinforce or counteract each other to various degrees. (see Spring tide and Neap tide). Galactic tides demonstrate the same processes on a far grander scale. Tidally interacting galaxies will be stretched towards each other. They may eventually flatten out and distend towards the galaxy's centre, or suffer perturbations to their orbits. Furthermore, if the galaxies are rapidly rotating, their sections may not be able to keep up with the
Galactic tide distortion like the Earth, and long tails of stars and other highly distorted regions can be formed, as seen in the diagrams in this article.
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Just as the Moon raises two water tides on opposite sides of the Earth, so a galactic tide produces two arms in its galactic companion. While a large tail is formed if the perturbed galaxy is equal to or less massive than its partner, if it is significantly more massive than the perturbing galaxy, then the trailing arm will be relatively minor, and the leading arm, sometimes called a bridge, will be more prominent.[1] Tidal bridges are typically harder to distinguish than tidal tails: in the first instance, the bridge may be absorbed by the passing galaxy or the resulting merged galaxy, making it visible for a shorter duration than a typical large tail. Secondly, if one of the two galaxies is in the foreground, then the second galaxy and the bridge between them may be partially obscured. Together, these effects can make it hard to see where one galaxy ends and the next begins. Tidal loops, where a tail joins with its parent galaxy at both ends, are rarer still.[2]
Galactic tide
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Satellite interactions
Because tidal effects are strongest in the immediate vicinity of a galaxy, satellite galaxies are particularly likely to be affected. Such an external force upon a satellite can produce ordered motions within it, leading to large-scale observable effects: the interior structure and motions of a dwarf satellite galaxy may be severely affected by a galactic tide, inducing rotation (as with the tides of the Earth's oceans) or an anomalous mass-to-luminosity ratio.[3] Satellite galaxies can also be subjected to the same tidal stripping that occurs in galactic The Andromeda Galaxy. Note its satellite galaxy M32 (top left), whose outer arms collisions, where stars and gas are torn from have been stripped away by Andromeda's tidal forces. the extremities of a galaxy, possibly to be absorbed by its companion. The dwarf galaxy M32, a satellite galaxy of Andromeda, may have lost its spiral arms to tidal stripping, while a high star formation rate in the remaining core may be the result of tidally-induced motions of the remaining molecular clouds[4] (Because tidal forces can knead and compress the interstellar gas clouds inside galaxies, they induce large amounts of star formation in small satellites. The process is somewhat similar to making something hotter by squeezing it). The stripping mechanism is the same as between two comparable galaxies, although its comparatively weak gravitational field ensures that only the satellite, not the host galaxy, is affected. If the satellite is very small compared to the host, the tidal debris tails produced are likely to be symmetric, and follow a very similar orbit, effectively tracing the satellite's path.[5] However, if the satellite is reasonably largetypically over one ten thousandth the mass of its hostthen the satellite's own gravity may affect the tails, breaking the symmetry and accelerating the tails in different directions. The resulting structure is dependent on both the mass and orbit of the satellite, and the mass and structure of the conjectured galactic halo around the host, and may provide a means of probing the dark matter potential of a galaxy such as the Milky Way.[6] Over many orbits of its parent galaxy, or if the orbit passes too close to it, a dwarf satellite may eventually be completely disrupted, to form a tidal stream of stars and gas wrapping around the larger body. It has been suggested that the extended discs of gas and stars around some galaxies, such as Andromeda, may be the result of the complete tidal disruption (and subsequent merger with the parent galaxy) of a dwarf satellite galaxy.[7]
Galactic tide
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The Oort cloud is believed to be a vast shell surrounding our solar system, possibly over a light-year in radius. Across such a vast distance, the gradient of the Milky Way's gravitational field plays a far more noticeable role. Because of this gradient, galactic tides may then deform an otherwise spherical Oort cloud, stretching the cloud in the direction of the galactic centre and compressing it along the other two axes, just as the Earth distends in response to the gravity of the Moon. The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant Diagram of the Oort cloud. orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by [8] significantly reducing their perihelion. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner solar system. It has been suggested that the galactic tide may also contribute to the formation of an Oort cloud, by increasing the perihelion of planetesimals with large aphelion.[9] This shows that the effects of the galactic tide are quite complex, and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system. Cumulatively the effect can be quite significant, however; up to 90% of all comets originating from an Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide.[10]
References
[1] Toomre A. & Toomre J. (1972). "Galactic Bridges and Tails". The Astrophysical Journal 178: 623666. Bibcode1972ApJ...178..623T. doi:10.1086/151823. [2] Wehner E.H. et al. (2006). "NGC 3310 and its tidal debris: remnants of galaxy evolution". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 371 (3): 10471056. arXiv:astro-ph/0607088. Bibcode2006MNRAS.371.1047W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10757.x. [3] Piatek S. & Pryor C. (1993). "Can Galactic Tides Inflate the Apparent M/L's of Dwarf Galaxies?". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 25: 1383. Bibcode1993AAS...183.5701P. [4] Bekki, Kenji; Couch, Warrick J.; Drinkwater, Michael J.; Gregg, Michael D. (2001). "A New Formation Model for M32: A Threshed Early-Type Spiral Galaxy?". The Astrophysical Journal 557 (1): Issue 1, pp. L39L42. arXiv:astro-ph/0107117. Bibcode2001ApJ...557L..39B. doi:10.1086/323075. [5] Johnston, K.V.; Hernquist, L. & Bolte, M. (1996). "Fossil Signatures of Ancient Accretion Events in the Halo". The Astrophysical Journal 465: 278. arXiv:astro-ph/9602060. Bibcode1996ApJ...465..278J. doi:10.1086/177418. [6] Choi, J.-H.; Weinberg, M.D.; Katz, N. (2007). "The dynamics of tidal tails from massive satellites". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 381 (3): 9871000. arXiv:astro-ph/0702353. Bibcode2007MNRAS.381..987C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12313.x. [7] Pearrubia J., McConnachie A. & Babul A. (2006). "On the Formation of Extended Galactic Disks by Tidally Disrupted Dwarf Galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal 650 (1): L33L36. arXiv:astro-ph/0606101. Bibcode2006ApJ...650L..33P. doi:10.1086/508656. [8] Fouchard M. et al. (2006). "Long-term effects of the Galactic tide on cometary dynamics". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 95 (14): 299326. Bibcode2006CeMDA..95..299F. doi:10.1007/s10569-006-9027-8. [9] Higuchi A., Kokubo E. & Mukai, T. (2005). "Orbital Evolution of Planetesimals by the Galactic Tide". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 37: 521. Bibcode2005DDA....36.0205H. [10] Nurmi P., Valtonen M.J. & Zheng J.Q. (2001). "Periodic variation of Oort Cloud flux and cometary impacts on the Earth and Jupiter". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 327 (4): 13671376. Bibcode2001MNRAS.327.1367N. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04854.x.
Tidal locking
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Tidal locking
Tidal locking (or captured rotation) occurs when the gravitational gradient makes one side of an astronomical body always face another; for example, the same side of the Earth's Moon always faces the Earth. A tidally locked body takes just as long to rotate around its own axis as it does to revolve around its partner. This synchronous rotation causes one hemisphere constantly to face the partner body. Usually, at any given time only the satellite is tidally locked around the larger body, but if the difference in mass between the two bodies and their physical separation is small, each may be tidally locked to the other, as is the case between Pluto and Charon. This effect is employed to stabilize some artificial satellites.
Mechanism
The change in rotation rate necessary to tidally lock a body B to a larger body A is caused by the torque applied by A's gravity on bulges it has induced on B by tidal forces.
Tidal bulges
A's gravity produces a tidal force on B which distorts its gravitational equilibrium shape slightly so that it becomes elongated along the axis oriented toward A, and conversely, is slightly reduced in dimension in directions perpendicular to this axis. These distortions are known as tidal bulges. When B is not yet tidally locked, the bulges travel over its surface, with one of the two "high" tidal bulges traveling close to the point where body A is overhead. For large astronomical bodies which are near-spherical due to self-gravitation, the tidal distortion produces a slightly prolate spheroid - i.e., an axially symmetric ellipsoid that is elongated along its major axis. Smaller bodies also experience distortion, but this distortion is less regular.
Bulge dragging
The material of B exerts resistance to this periodic reshaping caused by the tidal force. In effect, some time is required to reshape B to the gravitational equilibrium shape, by which time the forming bulges have already been carried some distance away from the A-B axis by B's rotation. Seen from a vantage point in space, the points of maximum bulge extension are displaced from the axis oriented towards A. If B's rotation period is shorter than its orbital period, the bulges are carried forward of the axis oriented towards A in the direction of rotation, whereas if B's rotation period is longer the bulges lag behind instead.
Resulting torque
Since the bulges are now displaced from the A-B axis, A's gravitational pull on the mass in them exerts a torque on B. The torque on the A-facing bulge acts to bring B's rotation in line with its orbital period, while the "back" bulge which faces away from A acts in the opposite sense. However, the bulge on the A-facing side is closer to A than the back bulge by a distance of approximately B's diameter, and so experiences a slightly stronger gravitational force and torque. The net resulting torque from both bulges, then, is always in the direction which acts to synchronize B's rotation with its orbital period, leading eventually to tidal locking.
Tidal locking
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Orbital changes
The angular momentum of the whole A-B system is conserved in this process, so that when B slows down and loses rotational angular momentum, its orbital angular momentum is boosted by a similar amount (there are also some smaller effects on A's rotation). This results in a raising of B's orbit about A in tandem with its rotational slowdown. For the other case where B starts off rotating too slowly, tidal locking both speeds up its rotation, and lowers its orbit.
The tidal locking effect is also experienced by the more massive body A, but at a slower rate because B's gravitational effect is weaker due to B's lower mass. For example, the Earth's rotation is gradually slowing down because of the Moon, by an amount that becomes noticeable over geological time in some fossils.[1] For bodies of similar mass the effect may be of comparable size for both, and both may become tidally locked to each other. The dwarf planet Pluto and its satellite Charon are good examples of thisCharon is only visible from one hemisphere of Pluto and vice versa.
If rotational frequency is larger than orbital frequency, a small torque counteracting the rotation arises, eventually locking the frequencies (situation depicted in green)
Rotationorbit resonance
Finally, in some cases where the orbit is eccentric and the tidal effect is relatively weak, the smaller body may end up in an orbital resonance, rather than tidally locked. Here the ratio of rotation period to orbital period is some well-defined fraction different from 1:1. A well known case is the rotation of Mercurylocked to its orbit around the Sun in a 3:2 resonance.
Occurrence
Moons
Most significant moons in the Solar System are tidally locked with their primaries, since they orbit very closely and tidal force increases rapidly (as a cubic) with decreasing distance. Notable exceptions are the irregular outer satellites of the gas giant planets, which orbit much farther away than the large well-known moons. Pluto and Charon are an extreme example of a tidal lock. Charon is a relatively large moon in comparison to its primary and also has a very close orbit. This has made Pluto also tidally locked to Charon. In effect, these two celestial bodies revolve around each other (their barycenter lies outside of Pluto) as if joined with a rod connecting two opposite points on their surfaces. The tidal locking situation for asteroid moons is largely unknown, but closely orbiting binaries are expected to be tidally locked, as well as contact binaries.
Due to tidal locking, the inhabitants of the central body will never be able to see its side marked with green.
Tidal locking Earth's Moon The Moon's rotation and orbital periods are both just under four weeks, so no matter when the Moon is observed from the Earth the same hemisphere of the Moon is always seen. The far side of the Moon was not seen in its entirety until 1959, when photographs were transmitted from the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3. Despite the Moon's rotational and orbital periods being exactly locked, about 59% of the moon's total surface may be seen with repeated observations from earth due to the phenomena of librations and parallax. Librations are primarily caused by the Moon's varying orbital speed due to the eccentricity of its orbit: this allows earthlings to see up to about 6 more along its perimeter. Parallax is a geometric effect: at the surface of the Earth we are offset from the line through the centers of Earth and Moon, and because of this we can observe a bit (about 1) more around the side of the Moon when it is on our local horizon.
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Since the Moon is 1:1 tidally locked, only one side is visible from Earth.
Planets
Until radar observations in 1965 proved otherwise, it was thought that Mercury was tidally locked with the Sun. Instead, it turned out that Mercury has a 3:2 spinorbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun; the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit makes this resonance stable. Astronomers originally thought Mercury was tidally locked because whenever it was best placed for observation it was at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, showing the same face, just as it would appear if it were tidally locked. Venus' 583.92-day interval between successive close approaches to the Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days (precisely, 5.001444 of these), making approximately the same face visible from Earth at each close approach. Whether this relationship arose by chance or is the result of some kind of tidal locking with the Earth is unknown.[2]
Stars
Close binary stars throughout the universe are expected to be tidally locked with each other, and extrasolar planets that have been found to orbit their primaries extremely closely are also thought to be tidally locked to them. An unusual example, confirmed by MOST, is Tau Botis, a star tidally locked by a planet. The tidal locking is almost certainly mutual.[3]
Timescale
An estimate of the time for a body of mass formula: [4] to become tidally locked can be obtained using the following
where is the initial spin rate (radians per second) is the semi-major axis of the motion of the satellite around the primary is the moment of inertia of the satellite is the dissipation function of the satellite. is the gravitational constant
Tidal locking is the mass of the primary is the tidal Love number of the satellite is the radius of the satellite. are generally very poorly known except for the Earth's Moon which has . However, for
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Q and
a really rough estimate one can take Q100 (perhaps conservatively, giving overestimated locking times), and
where is the density of the satellite is the surface gravity of the satellite is rigidity of the satellite. This can be roughly taken as 31010 Nm2 for rocky objects and 4109 Nm2 for icy ones. As can be seen, even knowing the size and density of the satellite leaves many parameters that must be estimated (especially w, Q, and ), so that any calculated locking times obtained are expected to be inaccurate, to even factors of ten. Further, during the tidal locking phase the orbital radius a may have been significantly different from that observed nowadays due to subsequent tidal acceleration, and the locking time is extremely sensitive to this value. Since the uncertainty is so high, the above formulas can be simplified to give a somewhat less cumbersome one. By assuming that the satellite is spherical, , Q = 100, and it is sensible to guess one revolution every 12 hours in the initial non-locked state (most asteroids have rotational periods between about 2 hours and about 2 days)
with masses in kg, distances in meters, and in Nm2. As before, note the extremely strong dependence on orbital radius a. For the locking of a primary body to its satellite as in the case of Pluto to Charon, satellite and primary body parameters can be interchanged. One conclusion is that other things being equal (such as Q and ), a large satellite will lock faster than a smaller satellite at the same orbital radius from the primary body because grows much faster with satellite radius than . A possible example of this is in the Saturn system, where Hyperion is not tidally locked, while the larger Iapetus, which orbits at a greater distance, is. It must be noted, however, that this is not clear cut because Hyperion also experiences strong driving from the nearby Titan, which forces its rotation to be chaotic.
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Locked to Saturn Pan Atlas Prometheus Pandora Epimetheus Janus Mimas Enceladus Telesto Tethys Calypso Dione Rhea Titan Iapetus
Locked to Neptune Proteus Triton Locked to Pluto Charon (Pluto is itself locked to Charon)
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Extra-solar
Tau Botis is known to be locked to the close-orbiting giant planet Tau Botis b.[3]
Probably locked to Uranus Cordelia Ophelia Bianca Cressida Desdemona Juliet Portia Rosalind Cupid Belinda Perdita Puck Mab Oberon
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Extra-solar
Gliese 581 c may be tidally locked to its parent star Gliese 581.[5] If it exists, Gliese 581 g is probably tidally locked to its parent star Gliese 581.[6] [7] Gliese 581 b, Gliese 581 d, and Gliese 581 e may be tidally locked to their parent star Gliese 581. 55 Cancri e is tidally locked to its parent star 55 Cancri. [8]
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] de Pater, Imke (2001). Planetary Sciences. Cambridge. p.34. ISBN0-521-48219-4. Gold T., Soter S. (1969), Atmospheric tides and the resonant rotation of Venus, Icarus, v. 11, p 356-366 SPACE.com - Role Reversal: Planet Controls a Star (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 050523_star_tide. html) B. Gladman et al. (1996). "Synchronous Locking of Tidally Evolving Satellites". Icarus 122: 166. Bibcode1996Icar..122..166G. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.0117. (See pages 169-170 of this article. Formula (9) is quoted here, which comes from S.J. Peale, Rotation histories of the natural satellites, in J.A. Burns, ed. (1977). Planetary Satellites. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp.87112.) [5] Vergano, Dan (2007-04-25). "Out of our world: Earthlike planet" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ printedition/ news/ 20070425/ 1a_bottomstrip25_dom. art. htm). USA Today. . Retrieved 2010-05-25. [6] "Astronomers Find Most Earth-like Planet to Date" (http:/ / news. sciencemag. org/ sciencenow/ 2010/ 09/ astronomers-find-most-earth-like. html). Science, USA. September 29, 2010. . Retrieved September 30, 2010. [7] "Gliese 581g the most Earth like planet yet discovered" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ science/ space/ 8033124/ Gliese-581g-the-most-Earth-like-planet-yet-discovered. html). The Daily Telegraph, UK. September 30, 2010. . Retrieved September 30, 2010. [8] "NASA Space Telescope Sees the Light from an Alien Super-Earth" (http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ science-news/ science-at-nasa/ 2012/ 08may_superearth/ ). NASA. 2012-05-08. . Retrieved 2012-05-10.
Tidal prism
A tidal prism is the volume of water in an estuary or inlet between mean high tide and mean low tide.[1] or the volume of water leaving an estuary at ebb tide.[2] The inter-tidal prism volume can be expressed by the relationship: P=H A , where H is the average tidal range and A is the average surface area of the basin.[3] It can also be thought of as the volume of the incoming tide plus the river discharge.[4] Simple tidal prism models stated the relationship of river discharge and inflowing ocean water as Prism=Volume of ocean water coming into an estuary on the flood tide + Volume of river discharge mixing with that ocean water; however, there is some controversy as to whether traditional prism models are accurate.[1] The size of an estuarys tidal prism is dependent on the basin of that estuary, the tidal range and other frictional forces.
Tidal prism however, if the estuary or inlet is dredged, or the size changed, the channel will fill in with sediment until it has returned to tidal prism equilibrium.[6]
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Sand Transport
Additionally, there are correlations between tidal prism and amount of sediment deposited and exported in an estuary or inlet. The Walton and Adams[7] relationship shows a strong relationship between the magnitude of the tidal prism and the volume of sand in ebb dominated deltas. The larger the tidal prism, the larger the amount of sand that is deposited in deltas in ebb-dominated estuaries.[7] Inlets with small tidal prisms have too little power to remove sand deposited from adjacent shores. Inlets with large tidal prisms can erode sand and deposit it in ebb-tidal deltas in deeper waters (National Research Council). The size of ebb tidal deltas is proportional to tidal prism.[7] If tidal prism increases, there is an increase in deltas and shoals formed by sand transport during ebb tide.[8]
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Luketina, D. 1998. Simple tidal prism models revisited. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science; Vol. 46. pp. 77-84. Davis, R., D.M. Fitzgerald. 2004. Beaches and Coasts. Blackwell Science Ltd. Malden, MA. Lakhan, V.C. (ed). 2003. Advances in Coastal Modelling. Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Elsevier B.V. pp. Hume, T.M. 2005. Tidal Prism. Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Springer Netherlands. M.L. Schwartz, editor. pp. 981. Accessed via Springerlink database October 13, 2009. OBrien, M.P. 1931. Estuary tidal prisms related to entrance areas. Civil Engineer; Vol. 1. pp. 738-739. Davis, R., D.M. Fitzgerald. 2004. Beaches and Coasts. Blackwell Science Ltd. Malden, MA Walton, T.L., W.D. Adams. 1976. Capacity of inlet outer bars to store sand. In Proceedings of the 15th Coastal Engineering Conference, Honolulu, HI: ASCE, pp. 1919-37. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Engineerings Implications of Changes in Relative Mean Sea Level. 1987. Responding to changes in sea level. Washington DC, United States. National Academy Press. Officer, C. B. 1976. Physical Oceanography of Estuaries (and Associated Coastal Waters). Wiley, London.
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Tidal range
The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide. Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The tidal range is not constant, but changes depending on where the sun and the moon are.
The tidal range is difference between the high tide and the low tide.
The most extreme tidal range occurs around the time of the full or new moons, when the gravitational forces of both the Sun and Moon are in phase reinforcing each other in the same direction (new moon), or are exactly the opposite phase (full). This type of tide is known as a spring tide. During neap tides, when the Moon and Sun's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature (making a right angle to the Earth's orbit), the difference between high and low tides is smaller. Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of the moon's phases. The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the Equinox, if coincidental with a spring tide. Tidal data for coastal areas is published by the National Hydrographic service of the country concerned[1] Tidal data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable. Storm force winds blowing from a steady direction for a prolonged time interval combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range particularly in narrow bays. Such weather related effects on the tide, which can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding are not calculable in advance.
Geography
The typical tidal range in the open ocean is about 0.6 metres (2feet). Closer to the coast, this range is much greater. Coastal tidal ranges vary globally and can differ anywhere from near zero to over 11 metres (38feet).[2] The exact range depends on the volume of water adjacent to the coast, and the geography of the basin the water sits in. Larger bodies of water have higher ranges, and the geography can act as a funnel amplifying or dispersing the tide.[3] The world's largest tidal range of 11.7 metres (38.4feet) occurs at Burntcoat Head in the Bay of Fundy, Eastern Canada.[2] The Bristol Channel, between England and Wales, regularly experiences tidal ranges of up to 9 metres. The top 50 locations with the largest tidal ranges world-wide are listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States.[2] Some of the smallest tidal ranges occur in the Mediterranean, Baltic, and Caribbean Seas. A point within a tidal system where the tidal range is almost zero is called an amphidromic point.
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Classification
The tidal range has been classified[4] as: Micromareal, when the tidal range is lower than 2 meters. Mesomareal, when the tidal range is between 2 meters and 4 meters. Macromareal, when the tidal range is higher than 4 meters.
References
[1] Hydrographic and Oceanographic Agencies (http:/ / co-ops. nos. noaa. gov/ faq3. html) [2] NOAA. "FAQ2 Where are the highest tides?" (http:/ / www. co-ops. nos. noaa. gov/ faq2. html#26). . Retrieved 27 Jan 2011. [3] NOAA. "It appears that the range of the tides gets larger the further the location from the equator. What causes this??" (http:/ / www. co-ops. nos. noaa. gov/ faq2. html#27). . Retrieved 27 Jan 2011. [4] Masselink, G.; Short, A. D. (1993). "The effect of tidal range on beach morphodynamics and morphology: a conceptual beach model". Journal of Coastal Research 9 (3): 785800. ISSN0749-0208.
Tidal resonance
In oceanography, a tidal resonance occurs when the tide excites one of the resonant modes of the ocean .[1] The effect is most striking when a continental shelf is about a quarter wavelength wide. Then an incident tidal wave can be reinforced by reflections between the coast and the shelf edge, the result producing a much higher tidal range at the coast. Famous examples of this effect are found in the Bay of Fundy, where the world's highest tides are reportedly found, and in the Bristol Channel. Large tides due to resonances are also found on the Patagonian Shelf [2] and on the N.W. Australian continental shelf. The speed of long waves in the ocean is given, to a good approximation, by , where g is the acceleration of gravity and h is the depth of the ocean [3] [4] .[5] For a typical continental shelf with a depth of 100 m, the speed is approximately 30m/s. So if the tidal period is 12 hours, a quarter wavelength shelf will have a width of about 300km. With a narrower shelf, there is still a resonance but it has less effect at tidal frequencies. However the effect is still enough to partly explain why tides along a coast lying behind a continental shelf are often higher than at offshore islands in the deep ocean. The strong tidal currents associated with resonances also mean that the resonant regions are the areas where most tidal energy is dissipated.
High and low tides at Portishead Docks in the Bristol Channel. Such extreme tidal ranges (13 m) are almost certainly due to a resonant tidal wave trapped between the coast and the edge of the continental shelf.
In the deep ocean, where the depth is typically 4000 m, the speed of long waves increases to approximately 200m/s. The difference in speed, when compared to the shelf, is responsible for the reflections at the continental shelf edge. Away from resonance this can stop tidal energy moving onto the shelf. However near a resonant frequency the phase relationships between the wave on the shelf and in the deep ocean can have the effect of drawing energy onto the shelf.
Tidal resonance The increased speed of long waves in the deep ocean means that the tidal wavelength there is of order 10,000km. As the ocean basins have a similar size, they also have the potential of being resonant [6] .[7] In practice deep ocean resonances are difficult to observe, probably because the deep ocean loses tidal energy too rapidly to the resonant shelves.
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Tidal locking
The above concept of tidal resonance differs from another sort of resonance resulting from tides, called tidal locking, which causes a moon's rotational period to coincide with the period of its revolution around the planet that it orbits, so that one side of the moon always faces the planet.
References
[1] Platzman, G.W. (1991), "Tidal Evidence for Ocean Normal Modes", in Parker, B.P., Tidal Hydrodynamics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp.883 [2] Webb, D.J. (1976). "A Model of Continental-shelf Resonances". Deep-Sea Research 25: 115. [3] Segar, D.A. (2007). Introduction to Ocean Science. New York: W.W. Norton. pp.581+. [4] Knauss, J.A. (1997). Introduction to Physical Oceanography. Long Grove, USA: Waveland Press. pp.309. [5] Defant, A. (1961). Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Vol. II. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp.598. [6] Platzman, G.W.; Curtis, G.A., Hansen, K.S., Slater, R.D. (1981). "Normal Modes of the World ocean. Part II: Description of Modes in the Period Range 8 to 80 Hours". Journal of Physical Oceanography 11 (5): 579603. Bibcode1981JPO....11..579P. doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<0579:NMOTWO>2.0.CO;2. [7] Webb, D.J. (1973). "Tidal Resonance in the Coral Sea". Nature 243 (5409): 511. Bibcode1973Natur.243..511W. doi:10.1038/243511a0.
Tide pool
Tide pools are rocky pools by oceans that are filled with seawater. Many of these pools exist as separate entities only at low tide. Tide pools are habitats of uniquely adaptable animals that have engaged the special attention of naturalists and marine biologists, as well as philosophical essayists: John Steinbeck wrote in The Log from the Sea of Cortez, "It is advisable to look from the tide pool to the stars and then back to the tide pool again."[1]
The side of a tide pool showing sea stars (Dermasterias), sea anemones (Anthopleura) and sea sponges in Santa Cruz, California.
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Tide pools in Santa Cruz, California from spray/splash zone to low tide zone
The intertidal zone is periodically exposed to sun and wind, so it desiccates barnacles which need to be well adapted to water loss. Their calcite shells are impermeable, and they possess two plates which they slide across their mouth opening when not feeding. These plates also protect against predation.
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These creatures can grow to larger sizes because there is more available energy and better water coverage: The water is shallow enough to allow more light for photosynthetic activity, and the salinity is at almost normal levels. This area is also relatively protected from large predators because of the wave action and shallow water.
Fauna
The sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima produces clones of itself in order to reproduce through a process called longitudinal fission, in which the animal splits into two parts along its length.[3] The sea anemone Anthopleura sola often engages in territorial fights. The white tentacles (acrorhagi), which contain stinging cells, are for fighting. The sea anemones sting each other repeatedly until one moves.[4] Some species of starfish have the ability to regenerate lost arms. Most species must retain an intact central part of the body to be able to regenerate, but a few can regrow from a single ray. The regeneration of these stars is possible because the vital organs are in the arms.[5]
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Flora
Sea palms look very much as palm trees do. They live in the middle to upper intertidal zones in areas with greater wave action. High wave action may increase nutrient availability and moves the blades of the thallus, allowing more sunlight to reach the organism so that it can photosynthesize. In addition, the constant wave action removes competitors, such as the mussel species Mytilus californianus. Recent studies have shown that Postelsia grows in greater numbers when such competition exists a control group with no competition produced fewer offspring than an experimental group with mussels; from this it is thought that the mussels provide protection for the developing gametophytes.[6] Alternatively, the mussels may prevent the growth of competing algae such as Corallina or Halosaccion, allowing Postelsia to grow freely after wave action removes the mussels.[7]
A large sea anemone Anthopleura sola consuming a "by-the-wind-sailor" Velella velella a blue hydrozoan
References
[1] "NPCA Tide pools" (http:/ / www. npca. org/ marine_and_coastal/ beaches/ tide_pools. html). npca.org. September 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [2] "Botanical Beach Tide Pools" (http:/ / www. juandefucamarinetrail. com/ botanical_beach. html). juandefucamarinetrail.com. September 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [3] "Sea Anemones" (http:/ / homepages. ed. ac. uk/ evah01/ anemone. htm). homepages.ed.ac.uk. September 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [4] "Snakelocks Anemone" (http:/ / www. glaucus. org. uk/ Snakelok. htm). British Marine Life Study Society. September 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [5] "Biology:Regeneration" (http:/ / en. allexperts. com/ q/ Biology-664/ Regeneration. htm). Dana Krempels, Ph.D.. September 5, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [6] Blanchette, Carol Anne (1995.). "Seasonal patterns of disturbance influence recruitment of the sea palm, Postelsia palmaeformis" (http:/ / www. ingentaconnect. com/ els/ 00220981/ 1996/ 00000197/ 00000001/ art00141). Department of Zoology, Oregon State University.. . Retrieved 13 July 2007. [7] Paine, R.T. (1998). "Habitat Suitability and Local Population Persistence of the Sea Palm Postelsia palmaeformis". Ecology 69 (6): 17871794. doi:10.2307/1941157. JSTOR1941157.
External links
Tidal swimming pools in Britain (http://homepage.ntlworld.com/oliver.merrington/lidos/lidos4.htm)
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Tideline
A tideline refers to where two currents in the ocean converge. Driftwood, floating seaweed, foam, and other floating debris may accumulate, forming sinuous lines called tidelines (even though they generally have nothing to do with the tide.) There are four mechanisms that can cause tidelines to form: 1. Where one body of water is sinking beneath or riding over top of the surface layer of another body of water (somewhat similar in mechanics to subduction of the earth plates at continental margins). These types of tidelines are often found where rivers enter the ocean. 2. Along the margins of back-eddies. 3. Convergence zones associated with internal gravity waves. 4. Along adjacent cells formed by wind currents.
References
Thomson, R.E. 1981. Oceanography of the British Columbia Coast. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56. Ottawa. 291.
Tidal bore
A tidal bore (or simply bore in context, or also aegir, eagre, or eygre) is a tidal phenomenon in which the leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) of water that travels up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the river or bay's current. As such, it is a true tidal wave and not to be confused with a tsunami, which is a large ocean wave traveling primarily on the open ocean.
The tidal bore in Upper Cook Inlet, Alaska
Bore phenomenon
Bores occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range (typically more than 6 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) between high and low water) and where incoming tides are funneled into a shallow, narrowing river or lake via a broad bay.[1] The funnel-like shape not only increases the tidal range, but it can also decrease the duration of the flood tide, down to a point where the flood appears as a sudden increase in the water level. A tidal bore takes place during the flood tide and never during the ebb tide.
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A tidal bore may take on various forms, ranging from a single breaking wavefront with a roller somewhat like a hydraulic jump[3] to "undular bores", comprising a smooth wavefront followed by a train of secondary waves (whelps).[4] Large bores can be particularly unsafe for shipping but also present opportunities for river surfing.[4] Two key features of a tidal bore are the intense turbulence and turbulent mixing generated during the bore propagation, as well as its rumbling noise. The visual Undular bore and whelps near the mouth of Araguari River in north-eastern Brazil. View is oblique toward mouth from airplane at approximately 100ft (unknown observations of tidal bores highlight the [2] operator: u'strong'm) altitude. turbulent nature of the surging waters. The tidal bore induces a strong turbulent mixing in the estuarine zone, and the effects may be felt along considerable distances. The velocity observations indicate a rapid deceleration of the flow associated with the passage of the bore as well as large velocity fluctuations.[5][6] A tidal bore creates a powerful roar that combines the sounds caused by the turbulence in the bore front and whelps, entrained air bubbles in the bore roller, sediment erosion beneath the bore front and of the banks, scouring of shoals and bars, and impacts on obstacles. The bore rumble is heard far away because its low frequencies can travel over long distances. The low-frequency sound is a characteristic feature of the advancing roller in which the air bubbles entrapped in the large-scale eddies are acoustically active and play the dominant role in the rumble-sound generation.[7] The word bore derives through Old English from the Old Norse word bra, meaning "wave" or "swell".
Asia
GangesBrahmaputra, India and Bangladesh Indus River, Pakistan Sittaung River, Burma Qiantang River, China, which has the world's largest bore, up to 9 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) high, traveling at up to 40 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) per hour Batang Lupar or Lupar River, near Sri Aman, Malaysia. The tidal bore is locally known as benak.[4] Bono, Kampar River, Indonesia. The phenomenon is feared by the locals to sink ships. It is reported to break up to 130 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) inland.
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Australia
Styx River, Queensland Daly River, Northern Territory
Europe
United Kingdom River Dee, Wales and England River Mersey The Severn bore on the River Severn, Wales and England, up to 2 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) high The Trent Aegir on the River Trent, England, up to 1.5 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) high. Also other tributaries of the Humber Estuary. River Parrett River Welland The Arnside Bore on the River Kent River Great Ouse River Ouse, Yorkshire. Like the Trent bore, this is also known as "the Aegir". River Eden River Esk River Nith River Lune, Lancashire
The Trent Aegir seen from West Stockwith, Nottinghamshire, 20 September 2005
France The phenomenon is generally named un mascaret in French.[9] but some other local names are preferred.[8] Seine, locally named la barre, had a significant bore until the 1960s. Since then, it has been practically eliminated by dredging and river training.[8] Baie du Mont Saint Michel including Couesnon, Slune, and Se[8] Arguenon[8] Baie de la Frnaye Vire[8] Sienne[8] Vilaine, locally named le mascarin Dordogne[8] Garonne[8]
[8] Tidal bore on the River Ribble
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North America
United States The Turnagain arm of Cook Inlet, Alaska. Up to 2 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) and 20km/h. The Savannah River up to 10 miles inland. Canada Most rivers draining into the upper Bay of Fundy between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have tidal bores. Notable ones include: The Petitcodiac River. Formerly the highest bore in North America at over 2 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft); however, Tidal bore on the Petitcodiac River causeway construction and extensive silting reduced it to little more than a ripple, until the causeway gates were opened on April 14, 2010, as part of the Petitcodiac River Restoration project and the tidal bore began to grow again.[10] The Shubenacadie River, also off the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia. When the tidal bore approaches, completely drained riverbeds are filled. It has claimed the lives of several tourists who were in the riverbeds when the bore came in. Tour boat operators offer rafting excursions in the summer. The bore is fastest and highest on some of the smaller rivers that connect to the bay including the River Hebert and Maccan River on the Cumberland Basin, the St. Croix, Herbert and Kennetcook Rivers in the Minas Basin, and the Salmon River in Truro. Mexico There is a tidal bore on the Sea of Cortez in Mexico at the entrance of the Colorado River. It forms in the estuary about Montague Island and propagates upstream. Once very strong, later diversions of the river for irrigation have weakened the flow of the river to the point the tidal bore has nearly disappeared.
South America
Amazon River in Brazil and Orinoco River in Venezuela, up to 4 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) high, running at up to 13 miles per hour (unknown operator: u'strong'km/h). It is known locally as the pororoca.[11] Mearim River in Brazil Araguari River in Brazil
North America
Nitinat Lake on Vancouver Island has a sometimes dangerous tidal bore at Nitinat Narrows where the lake meets the Pacific Ocean. The lake is popular with windsurfers due to its consistent winds.
Tidal bore (Benak at Batang Lupar), and India (Hoogly bore). On the other hand, the tidal-bore affected estuaries are the rich feeding zones and breeding grounds of several forms of wildlife.[1] The estuarine zones are the spawning and breeding grounds of several native fish species, while the aeration induced by the tidal bore contribute to the abundant growth of many species of fish and shrimps (for example in the Rokan River).
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References
[1] Chanson, H. (2011). Tidal Bores, Aegir, Eagre, Mascaret, Pororoca. Theory and Observations (http:/ / www. worldscibooks. com/ engineering/ 8035. html). World Scientific, Singapore. ISBN978-981-4335-41-6. . [2] Figure 5 in: Susan Bartsch-Winkler; David K. Lynch (1988), Catalog of worldwide tidal bore occurrences and characteristics (http:/ / pubs. er. usgs. gov/ #search:advance/ page=1/ page_size=100/ advance=undefined/ series_cd=CIR/ report_number=1022:0) (Circular 1022), U. S. Geological Survey, [3] Chanson, H. (2009). Current Knowledge In Hydraulic Jumps And Related Phenomena. A Survey of Experimental Results (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:162239). European Journal of Mechanics B/Fluids, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 191-210 (DOI: 10.1016/j.euromechflu.2008.06.004 ) (ISSN 0997-7546). . [4] Chanson, H. (2009). Environmental, Ecological and Cultural Impacts of Tidal Bores, Benaks, Bonos and Burros (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:185349). Proc. International Workshop on Environmental Hydraulics IWEH09, Theoretical, Experimental and Computational Solutions, Valencia, Spain, 29-30 Oct., Editor P.A. Lopez-Jimenez et al., Invited keynote lecture, 20 pages (CD-ROM). . [5] Koch, C. and Chanson, H. (2008). Turbulent Mixing beneath an Undular Bore Front (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:151916). Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 999-1007 (DOI: 10.2112/06-0688.1). . [6] Koch, C. and Chanson, H. (2009). Turbulence Measurements in Positive Surges and Bores (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:164015). Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 29-40 (DOI: 10.3826/jhr.2009.2954). . [7] Chanson, H. (2009). The Rumble Sound Generated by a Tidal Bore Event in the Baie du Mont Saint Michel (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:178445). Journal of Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 125, No. 6, pp. 3561-3568 (DOI: 10.1121/1.3124781). . [8] Chanson, H. (2008). Photographic Observations of Tidal Bores (Mascarets) in France (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ eserv/ UQ:158867). Hydraulic Model Report No. CH71/08, Univ. of Queensland, Australia, 104 pages. ISBN978-1-86499-930-3. . [9] (French) definition of mascaret (http:/ / www. cnrtl. fr/ lexicographie/ mascaret) [10] Petitcodiac River changing faster than expected (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ canada/ new-brunswick/ story/ 2010/ 06/ 07/ nb-petitcodiac-river-changes-619. html)
Tidal bore
[11] (English) Pororoca: surfing the Amazon indicates that "The record that we could find for surfing the longest distance on the Pororoca was set by Picuruta Salazar, a brazilian surfer who, in 2003, managed to ride the wave for 37 minutes and travel 12.5 kilometers." (http:/ / fogonazos. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 03/ pororoca-surfing-amazon. html) [12] Simpson, J.H., Fisher, N.R., and Wiles, P. (2004). Reynolds Stress and TKE Production in an Estuary with a Tidal Bore. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, pp. 619-627. [13] Wolanski, E., Williams, D., Spagnol, S., and Chanson, H. (2004). Undular Tidal Bore Dynamics in the Daly Estuary, Northern Australia (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:74059). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, Vol. 60, No. 4, pp. 629-636 (DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2004.03.001). . [14] Mouaz, D., Chanson, H., and Simon, B. (2010). Field Measurements in the Tidal Bore of the Slune River in the Bay of Mont Saint Michel (September 2010) (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:226153). Hydraulic Model Report No. CH81/10, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 72 pages. ISBN978-1-74272-021-0. . [15] Chanson, H., Lubin, P., Simon, B., and Reungoat, D. (2010). Turbulence and Sediment Processes in the Tidal Bore of the Garonne River: First Observations (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:219711). Hydraulic Model Report No. CH79/10, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 97 pages. ISBN978-1-74272-010-4. . [16] Simon, B., Lubin, P., Reungoat, D., Chanson, H. (2011). Turbulence Measurements in the Garonne River Tidal Bore: First Observations (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:243200). Proc. 34th IAHR World Congress, Brisbane, Australia, 26 June-1 July, Engineers Australia Publication, Eric Valentine, Colin Apelt, James Ball, Hubert Chanson, Ron Cox, Rob Ettema, George Kuczera, Martin Lambert, Bruce Melville and Jane Sargison Editors, pp. 1141-1148. ISBN978-0-85825-868-6. . [17] Chanson, H., Reungoat, D., Simon, B., Lubin, P. (2012). High-Frequency Turbulence and Suspended Sediment Concentration Measurements in the Garonne River Tidal Bore (http:/ / espace. library. uq. edu. au/ view/ UQ:261649). Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science (DOI: 10.1016/j.ecss.2011.09.012). ISSN0272-7714.
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External links
Amateur video of the "Wiggenhall Wave" tidal bore (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cx89Dstc6v0) link to Proudman Inst. page (http://www.pol.ac.uk/home/insight/riverbores.html) Mascaret, Aegir, Pororoca, Tidal Bore. Quid ? O? Quand? Comment? Pourquoi ? (http://espace.library.uq. edu.au/view.php?pid=UQ:9447) in Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 3, pp.103114 Turbulent Mixing beneath an Undular Bore Front (http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:151916) in Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp.9991007 (DOI: 10.2112/06-0688.1)
Storm surge
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Storm surge
A storm surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones. Storm surges are caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea Impact of a storm surge level. Low pressure at the center of a weather system also has a small secondary effect, as can the bathymetry of the body of water. It is this combined effect of low pressure and persistent wind over a shallow water body which is the most common cause of storm surge flooding problems. The term "storm surge" in casual (non-scientific) use is storm tide; that is, it refers to the rise of water associated with the storm, plus tide, wave run-up, and freshwater flooding. When referencing storm surge height, it is important to clarify the usage, as well as the reference point. National Hurricane Center reference storm surge as water height above predicted astronomical tide level, and storm tide as water height above NGVD-29. Most casualties during a tropical cyclone occur during the storm surge. In areas where there is a significant difference between low tide and high tide, storm surges are particularly damaging when they occur at the time of a high tide. In these cases, this increases the difficulty of predicting the magnitude of a storm surge since it requires weather forecasts to be accurate to within a few hours. Storm surges can be produced by extratropical cyclones, such as the Night of the Big Wind of 1839 and the Storm of the Century (1993), but the most extreme storm surge events typically occur as a result of tropical cyclones. Factors that determine the surge heights for landfalling tropical cyclones include the speed, intensity, size of the radius of maximum winds (RMW), radius of the wind fields, angle of the track relative to the coastline, the physical characteristics of the coastline and the bathymetry of the water offshore. The SLOSH (Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes) model is used to simulate surge from tropical cyclones.[1] Additionally, there is an extratropical storm surge model that is used to predict those effects.[2] The Galveston Hurricane of 1900, a Category4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas, drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000lives were lost, making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States.[3] The deadliest storm surge caused by an extratropical cyclone in the twentieth century was the North Sea flood of 1953, which killed a total of over 2,000 people in the UK and the Netherlands
Mechanics
At least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms: the pressure effect, the direct wind effect, the effect of the Earth's rotation, the effect of waves, and the rainfall effect.[4] The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in Schematic diagram of processes that generate regions of high atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will storm surge. counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a 10mm (unknown operator: u'strong'in) increase in sea level for every millibar drop in atmospheric pressure.[4] Strong surface winds cause surface currents perpendicular to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman Spiral. Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as "wind set-up", which is the tendency for water levels to
Storm surge increase at the downwind shore, and to decrease at the upwind shore. Intuitively, this is caused by the storm simply blowing the water towards one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Because the Ekman Spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is inversely proportional to depth. The pressure effect and the wind set-up on an open coast will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide.[4] The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.[4] The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement.[4] Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.[5] The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries. Hurricanes may dump as much as 12in (unknown operator: u'strong'mm) of rainfall in 24hours over large areas, and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, watersheds can quickly surge water into the rivers that drain them. This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing from the estuary.[4] Surge and wave heights on shore are affected by the configuration and bathymetry of the ocean bottom. A narrow shelf, or one that has a steep drop from the shoreline and subsequently produces deep water in close proximity to the shoreline tends to produce a lower surge, but a higher and more powerful wave. This situation well exemplified by the southeast coast of Florida. The edge of the Floridian Plateau, where the water depths reach 91 metres (unknown operator: u'strong'ft), lies just 3000m (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) offshore of Palm Beach, Florida; just 7000m (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) offshore, the depth increases to over 180m (unknown operator: u'strong'ft).[6] The 180m (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) depth contour followed southward from Palm Beach County lies more than 30000m (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) to the east of the upper Keys. Conversely, coastlines along North America such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida, and Asia such as the Bay of Bengal, have long, gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths. On the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than 160 kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong'mi) offshore of Marco Island in Collier County. Florida Bay, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is also very shallow; depths typically vary between 0.3m (unknown operator: u'strong'ft) and 2m (unknown operator: u'strong'ft).[7] These areas are subject to higher storm surges, but smaller waves. This difference is because in deeper water, a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. However, upon entering a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge can not be dispersed away, but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane. Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.[4] For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge. With any storm the piled up water has an exit path to the sides and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force (for the same peak wind speed) as the storm covers more area. In the Asian region, Metro Manila or Manila is one of the most affected by storm surges of typhoons. Since the Philippines serves as a welcome mat for typhoons before entering Japan, Taiwan, China, Vietnam, and Cambodia. The damage and casualties is expected. Even though these occurrences is normal, loss of life is inevitable especially global warming also affects the typhoon formation, strength, intensity and speed.
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Storm surge
96
Measuring surge
Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water.[8] Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005.[9] These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged, and can accurately measure the height of water above them.[10] After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks. HWM denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event. When HWM are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWM on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During evaluation, HWM are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; only HWM evaluated as "excellent" are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge.[11] Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.[8][11]
Records
The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at 43ft (13meters) at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 noted the majority of this was likely wave run-up, due to the steep coastal topography.[12] In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005's Hurricane Katrina, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25ft (8meters) in the communities of Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Diamondhead, and Pass Christian in Mississippi, with a storm surge height of 27.8ft (8.5m) in Pass Christian.[13][14][15] Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in August 1969, with the highest storm tide of record noted from a HWM as 24.6ft (7.5m), also found in Pass Christian.[16] The worst storm surge, in terms of loss of life, was the 1970 Bhola cyclone and in general the Bay of Bengal is vulnerable to storm surge.[17]
Storm surge
97
SLOSH
The National Hurricane Center in the US, forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model, which stands for Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes. The model is accurate to within 20percent.[18] SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone, storm size, the cyclone's forward motion, its track, and maximum sustained winds. Local topography, bay and river orientation, depth of the sea bottom, astronomical tides, as well as other physical features are taken into account, in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin. Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S.[19] Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin; for instance, Katrina SLOSH model runs used Example of a SLOSH run both the Lake Ponchartrain / New Orleans basin, and the Mississippi Sound basin, for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall. The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water, or MEOW, that occurred at each location. To allow for track or forecast uncertainties, usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs, or Maximum of Maximums.[20] And for hurricane evacuation studies, a family of storms with representative tracks for the region, and varying intensity, eye diameter, and speed, are modeled to produce worst-case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence. The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs. These studies have been completed by USACE, under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies (HES) website.[21] They include coastal county maps, shaded to identify the minimum SSHS category of hurricane that will result in flooding, in each area of the county.[22]
Mitigation
Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms, in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high, there are specific storm surge warnings. These have been implemented, for instance, in the Netherlands,[23] Spain,[24][25] the United States,[26][27] and the United Kingdom.[28] A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and floodgates (storm surge barriers). They are open and allow free passage but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands which are part of the Delta Works project, and the Thames Barrier protecting London. Another modern development (in use in the Netherlands) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures, restrained in position by vertical pylons.[29] Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low-lying elevations, provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion. For mainland areas, storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward, rather than approaching from landwards.[30]
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Notes
[1] National Hurricane Center (2005-02-07). "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492-1996" (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ pastdeadly3. shtml?). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [2] National Weather Service (2009-11-27). "Extratropical Storm Surge" (http:/ / www. nws. noaa. gov/ mdl/ etsurge/ ). Meteorological Development Laboratory. . [3] Hebert, 1983 [4] Harris 1963 [5] Granthem 1953 [6] Lane 1980 [7] Lane 1981 [8] John Boon (2007). "Ernesto: Anatomy of a Storm Tide" (http:/ / www. vims. edu/ physical/ research/ ernesto. pdf) (PDF). Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [9] U.S. Geological Survey (2006-10-11). "Hurricane Rita Surge Data, Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern Texas, September to November 2005" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ ds/ 2006/ 220/ ). U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [10] Automated (2008). "U20-001-01-Ti: HOBO Water Level Logger Specification" (http:/ / www. onsetcomp. com/ products/ data-loggers/ u20-001-01-ti#tabs1-2). Onset Corp. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [11] URS Group, Inc. (2006-04-03). "High Water Mark Collection for Hurricane Katrina in Alabama" (http:/ / www. fema. gov/ pdf/ hazard/ flood/ recoverydata/ katrina/ katrina_al_hwm_public. pdf) (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [12] Jonathan Nott and Matthew Hayne (2000). "How high was the storm surge from Tropical Cyclone Mahina? North Queensland, 1899" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080625203948/ http:/ / www. ema. gov. au/ agd/ EMA/ rwpattach. nsf/ viewasattachmentpersonal/ (C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina. pdf/ $file/ How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina. pdf) (PDF). Emergency Management Australia. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ema. gov. au/ agd/ EMA/ rwpattach. nsf/ viewasattachmentpersonal/ (C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina. pdf/ $file/ How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina. pdf) on June 25, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [13] FEMA (2005-11-01). "Mississippi Hurricane Katrina Surge Inundation and Advisory Base Flood Elevation Map Panel Overview" (http:/ / www. fema. gov/ pdf/ hazard/ flood/ recoverydata/ katrina/ ms_overview. pdf) (PDF). Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [14] FEMA (2006-05-30). "Hurricane Katrina Flood Recovery (Mississippi)" (http:/ / www. fema. gov/ hazard/ flood/ recoverydata/ katrina/ katrina_ms_methods. shtm). Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [15] Knabb, Richard D; Rhome, Jamie R.; Brown, Daniel P (2005-12-20; updated 2006-08-10). "Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 2330 August 2005" (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ pdf/ TCR-AL122005_Katrina. pdf) (PDF). National Hurricane Center. . Retrieved 2008-10-11. [16] Simpson, 1969 [17] "Solar System Exploration: Science & Technology: Science Features: Remembering Katrina - Learning and Predicting the Future" (http:/ / solarsystem. nasa. gov/ scitech/ display. cfm?ST_ID=1350). Solarsystem.nasa.gov. . Retrieved 2012-03-20. [18] National Hurricane Center (2008). "SLOSH Model" (http:/ / www. nhc. noaa. gov/ HAW2/ english/ surge/ slosh. shtml). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [19] NOAA (1999-04-19). "SLOSH Model Coverage" (http:/ / www. nws. noaa. gov/ mdl/ marine/ Basin. htm). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [20] George Sambataro (2008). "Slosh Data... what is it" (http:/ / www. pcwp. com/ whatisslosh. html). PC Weather Products. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [21] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2008). "National Hurricane Study Home Page" (http:/ / chps. sam. usace. army. mil/ USHESdata/ HESHOME. htm). Federal Emergency Management Agency. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [22] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2008). "Jackson County, MS HES surge maps" (http:/ / chps. sam. usace. army. mil/ USHESdata/ Mississippi/ Jacksonsurgemapspage. htm). Federal Emergency Management Agency. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [23] Rijkswaterstaat (2008-07-21). "Storm Surge Warning Service" (http:/ / www. svsd. nl/ index. cfm?taal=en). . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [24] Ports of the State (1999-03-01). "Storm surge forecast system" (http:/ / www. puertos. es/ externo/ clima/ Nivmar/ nivmareng. html). Government of Spain. . Retrieved 2007-04-14. [25] Puertos del Estado (1999-03-01). "Sistema de previsin del mar a corto plazo" (http:/ / www. puertos. es/ externo/ clima/ Nivmar/ nivinht. html) (in Spanish). Gobierno de Espaa. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [26] Stevens Institute of Technology (2008-08-10). "Storm Surge Warning System" (http:/ / hudson. dl. stevens-tech. edu/ SSWS/ ). New Jersey Office of Emergency Management. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [27] Donna Franklin (2008-08-11). "NWS StormReady Program, Weather Safety, Disaster, Hurricane, Tornado, Tsunami, Flash Flood..." (http:/ / www. stormready. noaa. gov). National Weather Service. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [28] National Flood Risk Systems Team (2007-04-14). "Current Flooding Situation" (http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov. uk/ subjects/ flood/ floodwarning/ ). Environment Agency. . Retrieved 2007-07-07.
Storm surge
[29] Floating houses built to survive Netherlands floods (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2005/ 11/ 09/ HOG9RFI0IJ1. DTL) SFGate.com (San Francisco Chronicle) [30] Read, Matt (27 May 2010). "Prepare for storm evacuations" (http:/ / www. floridatoday. com/ article/ 20100527/ COLUMNISTS0207/ 5270331/ Lay-Prepare-for-storm-evacuations-tar-balls). Melbourne, Florida: Florida Today. pp.1B. .
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References
Siddiqui, Zubair A. (April 2009). "Storm surge forecasting for the Arabian Sea" (http://www.informaworld. com/index/911063396.pdf) (PDF). Marine Geodesy (Great Britain: Taylor & Francis) 32 (2): 19. Anthes, Richard A. (1982). "Tropical Cyclones; Their Evolution, Structure and Effects, Meteorological Monographs". American Meteorological Society (Ephrata, PA) 19 (41): 208. Cotton, W.R. (1990). Storms. Fort Collins, Colorado: *ASTeR Press. p.158. ISBN0-9625986-0-7. Dunn, Gordon E.; Banner I. Miller (1964). Atlantic Hurricanes. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. p.377. Finkl, C.W. Jnr. (1994). "Disaster Mitigation in the South Atlantic Coastal Zone (SACZ): A Prodrome for Mapping Hazards and Coastal Land Systems Using the Example of Urban subtropical Southeastern Florida. In: Finkl, C.W., Jnr. (ed.), Coastal Hazards: Perception, Susceptibility and Mitigation.". Journal of Coastal Research (Charlottesville, Virginia: Coastal Education & Research Foundation) (Special Issue No. 12): 339366. National Hurricane Center; Florida Department of Community Affairs, Division of Emergency Management (1995). Lake Okeechobee Storm Surge Atlas for 17.5' & 21.5' Lake Elevations. Ft. Myers, Florida: Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council. Gornitz, V.; R.C. Daniels, T.W. White, and K.R. Birdwell (1994). "The development of a coastal risk assessment database: Vulnerability to sea level rise in the U.S. southeast". Journal of Coastal Research (Coastal Education & Research Foundation) (Special Issue No. 12): 327338. Granthem, K. N. (1953-10-01). "Wave Run-up on Sloping Structures". Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 34 (5): 720724. Harris, D.L. (1963). "Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge" (http://www.csc.noaa.gov/hes/images/ pdf/CHARACTERISTICS_STORM_SURGE.pdf) (PDF). Technical Paper No. 48 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau): 139. Hebert, Paul J.; Taylor, Glenn (1983). "The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Hurricanes of This Century (and other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)" (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/ NWS-NHC-1983-18.pdf) (PDF). NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 31 (Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center): 33. Hebert, P.J.; Jerrell, J., Mayfield, M. (1995). "The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United States Hurricanes of This Century (and other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)". NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC 31 (Coral Gables, Fla., In: Tait, Lawrence, (Ed.) Hurricanes...Different Faces In Different Places, (proceedings) 17th Annual National Hurricane Conference, Atlantic City, N.J.): 1050. Jarvinen, B.R.; Lawrence, M.B. (1985). "An evaluation of the SLOSH storm-surge model". American Meteorological Society Bulletin 66 (11): 14081411. Jelesnianski, Chester P (1972). "SPLASH (Special Program To List Amplitudes of Surges From Hurricanes) I. Landfall Storms". NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TDL-46 (Silver Spring, Maryland: National Weather Service Systems Development Office): 56. Jelesnianski, Chester P.; Jye Chen, Wilson A. Shaffer (1992). "SLOSH: Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes". NOAA Technical Report NWS 48 (Silver Spring, Maryland: National Weather Service): 71. Lane, E.D. (1981). Environmental Geology Series, West Palm Beach Sheet; Map Series 101. Tallahassee, Florida: Florida Bureau of Geology. p.1. Murty, T.S.; Flather, R.A. (1994). "Impact of Storm Surges in the Bay of Bengal. In: Finkl, C.W., Jnr. (ed.), Coastal Hazards: Perception, Susceptibility and Mitigation". Journal of Coastal Research (Special Issue No. 12): 149161.
Storm surge Newman, C.J.; BR Jarvinen, CJ McAdie, JD Elms (1993). Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1992. Asheville, North Carolina and National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, Florida: National Climatic Data Center in cooperation with the National Hurricane Center. p. 193. Sheets, Dr. Robert C. (1995). Stormy Weather, In: Tait, Lawrence, (Ed.) Hurricanes... Different Faces In Different Places, (Proceedings) 17th Annual National Hurricane Conference. Atlantic City, N.J.. pp. 5262. Simpson, R.H.; Arnold L. Sugg and Staff (1970-04-01). "The Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1969" (http://docs. lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/098/mwr-098-04-0293.pdf) (PDF). Monthly Weather Review (Boston, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society) 98 (4). Retrieved 2008-08-11. Summary page for article (http:/ /ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1970)098<0293:TAHSO>2.3. CO;2) Simpson, R.H. (1971). A Proposed Scale for Ranking Hurricanes by Intensity (Speech). Miami, Florida. Tannehill, I.R. (1956). Hurricanes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p.308. United States National Weather Service (1993). Hurricane!: A Familiarization Booklet. NOAA PA 91001: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service. p.36. Will, Lawrence E. (1978). Okeechobee Hurricane; Killer Storms in the Everglades. Belle Glade, Florida: Glades Historical Society. p.204.
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External links
European Space Agency storm Surge Project home pages (http://www.storm-surge.info/) Data on Bangladesh disasters (http://nirapad.org/care_nirapad/Home/Magazine/chronology/currentissue/ html/news8.html) from NIRAPAD disaster response organisation. NOAA National Hurricane Center storm surge page (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/storm_surge. shtml) "The 1953 English East Coast Floods" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/1953_flood. shtml) DeltaWorks.Org (http://www.deltawerken.com/89) North Sea Flood of 1953, includes images, video and animations. UK storm surge model outputs and real-time tide gauge information from the National Tidal and Sea Level Facility (http://www.pol.ac.uk/ntslf/)
Head of tide
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Head of tide
Head of tide is the farthest point upstream where a river is affected by tidal fluctuations. This applies to rivers which flow into tidal bodies such as oceans, bays and sloughs. Though this point may vary due to storms and seasonal or annual differences in water flows, there is generally an average point which is accepted as the head of tide. A river's tidal data is recorded at various locations downstream of this point. A river's head of tide may be considered the upper boundary of its estuary. The head of tide is important in surveying, navigation, and fisheries management, and thus many jurisdictions establish a legal head of tide. The head of tide may be many miles upstream from the river's mouth. For example, on the Hudson River, it is located 140 miles (unknown operator: u'strong'km) upstream, near Albany, New York. On the Saint Lawrence River, tides affect shipping upstream past Quebec City, which is located several hundred miles inland from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean.
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Axial turbines
These are close in concept to traditional windmills operating under the sea and have the most prototypes currently operating. These include: The AR-1000, a 1MW tidal turbine developed by Atlantis Resources Corporation which was successfully deployed and commissioned at the EMEC facility during the summer of 2011. The AR series turbines are commercial scale Horizontal Axis Turbines designed for open ocean deployment in the harshest environments on the planet. AR turbines feature a single rotor set with highly efficient fixed pitch blades. The AR turbine is rotated as required with each tidal exchange. This is done in the slack period between tides and fixed in place for the optimal heading for the next tide. AR turbines are rated at 1MW @ 2.65m/s of water flow velocity.
Further information about Atlantis Resources Corporation can be found here. [5] Kvalsund, south of Hammerfest, Norway.[6] Although still a prototype, a turbine with a reported capacity of 300kW was connected to the grid on 13 November 2003. A 300kW Periodflow marine current propeller type turbine Seaflow was installed by Marine Current Turbines off the coast of Lynmouth, Devon, England, in 2003.[7] The 11m diameter turbine generator was fitted to a steel pile which was driven into the seabed. As a prototype, it was connected to a dump load, not to the grid. Since April 2007 Verdant Power[8] has been running a prototype project in the East River between Queens and Roosevelt Island in New York City; it was the first major tidal-power project in the United States.[9] The strong currents pose challenges to the design: the blades of the 2006 and 2007 prototypes broke off, and new reinforced turbines were installed in September 2008.[10][11] Following the Seaflow trial, a full-size prototype, called SeaGen, was installed by Marine Current Turbines in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland in April 2008. The turbine began to generate at full power of just over 1.2MW in December 2008[12] and is reported to have fed 150kW into the grid for the first time on 17 July 2008, and has now contributed more than a gigawatt hour to consumers in Northern Ireland.[13] It is currently the only commercial scale device to have been installed anywhere in the world.[14] SeaGen is made up of two axial flow rotors, each of which drive a generator. The turbines are capable of generating electricity on both the ebb and flood tides because the rotor blades can pitch through 180.[15] OpenHydro,[16] an Irish company exploiting the Open-Centre Turbine developed in the U.S., has a prototype being tested at the European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC), in Orkney, Scotland.
Tidal stream generator A prototype semi-submerged floating tethered tidal turbine called Evopod has been tested since June 2008[17] in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland at 1/10 scale. The company developing it is called Ocean Flow Energy Ltd,[18] and they are based in the UK. The advanced hull form maintains optimum heading into the tidal stream and it is designed to operate in the peak flow of the water column. Tenax Energy of Australia is proposing to put 450 turbines off the coast of the Australian city Darwin, in the Clarence Strait. The turbines feature a rotor section that is approximately 15metres in diameter with a gravity base which is slighter larger than this to support the structure. The turbines will operate in deep water well below shipping channels. Each turbine is forecast to produce energy for between 300 and 400 homes.[19] Tidalstream, a UK-based company, has commissioned a scaled-down Triton 3 turbine in the Thames, see picture on the right, and photographs maintained on their website [20].[21] It can be floated out to site, installed without cranes, jack-ups or divers, and then ballasted into operating position. At full scale the Triton 3 in 30-50m deep water has a 3MW capacity, and the Triton 6 in 60-80m water has a capacity of up to 10MW, depending on the flow. Both platforms have man-access capability both in the operating position and in the float-out maintenance position.
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Oscillating devices
Oscillating devices do not have a rotating component, instead making use of aerofoil sections which are pushed sideways by the flow. Oscillating stream power extraction was proven with the omni- or bi-directional Wing'd Pump windmill.[29] During 2003 a 150kW oscillating hydroplane device, the Stingray, was tested off the Scottish coast.[30] The Stingray uses hydrofoils to create oscillation, which allows it to create hydraulic power. This hydraulic power is then used to power a hydraulic motor, which then turns a generator.[1] Pulse Tidal operate an oscillating hydrofoil device in the Humber estuary.[31] Having secured funding from the EU, they are developing a commercial scale device to be commissioned 2012.[32] The bioSTREAM tidal power conversion system, uses the biomimicry of swimming species, such as shark, tuna, and mackerel using their highly efficient Thunniform mode propulsion. It is produced by Australian company BioPower Systems. A 2kW prototype relying on the use of two oscillating hydrofoils in a tandem configuration has been developed at Laval University and tested successfully near Quebec City, Canada, in 2009. A hydrodynamic efficiency of 40% has been achieved during the field tests.[33]
Venturi effect
Venturi effect devices use a shroud or duct in order to generate a pressure differential which is used to run a secondary hydraulic circuit which is used to generate power. A device, the Hydro Venturi, is to be tested in San Francisco Bay.[34]
Commercial plans
RWE's npower announced that it is in partnership with Marine Current Turbines to build a tidal farm of SeaGen turbines off the coast of Anglesey in Wales,[35] near the Skerries.[36] In November 2007, British company Lunar Energy announced that, in conjunction with E.ON, they would be building the world's first deep-sea tidal energy farm off the coast of Pembrokshire in Wales. It will provide electricity for 5,000 homes. Eight underwater turbines, each 25metres long and 15metres high, are to be installed on the sea bottom off St David's peninsula. Construction is due to start in the summer of 2008 and the proposed tidal energy turbines, described as "a wind farm under the sea", should be operational by 2010. British Columbia Tidal Energy Corp. plans to deploy at least three 1.2MW turbines in the Campbell River or in the surrounding coastline of British Columbia by 2009.[37] An organisation named Alderney Renewable Energy Ltd [38] is planning to use tidal turbines to extract power from the notoriously strong tidal races around Alderney in the Channel Islands. It is estimated that up to 3GW could be extracted. This would not only supply the island's needs but also leave a considerable surplus for export.[39] Nova Scotia Power has selected OpenHydro's turbine for a tidal energy demonstration project in the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Canada and Alderney Renewable Energy Ltd for the supply of tidal turbines in the Channel Islands. Open Hydro [40] Pulse Tidal [41] are designing a commercial device with seven other companies who are expert in their fields.[42] The consortium was awarded an 8 million EU grant to develop the first device, which will be deployed in 2012 and generate enough power for 1,000 homes. Pulse is in a good position to scale up production because the supply chain is already in place. ScottishPower Renewables [43] are planning to deploy ten 1MW HS1000 devices designed by Hammerfest Strom [44] in the Sound of Islay.[45]
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Energy calculations
Turbine power
Tidal energy converters can have varying modes of operating and therefore varying power output. If the power coefficient of the device " " is known, the equation below can be used to determine the power output of the hydrodynamic subsystem of the machine. This available power cannot exceed that imposed by the Betz limit on the power coefficient, although this can be circumvented to some degree by placing a turbine in a shroud or duct. This works, in essence, by forcing water which would not have flowed through the turbine through the rotor disk. In these situations it is the frontal area of the duct, rather than the turbine, which is used in calculating the power coefficient and therefore the Betz limit still applies to the device as a whole. The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:
where: = the turbine power coefficient P = the power generated (in watts) = the density of the water (seawater is 1027 kg/m) A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m) V = the velocity of the flow Relative to an open turbine in free stream, ducted turbines are capable of as much as 3 to 4 times the power of the same turbine rotor in open flow. .[46]
Resource assessment
While initial assessments of the available energy in a channel have focus on calculations using the kinetic energy flux model, the limitations of tidal power generation are significantly more complicated. For example, the maximum physical possible energy extraction from a strait connecting two large basins is given to within 10% by:[47][48]
where = the density of the water (seawater is 1027 kg/m) g = gravitational acceleration (9.80665 m/s2) = maximum differential water surface elevation across the channel = maximum volumetric flow rate though the channel.
Potential sites
As with wind power, selection of location is critical for the tidal turbine. Tidal stream systems need to be located in areas with fast currents where natural flows are concentrated between obstructions, for example at the entrances to bays and rivers, around rocky points, headlands, or between islands or other land masses. The following potential sites are under serious consideration: Pembrokeshire in Wales[49] River Severn between Wales and England[50] Cook Strait in New Zealand[51] Kaipara Harbour in New Zealand[52] Bay of Fundy[53] in Canada.
Tidal stream generator East River[54][55] in the USA Golden Gate in the San Francisco Bay[56] Piscataqua River in New Hampshire[57] The Race of Alderney and The Swinge in the Channel Islands[39] The Sound of Islay, between Islay and Jura in Scotland[58] Pentland Firth between Caithness and the Orkney Islands, Scotland Humboldt County, California in the United States Columbia River, Oregon in the United States
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Modern advances in turbine technology may eventually see large amounts of power generated from the ocean, especially tidal currents using the tidal stream designs but also from the major thermal current systems such as the Gulf Stream, which is covered by the more general term marine current power. Tidal stream turbines may be arrayed in high-velocity areas where natural tidal current flows are concentrated such as the west and east coasts of Canada, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Bosporus, and numerous sites in Southeast Asia and Australia. Such flows occur almost anywhere where there are entrances to bays and rivers, or between land masses where water currents are concentrated.
Environmental impacts
Very little direct research or observation of tidal stream systems exists. Most direct observations consist of releasing tagged fish upstream of the device(s) and direct observation of mortality or impact on the fish. One study of the Roosevelt Island Tidal Energy (RITE, Verdant Power) project in the East River (New York City), utilized 24 split beam hydroacoustic sensors (scientific echosounder) to detect and track the movement of fish both upstream and downstream of each of six turbines. The results suggested (1) very few fish using this portion of the river, (2) those fish which did use this area were not using the portion of the river which would subject them to blade strikes, and (3) no evidence of fish traveling through blade areas. Work is currently being conducted by the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center (NNMREC[59])to explore and establish tools and protocols for assessment of physical and biological conditions and monitor environmental changes associated with tidal energy development.
References
[1] Jones, Anthony T., and Adam Westwood. "Power from the oceans: wind energy industries are growing, and as we look for alternative power sources, the growth potential is through the roof. Two industry watchers take a look at generating energy from wind and wave action and the potential to alter." The Futurist 39.1 (2005): 37(5). GALE Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 8 October 2009. [2] "Tidal power" (http:/ / www. esru. strath. ac. uk/ EandE/ Web_sites/ 01-02/ RE_info/ Tidal Power. htm#streams). . Retrieved 1 November 2010. [3] "Surfing Energy's New Wave" Time International 16 June 2003: 52+. http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,457348,00. html [4] EMEC. "Tidal Energy Devices" (http:/ / www. emec. org. uk/ tidal_devices. htm). . Retrieved 5 October 2008. [5] http:/ / www. atlantisresourcescorporation. com/ [6] First power station to harness Moon opens - September 22, 2003 - New Scientist (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn4188) [7] REUK: "Read about the first open-sea tidal turbine generator off Lynmouth, Devon" (http:/ / www. reuk. co. uk/ Worlds-First-Open-Sea-Tidal-Turbine. htm) [8] Verdant Power (http:/ / www. verdantpower. com/ what-initiative) [9] MIT Technology Review, April 2007 (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ Energy/ 18567/ ). Retrieved August 24, 2008. [10] Robin Shulman (September 20, 2008). "N.Y. Tests Turbines to Produce Power. City Taps Current Of the East River" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 09/ 19/ AR2008091903729. html). Washington Post. . Retrieved 2008-10-09. [11] Kate Galbraith (September 22, 2008). "Power From the Restless Sea Stirs the Imagination" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 09/ 23/ business/ 23tidal. html?em). New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-10-09. [12] http:/ / www. marineturbines. com/ 3/ news/ [13] First connection to the grid (http:/ / www. marineturbines. com/ 3/ news/ / ) [14] Sea Generation Tidal Turbine (http:/ / www. marineturbines. com/ 18/ projects/ 19/ seagen/ )
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Tidal barrage
A tidal barrage is a dam-like structure used to capture the energy from masses of water moving in and out of a bay or river due to tidal forces.[1][2] Instead of damming water on one side like a conventional dam, a tidal barrage first allows water to flow into a bay or river during high tide, and releasing the water back during low tide. This is done by measuring the tidal flow and controlling the sluice gates at key times of the tidal cycle. Turbines are then placed at these sluices to capture the energy as the water flows in and out.[1] Tidal barrages are among the oldest methods of tidal power generation, with projects being developed as early as the 1960s, such as the 1.7 megawatt Kislaya Guba Tidal Power Station in Kislaya Guba, Russia.
Generating methods
The barrage method of extracting tidal energy involves building a barrage across a bay or river that is subject to tidal flow. Turbines installed in the barrage wall generate power as water flows in and out of the estuary basin, bay, or river. These systems are similar to a hydro dam that produces Static Head or pressure head (a height of water pressure). When the water level outside of the basin or lagoon changes relative to the water level inside, the turbines are able to produce power. The basic elements of a barrage are caissons, embankments, sluices, turbines, and ship locks. Sluices, turbines, and ship locks are housed in caissons (very large concrete blocks). Embankments seal a basin where it is not sealed by caissons.
An artistic impression of a tidal barrage, including embankments, a ship lock and caissons housing a sluice and two turbines.
The sluice gates applicable to tidal power are the flap gate, vertical rising gate, radial gate, and rising sector. Only a few such plants exist. The first was the Rance Tidal Power Station, on the Rance river, in France, which has been operating since 1966, and generates 240MW. A larger 254MW plant began operation at Sihwa Lake, Korea, in 2011. Smaller plants include one on the Bay of Fundy, and another across a tiny inlet in Kislaya Guba, Russia). A number of proposals have been considered for a Severn barrage across the River Severn, from Brean Down in England to Lavernock Point near Cardiff in Wales. Barrage systems are affected by problems of high civil infrastructure costs associated with what is in effect a dam being placed across estuarine systems, and the environmental problems associated with changing a large ecosystem.
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Ebb generation
The basin is filled through the sluices until high tide. Then the sluice gates are closed. (At this stage there may be "Pumping" to raise the level further). The turbine gates are kept closed until the sea level falls to create sufficient head across the barrage, and then are opened so that the turbines generate until the head is again low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is filled again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow generation) takes its name because generation occurs as the tide changes tidal direction.
Flood generation
The basin is filled through the turbines, which generate at tide flood. This is generally much less efficient than ebb generation, because the volume contained in the upper half of the basin (which is where ebb generation operates) is greater than the volume of the lower half (filled first during flood generation). Therefore the available level difference important for the turbine power produced between the basin side and the sea side of the barrage, reduces more quickly than it would in ebb generation. Rivers flowing into the basin may further reduce the energy potential, instead of enhancing it as in ebb generation. Of course this is not a problem with the "lagoon" model, without river inflow.
Pumping
Turbines are able to be powered in reverse by excess energy in the grid to increase the water level in the basin at high tide (for ebb generation). This energy is more than returned during generation, because power output is strongly related to the head. If water is raised 2ft (61cm) by pumping on a high tide of 10ft (3m), this will have been raised by 12ft (3.7m) at low tide. The cost of a 2ft rise is returned by the benefits of a 12ft rise. This is because the correlation between the potential energy is not a linear relationship, but rather, is related by the square of the tidal height variation.
Two-basin schemes
Another form of energy barrage configuration is that of the dual basin type. With two basins, one is filled at high tide and the other is emptied at low tide. Turbines are placed between the basins. Two-basin schemes offer advantages over normal schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with high flexibility and it is also possible to generate almost continuously. In normal estuarine situations, however, two-basin schemes are very expensive to construct due to the cost of the extra length of barrage. There are some favourable geographies, however, which are well suited to this type of scheme.
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Environmental impact
The placement of a barrage into an estuary has a considerable effect on the water inside the basin and on the ecosystem. Many governments have been reluctant in recent times to grant approval for tidal barrages. Through research conducted on tidal plants, it has been found that tidal barrages constructed at the mouths of estuaries pose similar environmental threats as large dams. The construction of large tidal plants alters the flow of saltwater in and out of estuaries, which changes the hydrology and salinity and possibly negatively affects the marine mammals that use the estuaries as their habitat[5] The La Rance plant, off the Brittany coast of northern France, was the first and largest tidal barrage plant in the world. It is also the only site where a full-scale evaluation of the ecological impact of a tidal power system, operating for 20years, has been made[6] French researchers found that the isolation of the estuary during the construction phases of the tidal barrage was detrimental to flora and fauna, however; after ten years, there has been a "variable degree of biological adjustment to the new environmental conditions"[6] Some species lost their habitat due to La Rance's construction, but other species colonized the abandoned space, which caused a shift in diversity. Also as a result of the construction, sandbanks disappeared, the beach of St. Servan was badly damaged and high-speed currents have developed near sluices, which are water channels controlled by gates[7]
Turbidity
Turbidity (the amount of matter in suspension in the water) decreases as a result of smaller volume of water being exchanged between the basin and the sea. This lets light from the Sun penetrate the water further, improving conditions for the phytoplankton. The changes propagate up the food chain, causing a general change in the ecosystem.
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Salinity
As a result of less water exchange with the sea, the average salinity inside the basin decreases, also affecting the ecosystem. "Tidal Lagoons" do not suffer from this problem.
Sediment movements
Estuaries often have high volume of sediments moving through them, from the rivers to the sea. The introduction of a barrage into an estuary may result in sediment accumulation within the barrage, affecting the ecosystem and also the operation of the barrage.
Fish
Fish may move through sluices safely, but when these are closed, fish will seek out turbines and attempt to swim through them. Also, some fish will be unable to escape the water speed near a turbine and will be sucked through. Even with the most fish-friendly turbine design, fish mortality per pass is approximately 15% (from pressure drop, contact with blades, cavitation, etc.). Alternative passage technologies (fish ladders, fish lifts, fish escalators etc.) have so far failed to solve this problem for tidal barrages, either offering extremely expensive solutions, or ones which are used by a small fraction of fish only. Research in sonic guidance of fish is ongoing. The Open-Centre turbine reduces this problem allowing fish to pass through the open centre of the turbine. Recently a run of the river type turbine has been developed in France. This is a very large slow rotating Kaplan type turbine mounted on an angle. Testing for fish mortality has indicated fish mortality figures to be less than 5%. This concept also seems very suitable for adaption to marine current/tidal turbines.[8]
Energy calculations
The energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water. The potential energy contained in a volume of water is:[9]
where: h is the vertical tidal range, A is the horizontal area of the barrage basin, is the density of water = 1025kg per cubic meter (seawater varies between 1021 and 1030kg per cubic meter) and g is the acceleration due to the Earth's gravity = 9.81meters per second squared. The factor half is due to the fact, that as the basin flows empty through the turbines, the hydraulic head over the dam reduces. The maximum head is only available at the moment of low water, assuming the high water level is still present in the basin.
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Economics
Tidal barrage power schemes have a high capital cost and a very low running cost. As a result, a tidal power scheme may not produce returns for many years, and investors may be reluctant to participate in such projects. Governments may be able to finance tidal barrage power, but many are unwilling to do so also due to the lag time before investment return and the high irreversible commitment. For example the energy policy of the United Kingdom[10] recognizes the role of tidal energy and expresses the need for local councils to understand the broader national goals of renewable energy in approving tidal projects. The UK government itself appreciates the technical viability and siting options available, but has failed to provide meaningful incentives to move these goals forward.
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References
[1] "Tidal barrage" (http:/ / www. esru. strath. ac. uk/ EandE/ Web_sites/ 01-02/ RE_info/ Tidal Power. htm#barrage). . Retrieved 2 November 2010. [2] "Tidal barrages and tidal turbines" (http:/ / www. rise. org. au/ info/ Tech/ tidal/ index. html). . Retrieved 2 November 2010. [3] http:/ / wwww. tidalelectric. com [4] http:/ / www. inference. phy. cam. ac. uk/ sustainable/ book/ tex/ Lagoons. pdf [5] Pelc, Robin and Fujita, Rob. Renewable energy from the ocean. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VCD-47CGCRD-6& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=& _orig=search& _sort=d& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=7a620f2b0dbe9238f4dd14565b4f205a) [6] Retiere, C. Tidal power and aquatic environment of La Rance. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6WBR-45P0YSY-18& _user=607017& _coverDate=01/ 31/ 1994& _alid=807589306& _rdoc=7& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _cdi=6717& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=13& _acct=C000031527& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=607017& md5=a1bf5bed8436ee57584961d337274b71) [7] Charlier, Roger. Forty candles for the Rance River TPP tides provide renewable and sustainable power generation (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VMY-4K7FFMT-1& _user=607017& _coverDate=12/ 31/ 2007& _alid=807601279& _rdoc=2& _fmt=high& _orig=mlkt& _cdi=6163& _sort=v& _st=17& _docanchor=& view=c& _ct=743& _acct=C000031527& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=607017& md5=3cedbf77e95163ad11903503d4f6775e) [8] VLH TURBINE (http:/ / www. vlh-turbine. com) [9] Lamb, H. (1994). Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-45868-9. 174, p. 260. [10] (http:/ / www. odpm. gov. uk/ index. asp?id=1143914#TopOfPage) (see for example key principles 4 and 6 within Planning Policy Statement 22)
Marine energy
Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy or ocean power) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the worlds oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries. The term marine energy encompasses both wave power power from surface waves, and tidal power obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.[1]
[3]
Indonesia as archipelagic country with three quarter of the area is ocean, has 49 GW recognized potential ocean energy and has 727 GW theoritical potential ocean energy.[4]
Marine energy
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Non-renewable
Petroleum and natural gas beneath the ocean floor are also sometimes considered a form of ocean energy. An ocean engineer directs all phases of discovering, extracting, and delivering offshore petroleum (via oil tankers and pipelines,) a complex and demanding task. Also centrally important is the development of new methods to protect marine wildlife and coastal regions against the undesirable side effects of offshore oil extraction.
References
[1] Carbon Trust, Future Marine Energy. Results of the Marine Energy Challenge: Cost competitiveness and growth of wave and tidal stream energy, January 2006 [2] International Energy Agency, Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems (IEA-OES), Annual Report 2007 [3] US Department of the Interior (May 2006). "Ocean Current Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf" (http:/ / ocsenergy. anl. gov/ documents/ docs/ OCS_EIS_WhitePaper_Current. pdf) (pdf). . Retrieved 2 November 2010. [4] Indonesian Ocean Energy (http:/ / jakarta. indopos. co. id/ ?p=4742)
External links
The Ocean Energy Systems Implementing Agreement (http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org) European Ocean Energy Association (http://www.eu-oea.com) Ocean Energy Council (http://www.oceanenergycouncil.com) SuperGen UK Centre for Marine Energy Research (http://www.supergen-marine.org.uk)
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/