Coptic

Early multi-section Coptic codices Dating from the 2nd century AD, the Copts used a chain stitch to bind multi-section books. In most documented cases, it seems that these books were sewn with a continuous thread and a single needle. The first and last sewing stations thus having half the number of loops as the other sewing stations. There are variations in the chain stitches from this period, though, since the technique was still in development. The cover would be made separately & attached after the textblock was sewn, covering the book completely including the spine. The textblock was attached by pasting it directly to the covers. Later Coptic codies After about the seventh century, there are very few extant Coptic bindings and most remnants are very badly damaged but it is evident that the chain stitch was still used. It also seems that the cover boards started being attached as part of the sewing process unlike the separate attachment of the cover described above for the early Coptic codices. Ethiopian Codices Dating from about the sixteenth century, chain stitch binding had also evolved in Ethiopia. These books typically had paired sewing stations, sewn using two needles for each pair of sewing stations (so if there are 2 holes, use 2 needlesor 6 holes, 6 needles etc). The covers were wooden and attached by sewing through holes made into edge of the board. Most of these books were left uncovered without endbands. Byzantine bindings There were also Islamic bookbinding methods employing the link stitch, and Byzantine/Greek bookbinding methods using a link stitch. An interesting variation employed by the Greeks was sewing the sections in two groups, then joining them so the chains meet in the middle. This makes it look like the chain stitches change direction in the middle of the row. The Byzantine bindings are more likely to have elaborate endbands which are worked onto supports and anchored to the cover boards through holes in the boards. These books typically had full leather coverings. This quick summary is largely based on information in Szirmais text, The Archaeology of Medieval Bookbinding. There are five chapters dedicated to link stitch bindings so this is really a miniscule summary of what I read. There is some debate surrounding the various terms used to described the chain stitch binding methods that are so often used today, especially concerning the very loose application of the term "Coptic binding."

Creating the book board.

You will need two boards for the book. Use quartersawn hardwood. Cordia, olea, and cedar wood were the most common woods used in period. Oak, alder, or hardwood fruit trees are good substitutesfruit woods also give off a scent. Quarter-sawn wood is stronger that standard cuts, and allows you to make diagonal holes in the wood without it splitting. Historically, the boards were cut flush with the

paper quires (or folded sections of paper). To allow for paper slippage while sewing, add 1/16" to width and 1/8" to length of the measurement of a folded piece of the paper you will use in the book. If you are using basic paper text stock, the boards should be 5 9/16 x 4 3/8 inches. Sand all of the edges and sides smooth. After the boards have been cut and sanded, the nest step is drilling the holes (in period done with a glow awl). In this style of binding, holes are always done in pairs, for your first experience keep it down to one set (that is, two holes per board and set of folded papers). This can be done with an awl, needle, or with a handy little power tool called the Dremel TM drill. Using a small awl, drill two diagonal holes from spine to outside of cover one inch from head and tail of the board. Drill from holes on outside of board strait down to inside. Make a second set of holes 1/2 inch to the right of these holes. Finally, drill from inside inner holes diagonally to the spine. Mark and repeat holes onto backboard.

Folding the paper.

Modern commercial paper has a grain. Folding against the grain can break pages and may cause distortion if you choose to cover the book. There are many ways to determine grain; the roll method is the least invasive. Hold the paper lengthwise with one hand on either end allowing the paper to sag. Put the sides together and observe the size of the "u" at the bottom. Repeat with the paper in the other direction. The direction that makes a narrower "u" is the direction of the grain. Most normal text paper has a grain that runs long (down the eleven inch direction). If you are using the suggested text paper, you will first need to cut your sheet in half lengthwise so that each sheet is 8 1/2 inches by 5 1/2 inches. Gather four of the cut papers together and fold them in half so that they now measure 4 1/4 by 5 1/2 inches. The pages nest together best if they are all folded together as a single unit. These folded bunches are called either sections or quires. Use a bone folder or the dull edge of a butter knife to press down the fold.

Preparing quires.
Since human measurements are rarely precise, it is best to put the holes into the paper after doing so with the boards. Center one quire in between boards and mark outside of the quire on the fold to match where the holes are. Open quire face down and carefully punch holes with a small awl, or one of the needles. Repeat again from inside out. Take outside sheet off to use as guide for other quires. Slip inner sheet into next quire, open quire and punch holes from inside to outside. Be sure to note top and bottom edge and keep same together. Repeat for each quire. When each quire has been punched, replace outer sheet back onto the first quire.

Sewing the book.

Cut one piece of thread two wingspans (arms extended out like wings) in length. Coat the thread liberally with beeswax. This will make the thread more manageable and help the quires to move more freely when the book is completed. Thread one needle at each end of thread. Fold over ample lengths of extra thread for ease of sewing, the length of thread will be taken up quickly in the sewing process. Start sewing from the inside the fold of the first quire. Bring each needle from inside to outside of the fold. Even the lengths of thread hanging from the quire, be sure to only pull thread

straight out perpendicularly from the paper so that you don't tear the holes in the paper. Attach cover. Sew needles through the diagonal hole (d) in cover from spine to the outside hole(a). Take needles from outer holes to holes 1/2 inch in to inner cover (b). Tighten thread enough so that the quire should still be able to lay flat onto board. Bring needles back up outer hole (a), making sure not to go through thread. Travel the thread back downward to point (b), making sure not to sew through previous thread (get used to this phrase). Take needle diagonally from inner hole (c) to spine hole (d). Go back into first quire. Cross needles on the inside of quire and take needles to outside so that the needle that entered the quire on the left exits on the right and the needle that entered on the right exits on the left. You will have three threads on the inside of this quire. As always, make sure not to sew through the previously sewn thread. Now it is time to start on the first link stitch to connect the second quire. The link stitch is ubiquitous to the Ethiopian Coptic binding technique. You will use it every time you sew a new quire and the final cover to the book. There are many variants to this stitch. The one discussed here is sturdy and the easiest to understand (for others see Szirma, The Archaeology of Medieval Bookbinding, page 17).

Take the needles down (a) and under the thread between the previous two quires (b)(or, in the case, in between the first quire and the cover board). Bring needles up through to the new quire(c). Insert needles into the quire to be added. Cross needles between holes on the inside so that the needle that entered the quire on the left exits on the right and the needle that entered on the right exits on the left. Repeat each time you add a quire, including the board. Follow the instructions on connecting cover board. Take needles through the middle of the last stitch into the middle of the last quire. As always, make sure not to sew through the previously sewn thread. Tie off. Cut off the excess thread, leaving about an inch to an inch and a half loose.