HEAT TRANSFER 7.

7
This can be simplifed by considering symmetry; thus,
q
I
 A
I
2F
I-II
T
4
I
 T
4
II
 2F
I-IV
T
4
I
 T
4
IV
 F
I-V
T
4
I
 T
4
V
where is the Boltzmann constant and T is absolute temperature. Thus,
q
I
 (01713  10
8
)(200)[2(0168)(1610
4
1380
4
)  2(008)(1610
4
1260
4
)
 0508(1610
4
 710
4
)]  1711 10
4
Btu/h (496 kW)
Similarly, for the other fve surfaces: q
II
 4489  10
4
Btu/h (13kW) q
III
; q
IV
 8711  10
4
Btu/h (25.3 kW)  q
VI
; and q
V
 1627  10
4
Btu/h (472 kW).
5. Check the resa/ts. Since the system as a whole neither gains nor loses heat, the sum of the
heat transferred should algebraically be zero. Now, 1711  2(4489) 2(8711)  (1627)  0,
so the results do check.
Re/atedCa/ca/at/ans. If the six surfaces are not black but gray (inthe radiation sense), it is nominally
necessary to set up and solve six simultaneous equations in six unknowns. In practice, however,
the network can be simplifed by combining two or more surfaces (the two smaller end walls, for
instance) into one node. Once this is done and the confguration factors are calculated, the next step
is to construct a radiosity network (since each surface is assumed diffuse, all energy leaving it is
equally distributed directionally and can therefore be taken as the radiosity of the surface rather than
its emissive power). Then, using standard mathematical network-solution techniques, create and solve
an equivalent network with direct connections between nodes representing the surfaces. For details,
see Oppenheim [8].
7.3 EFFECT OF SOLAR HEAT ON A STORAGE TANK
A fat-topped, nitrogen-blanketed atmospheric-pressure tank in a plant at Texas City, Texas, has a
diameter of 30 ft and a height of 20 ft (9.1 m diameter and 6.1 m high) and is half full of ethanol
at 85 F (302 K). As a frst step in calculating nitrogen fow rates into and out of the tank during
operations, calculate the solar heating of the tank and the tank skin temperature in the ullage space
at a maximum-temperature condition. The tank has a coating of white zinc oxide paint, whose so-
lar absorptance is 0.18. The latitude of Texas City is about N29 20 . For the maximum-temperature
condition, select noon on June 20, the summer solstice, when the solar declination is 23.5 . Assume
that the solar constant (the solar fux on a surface perpendicular to the solar vector) is 343 Btu/(h)(ft
2
)
(1080 W/m
2
), the air temperature is 90 F (305 K), and the effective sky temperature is 5 F (258 K).
Also assume that surrounding structural and other elements (such as hot pipes) are at 105 F
(314 K) and have a radiant interchange factor of 0.2 with the tank and that the effective flm co-
effcients for convection heat transfer between (1) the air and the outside of the tank and (2) the inside
of the tank and the contained material are 0.72 and 0.75 Btu/(h)(ft
2
)( F) [4.08 and 4.25 W/(m
2
)(K)],
respectively.
CaIcuIation Procedure
1. Ca/ca/ate the sa/ar-heat /npat ta the tank. Since the sun, although an extremely powerful
emitter, subtends a very small solid angle, it has an only minute radiant interchange factor with
objects on earth. The earth`s orbital distance from the sun is nearly constant throughout the year.
Therefore, it is a valid simplifcation to consider solar radiation simply as a heat source independent
of the radiation environment and governed solely by the solar absorptance of each surface and the
angular relationship of the surface to the solar vector.
HEAT TRANSFER
7.8 SECTION SEVEN
TABLE 7.2 Representative Values of Solar Constant and Sky Temperature
Solar constant
Conditions for total normal Effective sky Effective sky
incident solar radiation Btu/(h)(ft
2
) kJ/(s)(m
2
) temp., F temp., K
Southwestern United States, 252.3 0.797 30 to  22 239 to 243
June, 6:00 , extreme
Southwestern United States, 385.1 1.216  30 to  22 239 to 243
June, 12:00 ., extreme
Southwestern United States, 307.7 0.972  30 to 22 239 to 243
December, 9:00 ., extreme
Southwestern United States, 396.2 1.251 30 to 22 239 to 243
December, 12:00 ., extreme
NASA recommended high 363.0 1.146 - -
design value, 12:00 .
NASA recommended low 75.0 0.237 - -
design value, 12:00 .
Southern United States, maximum 111.0 0.350 - -
for extremely bad weather
Southern United States desert, 177.0 0.559 - -
maximum for extremely bad
weather
Saarce: Daniels [13].
The magnitude of the solar heatingis indicated by the so-called solar constant. Inspace, at the radius
of the earth`s orbit, the solar constant is about 443 Btu/(h)(ft
2
) (1396 W/m
2
). However, solar radiation
is attenuated by passage through the atmosphere; it is also refected diffusely by the atmosphere, which
itself varies greatly in composition. Table 7.2 provides representative values of the solar constant for
use at ground level, as well as of the apparent daytime temperature of the sky for radiation purposes.
Since the solar constant G
n
is a measure of total solar radiation perpendicular to the solar vector,
it is necessary to also factor in the actual angle which the solar vector makes with the surface(s) being
heated. This takes into account the geographic location, the time of year, the time of day, and the
geometry of the surface and gives a corrected solar constant G
i
.
For a horizontal surface, such as the tank roof, G
i
 G
n
cos Z, where Z  cos
1
(sin sin
s

cos cos
s
cos h) is the latitude,
s
is the solar declination, and h the hour angle, measured from0
at high noon. In the present case, Z  cos
1
(sin 29 20 sin 235 cos 29 20 cos 235 cos 0 ) 
cos
1
0995  5 50  and G
i
 343(0995)  3412 Btu/(h)(ft
2
).
For a surface that is tilted fromhorizontal and whose surface normal has an azimuth of from
due south (westward being positive), G
i
 G
n
(cos Z    sin Z sin  sin Z sin cos  A  ),
where A  sin
1
cos
s
sin h[cos(90  Z)]. In the present case, A  0 because sin h  0.
Because the solar effect is distributed around the vertical surface of the tank to a varying degree
(the effect being strongest from the south, since the sun is in the south), select wall segments 30
apart and calculate each separately. In the G
i
equation, will thus assume values ranging from 90
(facing due east) to 90 (due west); the northern half of the tank will be in shadow. Because the wall
is vertical,  90 .
It is also necessary to take sky radiation into account, that is, sunlight scattered by the atmosphere
and refected diffusely and which reaches all surfaces of the tank, including those not hit by direct
sunlight because they are in shadow. This diffuse radiation G
s
varies greatly but is generally small,
between about 2.2 Btu/(h)(ft
2
) (6.93 W/m
2
) on a clear day and 44.2 Btu/(h)(ft
2
) (139 W/m
2
) on a
cloudy day. For the day as described, assume that G
s
is 25 Btu/(h)(ft
2
). This value must be added to
all surfaces, including those in shadow.
Finally, take the solar absorptance of the paint
s
into account. Thus, the solar heat absorbed q
s
equals
s
(G
i
 G
s
). The calculations can be summarized as follows:
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER 7.9
Roof 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Segment (azimuth) 90 60 30 0 30 60 90
G
i
341.2 0 17.4 30.2 34.9 30.2 17.4 0
G
i
 G
s
366.2 25 42.4 55.2 59.9 55.2 42.4 25
q
s
A, Btu/(h)(ft
2
) 65.92 4.50 7.63 9.94 10.8 9.94 7.63 4.50
q
s
A W/m
2
208 14.2 24.0 31.3 34.0 31.3 24.0 14.2
Since this calculation procedure treats the tank as if it had 12 fat sides, the calculated G
i
for
segments 1 and 7 is zero. Of course, G
i
is also zero for the shaded half of the tank [and q
s
A 
45 Btu/(h)(ft
2
)].
2. Ca/ca/ate the eqa///br/am temperatare af each af the tank sarfaces. It can be shown that
conduction between the segments is negligible. Then, at equilibrium, each segment must satisfy the
heat-balance equation, that is, solar-heat absorption  net heat input by radiation  heat transferred
in by outside convection  heat transferred in by inside convection  0, or
q
s
A  
o
T
4
o
 T
4

 
R
T
4
R
T
4

h
a
(T
a
 T

) h
i
(T
i
 T

)  0
where T

is the tank-wall temperature; subscript o refers to surrounding structural and other elements
having a radiant interchange factor 
o
with the segments; subscript R refers to the atmosphere,
having an equivalent radiation temperature T
R
and a radiant interchange factor 
R
; subscript a refers
to the air surrounding the tank, and subscript i refers to the gas inside the tank. The heat balance
for the roof is solved as follows (similar calculations can be made for each segment of the tank
wall):
Now, q
s
A  6592 Btu/(h)(ft
2
), T
o
 105 F  565 R (due to hot pipes and other equipment
in the vicinity), 
o
 02 T
R
 5 F  465 R, a good assumption for 
R
is 0.75, h
a
 072, and
h
i
 075. Therefore,
6592 (01713 10
8
)(02) 565
4
 T
4

 (01713  10
8
)(075) 465
4
 T
4

 072(90 460  T

)  075(85  460  T

)  0
6592 3491 (3426 10
10
 12848  10
10
)T
4

6007 396
 (072  075)T

 408  0
16274 10
9
T
4

147T

 965
This is solved by trial and error, to yield T

 553 R  93 F (307 K). Note that if the paint had been
black,
s
might have been 0.97 instead of 0.18. In that case, the temperature would have been about
200 F (366 K).
The same procedure is then applied to each of the other tank segments.
7.4 HEAT LOSS FROm AN UNINSULATED SURFACE TO AIR
A steam line with a diameter of 3.5 in (0.089 m) and a length of 50 ft (15.2 m) transports steam at
320 F (433 K). The carbon steel pipe [thermal conductivity of 25 Btu/(h)(ft)( F) or 142 W/(m
2
)(K)]
is not insulated. Its emissivity is 0.8. Calculate the heat loss for calm air and also for a wind velocity
of 15 mi/h (24 km/h), if the air temperature is 68 F (293 K).
HEAT TRANSFER