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Matter

Your friends recognize you by your physical appearance: your height

and weight and the color of your eyes and hair. The same is true of
chemical substances.

While making peanut brittle you can distinguish sugar from water
because you know that sugar consists of small white solid particles,
whereas water is a colorless liquid. Com syrup is also a liquid, but it
comes in light and dark colors and is much more viscous (pours more
slowly) than water.
Properties such as these, which can be observed and measured without
changing the composition of a substance, are called physical properties.

Chemical elements iron and sulfur, both solids at room temperature,

clearly differ in color, and liquid bromine and solid iodine differ in their
physical states as well as their colors .
Physical properties allow us to classify and identity substances of the
material world.
Table 1.1 lists some physical properties of matter that chemists
commonly use. A few of these are discussed in more detail in this
chapter, and others are taken up later.

States of Matter

An easily observed and very useful property of matter is its physical

state, or phase. Is it a solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature or at
some other temperature?

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 Some Physical Properties of Matter

Property Comment
Color
State of matter Is it a solid, liquid, or gas?

Melting point The temperature at which a solid melts

Boiling point The temperature at which a liquid boils

Heat of vaporization The heat required to change a liquid to a vapor

Heat of fusion The heat required to change a solid to a liquid

Density Usually expressed in units of grams per milliliter

or grams per cubic centimeter

Solubility The amount of a substance that can dissolve in a

given mass or volume of water or other solvent

Metallic character Hardness, solidity

Electrical conductivity
Conductivity of heat
Magnetic properties
Shape of the crystals of a solid

Malleability The ease with which a solid can be deformed

Ductility The ease with which a solid can be drawn into

a Wire

Viscosity The susceptibility of a liquid to flow

A solid can be recognized because it has a rigid shape and a fixed
volume that changes very little as temperature and pressure change.

Like a solid, a liquid has a fixed volume, but a liquid is fluid-it

takes on the shape of its container and has no definite form of its own.

Gases are fluid also, but gases expand to fill whatever container they
occupy, and their volume varies considerably with temperature and
pressure.
For most substances, the volume of the solid is slightly less than the
volume of the same mass ofliquid, but the volume of the same mass of
gas is much, much larger.

Virtually all matter is found in the solid state at very low temperatures.
As the temperature is raised, though, solids generally melt to form
liquids. Eventually, if the temperature is raised high enough, liquids can
evaporate to form gases. *

All the physical properties just described can be observed by the

unaided human senses and refer to samples of matter large enough to
be seen, measured, and handled. Such samples are called macroscopic,
in contrast to microscopic samples, such as biological cells and
microorganisms, which are so small that they can only be seen with a
microscope. The structure of matter that really interests chemists,
however, is at the submicroscopic scale of atoms and molecules.
A fundamental idea of chemistry is that matter exists as it does
because of the nature of its parts, and those parts are very, very tiny.
Therefore, imagination is required to discover useful ideas that
connect the behavior of those tiny parts to the behavior of chemical
substances in the macroscopic world.

*A fourth state of matter, plasmas, are gases composed of charged particles.

Plasmas exist naturally in the outer portion of the earth's atmosphere, in the
atmosphere of stars, and in the beautiful aurora borealis or "northern lights. "

- 3-
Kinetic-Molecular Theory:

One theory that helps us interpret the physical properties of solids,

liquids, and gases is the kinetic-molecular theory of matter.
According to this theory, all matter consists of extremely tiny
particles (atoms and molecules), which are in constant motion.
In a solid these particles are packed closely together in a regular
array (Figure 1.3).
The particle vibrate back and forth about their average pos itions, but
seldom does a particle in a solid squeeze past its immediate neighbors
to come into contact with a new set of particles. Because the particles
are packed so tightly and in such a regular arrangement, a solid is
rigid, its volume is fixed.

Gas Liquid So lid

Figure1.3 The three states of matter. In the gas phase, atoms or molecules
move rapidly over distances larger than the sizes ofthe atoms or molecules
themselves. There is little interaction between them. Cooling, increasingthe
pressure, or both, converts gases to liquids. The atoms or molecules are now
much closer together, and they interact with one anoth er. Motion of the particles
is still very evident, although the particles move over only very small distances,
Further cooling converts a liquid to a solid. The particles are even closer
together and almost totally restricted to specific locations. They are arranged ·
with a high degree of regularity.
Another very useful physical property of pure elements and compounds
is the temperature at which the solid melts (its melting point) or the
liquid boils (its boiling point).
Temperature is the property of matter that determines whether heat
(energy) can be transferred from one body to another and the direction
of that transfer: heat energy transfers spontaneously only from a hotter
object to a cooler one.
The number that represents an object's temperature depends on the unit
chosen for the measurement.
Three scales for temperature measurement are in common use today:
Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin (Figure 1.7).
The Celsius scale is generally used for measurements in the laboratory .
When calculations incorporate temperature data, however, the data
generally must be expressed in kelvins.

Figure 1.7 A comparison of

Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and Kelvin temperature
scales. The reference, or starting
point, for the Kelvin scale is
absolute zero (0 K= ~273.15 °C),
which has been shown theoretically
to be the lowest possible
temperature. Note that the
abbreviation K for the kelvin unit
is used without the degree sign (0).
r
Also note that I °C = I K =(9/5) OF. \

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