Alyssa Farooque 11.

4 Notes Spermatogenesis o The testes is the location of sperm cell synthesis located outside of the human body to provide cooler environment for the making of sperm Seminiferous tubules inside each testis have epithelial cell linings (spermatogonia) near their outer walls Spermatogonia may be going through either meiosis or mitosis at any given time Spermatogonia (23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, 46 total) undergo mitosis to replenish their numbers (replaces cells which will become spermatozoa) The process of meiosis turns spermatogonia into spermatozoa (spermatozoon) reducing the chromosome count of the spermatogonia to 23 individual chromosomes After having their chromosome number reduced, the spermatozoa stay in the Seminiferous tubule to form a flagellum and an acrosome (contains necessary fertilization enzymes) Sertoli cells provide nutrients for the developing sperm in this stage; sperm will stay attached to the Sertoli cells until they have formed their flagella. Then the sperm will detach and will be carried through the lumen with the movement of fluid o Hormones involved in sperm production Leutinizing hormone stimulates production of testosterone Follicle stimulating hormone (and testosterone) stimulate the meiotic division from spermatogonia into spermatozoa o Epididymis, seminal vesicle, prostate Epididymis gives motility to sperm and stores them Vas deferens sperm move from the Epididymis to the vas deferens Seminal vesicles add fluid that has a high concentration of fructose to provide energy for sperm to swim Prostate adds more fluid to the semen. Fluid is basic to counteract the acidity of the vagina Oogenesis o Oogonia undergo mitosis to build up numbers within the ovaries; these grow into larger primary oocytes (both are diploid cells)

3 of the 4 end-products of meiosis in Oogenesis are not use as gametes they are called polar bodies and they will be cellular containers for the divided chromosomes in meiosis I & II Follicle cells also repeatedly undergo mitosis. Follicle cells surround the primary oocyte (entire structure is called a primary follicle) o Menstrual cycle Secondary oocytes follicle cells begin dividing Oogenesis produces female gametes by meiosis Many similarities between oogenesis and spermatogenesis Oogenesis had four cells as end products but three of those four cells are not used as gametes becuae they are too small to produce a zygote Those three are called polar bodies They function as a cellular containers for the divided chromosomes during meiosis I and II The fourth is large and becomes the ovum

Events occurring before birth Cells called oogonia undergo mitosis, these grow larger and become primary oocytes Follicle cells also undergo mitosis A single layer of these follicle cells surrounds each primary oocyte and the entire structure is a primary follicl

Events occurring with the menstrual cycle every cycle a few primary follicles finish meiosis I the two haploid cells are not even close in size the small one is the first polar body and the other is very large, and it is a secondary oocyte the single ring of follicle cells being dividing and forming a fluid filled cavity the first ring surrounds the oocyte, then there is a fluid filled space, then the outer ring of follicle cells the secondary oocyte begins meiosis II the inner ring of follicle cells is released from the ovary at ovulation

Mature Sperm and Ova debatable what end product of spermatogenesis is process of oogenesis is not over until fertilization is underway and meiosis completed both male and female gametes are haploid the egg is the largest cell in the body the spermatozoon is a very small cell with a flagellum for motility and mitochondria to provide ATP for swimming

the unequal division of the cytoplasm ensured that one cell only would receive virtually all of the cytoplasm and nutrients

Comparison of spermatogenesis and oogenesis Spermatogenesis Millions of sperm produced each day Four gametes Gametes very small Testes Released during ejaculation Haploid nucleus All the way through life Fertilization the sperm cells that make it in the cervix begin swimming up the endometrial lining and some enter fallopian tubes only a small percentage of motile sperm cells will ever reach the location of the secondary oocyte location is fallopian tubes several sperm cells gain access to the zona pellucida surrounding the secondary oocyte one sperm cell reaches the plasma membrane first, the two membranes fuse together this initiates a series of events called cortical reaction Oogenesis One secondary oocyte per menstrual cycle One gamete plus polar bodies Gametes very large Ovaries Released during ovulation Haploid nucleus Stops at menopause

Pregnancy Fertilization occurs within fallopian tubes

Early human embryonic development Fertilization triggers zygote to begin a mitotic division o First division: occurs 24 hours before fertilization o First 5 days: embryo divides by mitosis; moves within fallopian tubes and approach uterus o When embryo reaches uterine cavity, approximately 100 cells and is ready to be implanted into endometrium of uterus o At this stage: embryo is a ball of cells and is called a blastocyst

How is a blastocyst characterized? o Trophoblast (surrounding layer of cells) help form the fetal portion of placenta o Inner cell mass (group of cells on interior) located toward end of ball- will become the body of embryo

o It is a fluid-filled cavity Secretion of human chorionic gonadotrophin Outer ring of follicle cells within ovary begins mitotically dividing * begins secreting hormones of oestrogen and progesterone Has become a temporary endocrine gland: corpus luteum Corpus luteum secretes progesterone for 14 days when fertilization doesnt take place in menstrual cycle High levels of progesterone and oestrogen help maintain thickened, highly vascular endometrium within uterus- it is necessary in case fertilization occurs and an embryo implants itself into endometrium If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum breaks down; if it occurs, the embryo enters uterus and begins implantation about a week after fertilization After implantation occurs, embryo begins secreting hormone : (HCG) human chorionic gonadotrophin o HCG enters bloodstream of mother (target tissue: corpus luteum) o It acts to maintain secretory function of this gland beyond normal menstrual cycle length of time Corpus luteum secretes both oestrogen & progesterone & endometrium is maintained Role of oestrogen & progesterone is taken place by the placenta

Role of the placenta Human ovum is large because it contains nutrients needed for early embryonic development First 2 weeks after fertilization, there is no growth of embryo Overall size of embryo is no larger than that of original egg o Nutrients stored have been used for metabolism, NOT growth As result of implantation, embryo & maternal endometrium soon begin to create a structure called placenta Placenta forms from trophoblast layer of blastocyst When formed, 2 fetal blood vessels within umbilical cord carries fetal blood to placenta o Fetal blood exchanges materials with maternal bloodstream o Fetal blood vessel returns blood to fetus (already oxygenated & nutrients already added) Materials passed from mother to fetus Oxygen Nutrients (glucose, amino acids,etc.) Water Hormones

Materials passed from fetus to mother Carbon dioxide Urea Water Hormones (HCG,etc.)

Vitamins, minerals Alcohol, drugs, nicotine (if mother consumes) Some viruses such as German measles, HIV (if mother is infected) Blood of fetus & blood of mother NEVER mixes there is exchange of materials, but NO exchange of blood Placenta acts as endocrine organ (important for 2nd half of pregnancy) Corpus luteum does not stay active for whole process of pregnancy; when it stops producing oestrogen and progesterone, the placenta already began producing & secreting hormones

Role of amniotic fluid Some of tissue of developing embryo is used to create extraembryonic membranes One of membranous structures: amniotic sac- extends all the way down to fetus Fetus floats in amniotic fluid when growing/developing

Function s of amniotic fluid Provide a cushioning effect for fetus Provide an environment for all developing muscles/ skeleton Provide excellent thermal stability Fluid used for procedure of amniocentesis (fluid samples are taken to be cultured/ tested for chromosome abnormalities)

Hormonal events associated w/ birth Physiological events associated with womans body preparing for birth: parturition Hormone: ocytoxin is secreted from posterior lobe of pituitary gland; it is a peptide hormone that binds to protein receptors Production of low levels oxytocin relates to beginning of labor- first contractions of uterus o Contractions are not very intense & are not very frequent o Each uterine contraction results in uterine mechanoreceptors sends signals back to posterior lobe of pituitary --- produce more ocytoxin so that labor contractions become more intense/ frequent Feedback mechanism is POSITIVE and stops only when birth begins and uterus no longer contracts Major events of vaginal childbirth Major hormone changes Opening of cervix (10 cm)

Most typical position for baby is (head-first) (face down) Shoulders of baby are typically the widest part to pass through birth canal Lactation begins soon after birth