Chapter 11

FAILURE OF
MATERIALS

FAILURE BY FRACTURE

Failure by fracture is defined as the breaking of bonds that join the particles (atoms,
molecules or individual crystals) that make up the material when joined together.
Fracture can happen as the result of a static load or as the result of a repeated load.
FATIGUE

The phenomenon of fracture due to a repeated load is defined as fatigue. Loads
that are significantly below the ultimate stress can cause fracture due to fatigue,
provided that the number of repetitions of the load reaches to a sufficient amount.
Fatigue cracks or the locations where the fatigue start are often the locations where
there are stress concentrations holes, notches, corners, bends... Also, surface finish,
thype of loading, material intrinsic properties, size, existence of corrosion are the
factors that have strong effects on the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks.
The stress causing the fatigue can be purely alternating or an alternating load imposed
on a static load.
o
tot
= o
ave
+ o
r
Three different theories for explaining the occurrence of fatigue have been proposed:
GERBER PARABOLA:
Gerber parabola relates the endurance limit (o
E
) and the repeated (o
R
), average (o
ave
) and
ultimate (o
u
) stresses:
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
u
ave
E
R
o
o
o
o
Usually a factor of safety (F.S.) is included to set the limit for the stresses:
2
1
(
(
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
. . . . S F S F
u
ave
E
R
o
o
o
o
Gerber parabola leads to designs that are not conservative since it overpredicts the
endurance limit, o
E
.
GOODMAN LINE:

Goodman line can be stated as follows:
1 = +
E
R
u
ave
o
o
o
o
Also, a factor of safety can be included for design purposes:
1 =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
. . . . S F S F
E
R
u
ave
o
o
o
o
SODERBERG LINE

Soderberg line is similar to the Goodman line except that it is based on the
yield stress, oy rather than the ultimate stress, o
u
.
1 = +
E
R
y
ave
o
o
o
o
1 =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
. .
. .
S F
S F
E
R
y
ave
o
o
o
o
Soderberg line is the most conservative of the three approaches. In engineering
practive, it is the Goodman line that is most often used.
If the amplitude of the stress acting on the material to be designed changes in time, then
the stress- number of repetitions (o
R
n ) curve does not apply directly. In this case,
Palmgren-Miner cumulative damage curve is used:
1
2
2
1
1
= + + +
n
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
........
where n
i
is the number of cycles at which the applied stresses o
ave
or o
R
occurs, and N
i
is the number of stresses required for failure at o
ave
or o
R
. Failure is anticipated where
the sum is equal to or greater than one.
From Nash and Potter
From Nash and Potter
As one can observe, the Soderberg relation gives the most conservative result, where
the Gerber parabola the most tolerant one.
From Nash and Potter
From Nash and Potter
THEORIES OF FAILURE

Assuming an element of material to be designed is subject to principal stresses o
1
, o
2

and o
3
, where o
1
> o
2
> o
3
.
MAXIMUM STRESS THEORY
Maximum stress theory predicts failure to happen when o
1
= o
y
or ,o
3
,=o
y
.
Despite its simplicity, the recorded history of failures that do not obey this criterion
has resulted the abandonement of this theory.
MAXIMUM STRAIN THEORY
Due to this theory, which is attributed to Saint Venant, a ductile material is assumed
to yield when the amount of strain in the material reaches to the strain at the yield.
o
1
- v (o
2
+ o
3
) = o
y
or

, o
3
- v (o
1
+ o
2
), = o
y
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY
This theory, also named as the Trescas or Guests theory assumes that failure occurs
when the maximum value of the yield stress reaches the yield shear stress at a point.
t
max
= o
max
- o
min
= t
y
VON MISES THEORY
Von Mises theory is based on the energy used for the distortion, and therefore also
named as the maximum distortion energy theory. It assumes that failure occurs when:
(o
1
- o
2
)
2
+ (o
2
- o
3
)
2
+ (o
1
- o
3
)
2
=2 o
y
2
This theory is widely accepted in the engineering practice, especially for ductile materials.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A cylindrical pressure vessel 250 cm in diameter and 2.5 cm thick is made of steel of yield
point in tension of 272 MPa. Compute the internal pressure that will cause yielding. Select
the Von Mises criterion.
0 0
50
025 0 2
5 2
2
25
025 0 4
5 2
4
= =
=

= =
=

= =
r r
l l
p
p
t
pD
p
p
t
pD
o o
o o
o o
u u
;
.
.
;
.
.
;
Therefore o
1
= 50 p, o
2
= 25p, o
3
= 0
( )
(o
1
- o
2
)
2
+ (o
2
- o
3
)
2
+ (o
1
- o
3
)
2
=2 o
y
2
25
2
p
2
+ 25
2
p
2
+50
2
p
2
= 2 (27210
6
)
2
3750 p
2
= 148 10
15
Pa
2

p
2
= 6.28 MPa