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COMMENTARY

Strategic branding of destinations: a framework

Melodena Stephens Balakrishnan
University of Wollongong in Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Abstract
Purpose Travel and tourism is the second largest global industry with daily international revenues of approximately US$2 billion, and investments of 12 percent of world GDP. Though this is a highly competitive industry, there is a paucity of academic research on destination branding. This paper aims to present a branding framework for designing successful destination strategies. This exploratory study seeks to determine key factors that affect the strategic branding of destinations. Design/methodology/approach Similar elds like place marketing, destination marketing, services, product and corporate branding were reviewed along with destination case studies. Based on this review and its extrapolation to the destination context, a framework for strategic branding of destinations was formulated. Findings Successful strategic branding of destinations is dependent on several inter-related components, which are discussed. The paper highlights key issues in destination branding and provides a platform for future research. Originality/value The value of the paper is high as it provides a practical framework for governing bodies to consider when investing time, money and effort when creating a global destination. Keywords Tourism, Services marketing, Brand image, Travel Paper type Conceptual paper

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Destination branding: need for research There is a paucity of academic research in this eld (Pike, 2005) in an industry with daily revenue of over US$ 2 billion (Future Brands, 2006). This is a growing industry with less than 12 percent of the world population ying internationally (IATA, 2007; WTTC, 2007). In 2006, Travel and Tourism (T&T) contributed 10.3 percent to world GDP, had 12 percent of global investments and 8 percent of all jobs (WTTC, 2007; Arnold, 2007). Competition is erce with 194 nations clamoring for a share of the tourists heart, mind and wallet. This indicates a need for a more strategic approach to branding as brand position leads to greater economic value (Matear et al., 2004; Davis, 2002), growth and welfare. A study by Fan (2006) found that brand owners outperformed their OEMs in terms of prots by a ratio of 50:1. A strong international marketing strategy improves nancial and brand performance through identication and achievement of specic brand values (Wong and Merrilees, 2007; Meenaghan, 1995). Existing strategy frameworks cannot linearly be applied to the destination context (Hosany et al., 2007; Hankinson, 2005) due to its multidisciplinary foundation and terminology interpretations (Balmer, 2001). The unique characteristics of destinations

European Journal of Marketing Vol. 43 No. 5/6, 2009 pp. 611-629 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0309-0566 DOI 10.1108/03090560910946954

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mentioned below which differentiate it from corporate, product and service brands are some reasons why they need another brand strategy development approach: (1) Tourism is dependent on macro-environmental factors like politics, terrorism, disease outbreaks, weather/natural conditions and currency uctuations. (2) Geographical constraints affects accessibility, weather, access to resources, denes infrastructure requirements and people characteristics. (3) Inherited names and past history like heritage, culture and perception of locations (like country of origin) evolve over time and cannot be easily changed (Shikoh, 2006). (4) Stakeholders are diverse and inuential. Destinations are run by governing bodies which are politically motivated, have funding constraints and answerable to their stakeholders (Stokes, 2006; Hankinson, 2005; Pike, 2005). Media is becoming a powerful inuence. (5) The diversity of target customers, the complex decision making process and the multiple choice sets make destination marketing harder (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002). (6) Destinations are service dependent. Services account for over 65 per cent of global GDP and are people dependent, employing 40 per cent of the global workforce (ILO, 2007). Destination success also depends on infrastructure, technology and communications (IMD, 2005). Investments required are huge and need to keep global standards in mind. (7) Feedback and control issues (see Pike, 2005). Destination marketing organizations do not have top-down implementation control (Pike, 2005). Perception of destinations is inuenced by publicity and promotion (Correira et al., 2007) which can be distorted by global market events and other destination images. Since destination brands are complex and are constantly changing (Trueman et al., 2004; Kates and Goh, 2003) they must be managed. The research objective of this paper was to develop a branding strategy framework for destinations. Since destination branding is complex and existing literature is largely limited to image and logo design (Blain et al., 2005), there was a need to re-approach this topic. The conceptualization of the model was done by rst looking at existing literature on services, product, product portfolio and corporate branding strategies. Similarities between existing branding theories and the destination context were found using a wide variety of published case studies on destination branding to identify key components. These topics were further researched to nd relationships between components. Destination branding: building on existing theories A brand is a consistent group of characters, images, or emotions that consumers recall or experience when they think of a specic symbol, product, service, organization or location Simeon (2006, p. 464). Branding must attract and keep customers by promoting value, image, prestige, or lifestyle (Rooney, 1995, p. 48). It must communicate information, minimize risk or increase trust (Knox, 2004), help identify or recall key factors, differentiate from competition and facilitate recommendations (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000). For destinations this is challenging as they attract a diversity of customers and the delivered product is often highly customized with the customer in control.

Destination brands are similar to corporate brands, as they act as umbrella brands for a portfolio of leisure, investment and business tourism, and stakeholder and citizen welfare products (Trueman et al., 2004). Goodwill is created through a unique identity by considering the diversity of stakeholder needs (Hatch and Schulz, 2003). Destinations like corporations are subject to increasing market complexity (globalization, internal and external government policies, foreign exchange uctuations and natural environment) and increasing marketing costs, which warrants a corporate branding approach as posited by Xie and Boggs (2006). Hence corporate branding strategies can be extrapolated to the destination context. Destination brands are also similar to product and services. They have both tangible and intangible components, are mostly service dependent, and can be positioned through the use of slogans (Pike, 2005). Country of origin (COO) applies in the destination service context (Javalgi et al., 2001). It requires greater emphasis on factors internal to the organization, especially the role of employees (for destinations, this refers to citizens) in the brand building process (Harris and de Chernatony, 2001). This paper is organized as follows. First, based on the identication of key elements of destination branding, a detailed literature review is given. Next, the relationships between components is described and presented as a conceptual framework. Finally, future research directions are discussed. Key destination branding components: a literature review The destination branding process revolves around the following ve components. See Table I for a comprehensive literature review. Each of the components is discussed in detail with respect to their relevance and importance to strategic destination branding: (1) Vision and stakeholder management. (2) Target customer and product portfolio matching. (3) Positioning and differentiation strategies using branding components. (4) Communication strategies. (5) Feedback and response management strategies. Step 1: vision and stakeholder management Vision is the starting point of any great strategy (Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998). By having clarity in long-term objectives that can range from tourism quality, business generation, societal welfare (Rangan et al., 2006; Eraqi, 2006; Balmer, 2001) and to political self preservation agendas, vision can lead to performance results (LaBonte, 2003) by delivering stakeholder expectations (Polonsky and Jevons, 2006). It also drives brand positioning (de Chernatony, 1999), hence is considered the beginning of a brand strategy. Successful policies not only increase economic benets but also harmonize culture (who we are), the process (how we know), the content (what we know), infrastructure requirements (who, how and where) (Dana et al., 2005); the brand (promise to be communicated), image (what is current perception) and reputation (distinctive attributes) (Balmer, 2001). For these decisions, the government needs to formulate, communicate and assimilate vision to all relevant stakeholders, to create a service-oriented culture that will give it a competitive advantage (Pike, 2005; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998).

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Component Vision

Sub-categories Vision, mission, heritage and culture, people and values, philosophy

Author

614

Stakeholders

Target market Marketing mix

Positioning

Differentiation

Table I. Important component of existing frameworks and destination branding cases

Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006; Wong et al., 2006; Aaker, 2004; Trueman et al., 2004; Davis, 2002; Javalgi and White, 2002; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony, 1999; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Balakrishnan, 2008; Eraqi, 2006; Rangan Country of et al., 2006; Trueman et al., 2004; Thakor and origin/reputation/credibility of brand (destination) name, tourism Lavack, 2003; Beverland, 2001; de Chernatony, 1999; Herbig and Milewicz, quality 1997 Perception, position, people, needs Balakrishnan, 2008; Ferguson and Hlavinka, 2006; Phillips, 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Merrilees et al., 2005; Pike, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony, 1999 Strong government support WTTC, 2003 Assessing external environment Davis, 2002 People (customer) Balmer, 2001 Human capital; Employment Wong et al., 2006; WTTC, 2003; Davis, 2002 Marketing Mix 4P; 7P for Moorthi, 2002; Balmer, 2001 services Facilities OCass and Grace, 2003 Prices (expensive) Pawitra and Tan, 2003 People in service interaction Wong et al., 2006; OCass and Grace, 2003; Grace and OCass, 2003 Identify product portfolio Wong et al., 2006; Aaker, 2004; Hankinson, 2004 Shikoh, 2006 Anholt_GMI City Brand Index (Nations branding: tourism; exports; governance; investment and immigration) Licensing Rangan et al., 2006 Positioning Davis, 2002 Culture and heritage; and people Trueman et al., 2004 de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Matching consumer mind condence; rational performance and emotional/psycho-social Experience with the brand and OCass and Grace, 2003 image of the user Usage occasions de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003; Grace and OCass, 2003 Differentiation needs; attributes Balakrishnan, 2008; Correira et al., 2007; Hankinson, 2005; 2004; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001; Gamage and King, 1999 Image Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2002 Color White, 2005 Logo design and development Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006; Blain et al., 2005 (continued)

Component

Sub-categories Personality Feelings and self-image congruence Visual identity Image Personality Brand alliances, ingredient branding, halo effect

Author de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 OCass and Grace, 2003; Jamal and Goode, 2001 Trueman et al., 2004 Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2002; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Hosany et al., 2007 Balakrishnan, 2008; McCarthy and Norris, 1999; Herbig and Milewicz, 1997; Javalgi and Moberg, 1997 Balakrishnan, 2008; Rangan et al., 2006; Law et al., 2004; Trueman et al., 2004; Davis, 2002; Balmer, 2001; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Hankinson, 2005; Grace and OCass, 2003; Mattila, 1999; Pritchard and Morgan, 1998 Balakrishnan, 2008; Bang et al., 2005; Hankinson, 2005 OCass and Grace, 2003 Wood, 2007; Roberts, 2005; OCass and Grace, 2003; Trueman et al., 2004 Nielsen Media, 2007; Future Brands, 2006; OCass and Grace, 2003; 2004; Wangenheim and Bayon, 2004; Grace and OCass, 2002 Rangan et al., 2006 Martin et al., 2007; Simeon, 2006

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Communication

Communication mix consistency and honesty Emotional advertising Tangibilizing Sevicescape Experience or avor Word of mouth Slogans and licensing Marketing intelligence; netnography

Feedback

Table I.

An examination of various destination case studies and academic articles shows vision to be motivated by six key drivers, which can be inter-related (see Table II): (1) Economic considerations. This ranges from economic prosperity of individual citizens, to businesses or the overall destination prosperity itself (Wong et al., 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005). (2) Services. The T&T industry has a strong dependency on services which can be personal, consumer, business and government (Wong et al., 2006; McDougall and Levesque, 2000). (3) Transit Hub. Infrastructure investments are required to become a transit hub (Hankinson, 2004), but it results in greater visibility, revenues and investment opportunities through the transiting of goods, information and people (Balakrishnan, 2008). (4) Retail. Retail focuses on both domestic and international tourists (Wong et al., 2006; Rangan et al., 2006). Shopping is becoming the number 1 leisure activity (Euromonitor, 2007) with T&T accounting for 12 percent of global exports as expenditure by visitors on goods and services (WTTC, 2007). A 2006 Travel Industry Association study shows that leisure travelers prefer shopping (53 percent) to sightseeing (48 percent) (Vora, 2007).

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Vision drivers Subsets Economic GDP/revenues Business/FDI

Author Balakrishnan, 2008; Wong et al., 2006; IMD, 2005; Rangan et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2004 Balakrishnan, 2008; Hankinson, 2005; IMD, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004 Balakrishnan, 2008; Hankinson, 2005; IMD, 2005; Taylor, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004; Chen and Gursoy, 2001 Balakrishnan, 2008; Wong et al., 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Trueman et al., 2004; WTTC, 2003; Chen and Gursoy, 2001 WTTC, 2007; Rangan et al., 2006; IMD, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004; McDougall and Levesque, 2000 Future Brands, 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; IMD, 2005; McDougall and Levesque, 2000 Rangan et al., 2006; IMD, 2005; McDougall and Levesque, 2000 Hankinson, 2004; Chan, 2000; Siddiqi, 1999 Shikoh, 2006; Bontis, 2004 Wong et al., 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; Davis, 2006; Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002 King, 1999 Balakrishnan, 2008; Davis, 2006 Zahid, 2006 Hankinson, 2005; Siddiqi, 1999 Balakrishnan, 2008 Balakrishnan, 2008; Eraqi, 2006; Rangan et al., 2006; WTTC, 2003; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Gamage and King, 1999

616

Infrastructure investments; globalization and networking Welfare, security, human capital, employment Services Government policies; operation Business opportunities Consumer/personal intellectual, social etc. Transit Hub Retail Passengers and cargo Immigration Tourists (domestic, international) Expatriate Locals/national citizens Real estate Trade Logistics Transportation Destination promotion (internal/external)

Table II. Drivers of strategic vision for destination branding

Tourism

(5) Trade. Trade is linked to economic growth (Johansson and Nilsson, 1997). Over 1/5th of world GDP in 2006 (US$12 trillion) is derived from trade. (World Bank, 2007a, b). This has led to government investments in logistics (Hankinson, 2005), transportation and global policies (Balakrishnan, 2008) and free trade zones, which globally number more than 600 (Papadopoulos and Malhotra, 2007). (6) Tourism. This is the second largest global industry after agriculture, contributing 10.3 percent to global GDP and as much as 80 percent of some nations economy (WTTC, 2007; Eraqi, 2006). Stakeholder management. Branding complexity increases with the diversity of stakeholders and target customers needs (Hatch and Schulz, 2003) and their conicting objectives (Trueman et al., 2004). An important part of vision is knowing: Who we are (Dana et al., 2005) looking at both internal stakeholder needs and external stakeholders perceptions of the destination (Rangan et al., 2006; Pike, 2005; Spithoven, 2000). Starting with an inward focus, governments must ensure that their aspirations are in harmony with local community needs and expectations (Trueman et al., 2004; Pike,

2005). Vision assimilation is important as the delivery of brand promises depends on how residents (an intangible asset) can translate vision and deliver that customer experience (Eastgate, 2000; Low, 2000). When brands are related to the national culture, there is greater synergy in the marketing strategy (Simeon, 2006). Externally, destination names have a past history (heritage, values, culture or perceived image) similar to country of origin effect (COO), which can be positive or negative (Aaker, 2004; Thakor and Lavack, 2003). Existing conditions determine the adoption of brand up to 33-65 percent of the time (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000). Negative COO acts as a deterrent for visitors (Hankinson, 2004) focusing on poor infrastructure, accessibility, security and lack of convenience. Positive COO creates a differential advantage (Beverland, 2001), becoming an intangible asset (Phillips, 2006) especially when differentiation is low (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000; Knox, 2004). Destinations must counter negative COO by identifying factors that contribute to it (Trueman et al., 2004). As most destinations are confronted with limited budgets, they should focus on positive and neutral destination images (Leisen, 2001) to enhance branding strategies. Step 2: target customer and product portfolio matching A destinations product and service portfolio must be integrated with the overall branding strategy and based on existing assets (Hankinson, 2004) and the assets they are capable of developing (see Table III for a taxonomy of products destinations can
Product History heritage Author

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Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Law et al., 2004; Leisen, 2001 Culture, ambience and experience, entertainment, Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Law et al., 2004; dining Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001 Business tourism Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; IMD, 2005 Main economic activity, economic development and Hankinson, 2004; 2005; IMD, 2005 industrial environment External prole Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005; Rangan et al., 2006 Accessibility Hankinson, 2004, 2005 Affordability; pricing Future Brands, 2006; Anholt, 2006 People characteristics Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005 Social/quality of life/welfare IMD, 2005; Trueman et al., 2004 International reputation Anholt, 2006; Hankinson, 2004, 2005; Spithoven, 2000 Health Tan, 2007; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; WTTC, 2003 Education Marklein, 2006; Anholt, 2006 Visiting family and friends Law et al., 2004; King, 1999 Retail, local handicrafts Law et al., 2004; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997 Rest and recreation Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001 Sports Fan, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; Woodside et al., 2002; Gonzalez and Bello, 2002 Special occasions; events Hunter, 2006 Religious tourism Deloitte HB, 2006 Experience, and exploration, natural wonders, Future Brands, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; Gonzalez and climate Bello, 2002; Leisen, 2001; Law et al., 2004

Table III. Destination product taxonomy

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offer). Products require strategic location (Siddiqi, 1999); investments in infrastructure (airlines, ports, roads, technology); exploitation of natural resources (like safe port, access to oil) and adaptation of ideas like open skies policies and other economic policies (tax free, economic free zones and credit facilities) (Balakrishnan, 2008). Destinations that diversify their portfolio reduce their risk; increase their target base and encourage loyalty (see Rangan et al., 2006). More destinations are looking at combinations of business based or vacation based portfolios (Hankinson, 2005, 2004). Places are re-inventing themselves by moving away from historical branding. Some successful re-branding strategies for destinations are recreational, sports, culture and eco-tourism (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005). A brand portfolio strategy is one where the goals are to create synergy, leverage and clarity within the portfolio and relevant, differentiated, and energized brands . . . [and this] includes brands external to the organization whose link to internal brands are actively managed (Aaker, 2004, pp. 13, 16). The value, competitive position, and ability to increase purchase intension of a brand can be leveraged by using any ingredient brand of greater value through the halo effect and external validation (McCarthy and Norris, 1999; Javalgi and Moberg, 1997). Since brand equity is linked to association with global consumer culture (Aaker, 2004), a destinations association with global brands can increase comfort level and reduce dissonance for a tourist. Destinations are perceived differently by different segments (Leisen, 2001). Positioning improves when the destination image is matched with the customer psychographic prole (Yankelovich and Meer, 2006; Ronkainen and Woodside, 1978). It can also be matched with lifestyle variables (Gonzalez and Bello, 2002); activities and experiences (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002) and usage occasions (Grace and OCass, 2003; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003). There must be consistency of brand image and attitude with the customer perception of themselves and the other users (Grace and OCass, 2003; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003). Focused marketing for specic segments increases the chances of success in a crowded marketplace; for example the Nawart Masr You Light Up Egypt campaign focused on Arabs (Deloitte HB, 2006). By matching product portfolios to a few dominant target segments (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002), reach, effective spend and loyalty can be increased. Step 3: positioning and differentiation: using brand components Brand identity is an image that creates a sustainable advantage by differentiating the brand from other competitors through the positioning statement (Runyan and Huddleston, 2006). A good positioning: . helps rationalize the decision making process by letting the customer link key attributes to that place (Ries and Trout, 1981); . is a simple and truthful message with limited association (Trueman et al., 2004; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003); and . preferably is based on visitors experiences (Foley and Fahy, 2004). Positioning is achieved through brand components, which can be tangible or intangible attributes; and functional or symbolic (de Chernatony and Riley, 1998, p. 1076; Bhat and Reddy, 1998). See Figure 1 and Table IV, for details of brand components. Effective positioning moves customers up the brand value pyramid from attributes and functional benets to emotional and self-expressive benets (Davis, 2002, p. 505).

Which brand component symbolic or functional?. Studies show that when consumers are confronted with a choice set, they decide which product to choose based on their perceptions of the images of the brands (see Leisen, 2001, p. 50; Gartner, 1989). According to Hosany et al. (2007), the emotional component of the destination image is responsible for the majority of the variance of the personality of the destination. Images associated with history, heritage and culture are most important when differentiating between destinations though they were the second most salient category after attributes associated with activities and facilities which are functional in nature (Hankinson, 2004). Another study showed that consumers prefer brands on the basis of their symbolic properties rather than functional qualities (Jamal and Goode, 2001). Symbolic values give a more sustainable competitive advantage (Mowle and Merrilees, 2005). Destinations should focus on a unique constellation of few (three to seven) tangible and functional destination attributes rather than a having it all strategy (Woodside and Dubelaar, 2002; Woodside and Trappey, 2001). Step 4: communication strategy Destinations do not own vertical or horizontal components of their product delivery which makes it difcult for them to be different from other destinations and yet have a clear, consistent image and communication across media and products portfolios (Kay, 2006; Simeon, 2006; de Chernatony and Segal-Horn, 2003; Grace and OCass, 2003). Newspapers, televisions, magazines and radios are considered more trustworthy than on-line forms of advertising (Neilson Media, 2007). The Internet is growing in usefulness as it attracts new users and if used to satisfaction, increases destination enjoyment (Castaneda et al., 2007). Tourists prefer word-of-mouth (WOM) to choose destinations, but once chosen, web-based resources are used to narrow itinerary (Future Brands, 2006). Virtual sites must allow easy interactivity between all other destination product offer sites to allow the customer to get a holistic view of the destination (Palmer and McCole, 2000). Table V presents a list of communication preferences for attracting customers, converting them and for creating loyalty. Step 5: managing the response When managing the destination brand, the gap between communicated, conceived ideal and desired identities must be reduced using market research (Rangan et al., 2006; Javalgi et al., 2006; Balmer, 2001). Destinations must be sold with correct information and not hype (Palumbo and Herbig, 2000), as this increases loyalty and WOM. Brand netnography helps understand a tourists interpretation of the place (Martin et al., 2007). Another important strategy to build brand image is harnessing the power of

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Figure 1. Destination band components

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Tangible; visual; functional elements Name, logo, trade mark, graphics Symbols Slogan, adjectives Colors Service delivery process/servicescape Postcards, pictures, movies, ads images; information Buildings architecture, facilities, places of interest, scenery; attributes Souvenirs, shopping items Heroes and heroines Functionality, Ingredient/associated brands, sponsorships, events Intangible and symbolic elements Perceptions of image Service satisfaction Personality of place, culture, heritage, ambience Relationship, bond, familiarity, interaction and empathy Relevance, representational; self-image congruence Personal and social values, self-personality; lifestyle, self-expression Needs (physiological; safety; relationship; self-esteem and fulllment needs) Emotions/mood/senses Legends Image/roles of people associated with service delivery or destination Occasion association, experiences, ambience Perception of others perception (WOM, public relations, publicity) Value/expense perceptions Table IV. Branding components Association with other brands

Authors Rowley, 2004; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Moorthi, 2002 Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi, 2002 White, 2005 Robledo, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997 Trueman et al., 2004; OCass and Grace, 2003; Woodside et al., 2002; Human, 1999 Correira et al., 2007; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; OCass and Grace, 2003; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Leisen, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997 Leisen, 2001; Warnaby and Davies, 1997; Gordon, 1986 Reichheld, 2001 Hankinson, 2005; Warnaby and Davies, 1997; Pearce, 1991 Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi, 2002; Woodside et al., 2002. Hosany et al., 2007; Runyan and Huddleston, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; 2005; Knox, 2004; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Palumbo and Herbig, 2000 McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Warnaby and Davies, 1997 Hosany et al., 2007; Runyan and Huddleston, 2006; Hankinson, 2004; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Moorthi, 2002; Leisen, 2001; Chen and Gursoy, 2001 Kayaman and Arasli, 2007; Bang et al., 2005; Moorthi, 2002 Jamal and Goode, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1997 Gonzalez and Bello, 2002; Jamal and Goode, 2001; Davis, 2002 Chen and Gursoy, 2001; Pearce, 1991 see travel career ladder Wood, 2007; Roberts, 2005; OCass and Grace, 2003; Davis, 2002; Jamal and Goode, 2001; Pritchard and Morgan, 1998 Reichheld, 2001 Ball et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005; Grace and OCass, 2003; Katzenbach, 2003; Moorthi, 2002; OCass and Grace, 2003; Pawitra and Tan, 2003; Warnaby and Davies, 1997 Hankinson, 2005; OCass and Grace, 2004; 2003; Chen and Gursoy, 2001; Schreuer, 2000; de Chernatony and Riley, 1998 Hankinson, 2004; Wangenheim and Bayon, 2004; OCass and Grace, 2003; Bansal and Voyer, 2000 Cunningham et al., 2006; Hankinson, 2005; Pawitra and Tan, 2003 Rangan et al., 2006

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Initial destination selection (information, selection) Family and friend recommendations 29% Web 19% TV/movie 13% Newspaper/magazine 10% Special deals 9% Travel agents 6%

Post-destination selection (activity planning, experience generation)

Trust (loyalty)

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Web 66% Recommendations (78%) Travel agents 13% Newspapers (63%) Family/friend recommendations 9% Online opinions (61%) Brand web sites (60%) TV, magazines (56%) Radio (54%) Brand sponsorship, e-mails Advertisements 4% signed up for (49%) Ads before movies (38%) Search engine ads (34%) Online banner ads (26%) Text ads on mobiles (18%) Other forms of communication PR, Education, Movies, Documentaries, Travelogues, Corporate and Brand sponsorships and associations, Event Sponsorships, Books; Architecture, Art and Landscaping (street furniture, objects, equipment, feasibilities), infrastructure development; virtual communities Source: Balakrishnan (2008); AC Neilson (2007); Correira et al. (2007); Cova and Pace (2006); Future Brands (2006); Rangan et al. (2006); Hankinson (2004); Woodside et al. (2002)

Table V. Communication mix for destination objectives

word of mouth (Wangenheim and Bayon, 2004; Grace and OCass, 2002; Ennew et al., 2000; Gremler and Brown, 1999). Traveling for social reasons is impacted by WOM because normative inuences/peers have a greater perceived reliability and this is also the case for business travel where customers are looking for expert sources with similarities to them (Wangenheim and Bayon, 2004). An AC Neilson survey on internet users from 47 markets found 78 percent of consumers felt recommendations from other consumers were most trustworthy (Nielsen Media, 2007). Another response management strategy is using souvenirs, which are conversations starters. Destinations must manage their licensing strategy to maintain standardization and correct representation of the brand (Rangan et al., 2006). Relationship between branding elements Vision is the starting point of designing a branding strategy. Governing bodies must take into consideration the relationships they want to develop with both internal and external customers, the networks they have alliances with or can develop to help reinforce branding strategies, and the basket of products they want and can offer. Governing bodies must identify key target customers in terms of where they come from, their potential to spend and mindset. Vision must embrace existing culture and work to balance any negative effects associated with the country of origin. The differentiation strategy must be designed to leave a clear and unique image in the target customers mind having consistency in all media choices. Destinations must choose combinations of brand components for attracting customers, helping customers take a decision to visit and to create loyalty. It begins in the tourists country of origin, is reinforced on arrival, and duration of stay, and managed during exit and post-visit.

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Image branding and the experience itself must raise some emotion associated with the destination. By tangibilizing the experience, destinations can promote word of mouth and reinforce the image. Too many images associated with a destination can create confusion, making it harder to take a decision to visit. During the visit, the quality of the experience and service must live up to the promised level or it will lead to dissatisfaction. The relationships between elements are depicted in Figure 2. A destination brand name is an intangible asset with unique attributes and must be protected and managed strategically to maximize value. Discussions and future research directions Destination branding requires focus and commitment of time, people, resources and changes in policies, culture and mindset. The purpose of this paper is to create a framework that will help governing bodies plan their destination branding strategies and encourage more research in this area. There are many independent surveys and rankings, which provide a holistic view on repeat tourism and investment but the academic literature on processes involved for successful destination branding is limited. This paper moves away from conventional brand elements of design by integrating branding at the strategy level. Future research can test through cases whether a clarity in vision leads to better destination performance especially in new destinations with little historical context.

Figure 2. Branding strategy for a destination

Another area of research is to nd the ideal composition of brand components necessary for different stages of the consumer decision making process and to nd the effect of various types of media for various consumer decision making stages. This paper provides a constructive guideline in the development of destination branding. As T&T economy continues to grow, the distinction between one destination and another blurs. Governments are investing over US$ 1480 billion on attracting tourism (WTTC, 2007) and hence a more strategic approach to branding would increase investment returns. Destinations must start focusing on the service experience and all customer touch points; especially the people as they help deliver the experience.
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