Chemistry Revision Module 1 Chemical Earth 1.

1.1 Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered 1.7 Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are encountered in the laboratory > IDE = compounds composed of two elements only > ATE = compounds that contain oxygen > PER = compounds that contain extra atoms of one of the elements > Method for writing a two element compound: Write the symbols of the elements that make up the compound Write the valency number of each element at the bottom, right hand side of each symbol Swap the valency numbers of the elements Divide the valency numbers by any common denominator (if applicable) Rewrite the formula omitting the number 1 (if applicable) > Method for writing formulae using multi-element compounds Write the symbols of the element and the multi-atom compound present Put brackets around the multi-atom component Write the valencies of the element and the multi-atom component Cancel down to get the smallest whole number ratio Rewrite the formula omitting the number 1 (if applicable), and also omitting the brackets around the multi-element component if there is only 1 lot of it > Method for writing simple chemical equations Write symbol of the reactants Write an arrow to show reactants turning into products Write in the formula of the product(s) Balance the equation, ensuring there are the same number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation Insert state symbols (s, l, g, aq) Formulae of common compounds Hydroxide = OH (valency 1) Nitrate = NO3 (valency 1) Ammonium = NH4 (valency 1) Carbonate = CO3 (valency 2) Sulphate = SO4 (valency 2) Cyanide = CN (valency 1) Hydro-carbonate = HCO3 (valency 1) Hydrogen-sulphate = HSO4 (valency 1) Phosphate = PO4 (valency 3) Manganate = MnO4 (valency 1)

1.2 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of the particle theory > Particle theory: The kinetic theory of matter (particle theory) says that all matter consists of many, very small particles which are constantly moving or in a continual state of motion. > Element: a substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler substance. > Compound: two or more elements chemically combined and that can be broken down into its simpler substances by chemical means > Mixture: two or more substances NOT chemically combined and that can be broken down by physical means. 1.3 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and compounds. > Biosphere: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium. Living organisms are organic (carbon-based). Primary chemical compounds found within organisms are carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins. > Lithosphere: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium. Natural mixtures include rocks, ores, sands, coal, oil, natural gas, soil. > Hydrosphere: oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sodium, magnesium. Salt water, permafrost, underground, rivers, lakes, reservoirs. > Atmosphere: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, hydrogen, carbon. Carbon dioxide, water vapour etc. > The composition of the Earth is constant. The earth is, materially, a closed system: matter is not lost or gained. 1.4 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures 1.5 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earths materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations Separation technique(s) Filtering and decanting Sieving Magnetic Separation Solvation, filtration and evaporation Evaporation, crystallisation and distillation Fractional distillation Liquefaction and fractional distillation Separating funnel Component of mixture Example Solids and liquids Solids of different sizes Magnetic and nonmagnetic solids Insoluble and soluble solids Dissolved solids in liquids Liquids with different boiling points Gases with different boiling points Liquids that do not mix with different densities Property used

Sediment from wine Solubility Flour and wheat germ Sand and iron Sand and salt Salts and fresh water from sea water Petroleum fractions from crude oil Nitrogen and oxygen from air Oil and water Particle size Magnetic attraction Solubility Boiling point Boiling point Boiling point Solubility and density

1.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists > Gravimetric analysis: the amounts of substance present in a mixture or compound are determined by mass > Gravimetric analysis is a quantitative analysis as it determines relative amounts of components in a mixture or compound > Gravimetric analysis is a qualitative analysis in the sense that it identifies the substances present in the composition of the mixture or compound > Examples of gravimetric analysis include: Determining the amount of sand, salt and water in a sand/salt/water mixture (see practical sheet). Analysis of foodstuffs e.g. the moisture content of grain prior to sale, the amount of dissolved solids in mineral water. The chemical composition of medicines and drugs require strict specifications to ensure they are beneficial to health and not dangerous. The percentage of impurities in goods such as iron in bronze. 1.8 Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered. Code Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec No. Carbons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

an = only carbon-carbon single bonds en = contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond

2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its exiting as an uncombined element > The more reactive an element, the more likely it is to be found combined as a compound e.g. sodium as salt (sodium chloride) > The less reactive an element, the more likely it is to be found uncombined as an element e.g. gold, silver, noble gases > Some elements occur both as uncombined elements and as combined e.g. oxygen as a gaseous element in air and oxygen combined with hydrogen to form water 2.2 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties Property Melting point Boiling point Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Appearance Hardness Malleability/ ductility Physical State Examples Metals Usually high Usually high High High Shiny Usually hard Usually malleable and ductile Often solid, occasional liquid (mercury) Lead, iron, magnesium, gold Non-metals Usually low Usually low Very low Very low Usually not shiny N/A (gases, liquids), solids usually soft Not malleable nor ductile, often brittle Variable, usually gaseous Oxygen, helium, argon, carbon Metalloids High Usually high Low Low Variable N/A (gases, liquids), usually relatively soft solids Variable Variable Silicon, arsenic

2.3 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties. Element Gold Silver Iron Aluminium Nitrogen Helium Carbon Carbon Copper Use Jewellery Jewellery Making steel for buildings Window frames Burning off warts Balloons Diamonds Graphite pencils Electrical wiring Relevant Physical Property Lustrous, workable Lustrous, workable Mechanical strength Light Very low boiling point Low density Reflects and refracts light Makes marks on paper High electrical conductivity

3.1 Identify that matter of particles that are continuously moving and interacting

> All matter is made of particles continuously in motion and interacting with each other: this is the kinetic particle theory. > The energy of the particles controls their movement. > Solids: particles are close together vibrating in fixed positions > Liquids: particles are close together and moving more freely > Gases: particles are far apart and moving very freely 3.2 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms Energy Maximum number of Level electrons K 2 L 8 M 18 N 32 3.3 Describe atoms in terms of mass and atomic number > Mass number = the number of protons + the number of neutrons > Atomic number = the number of protons > Number of neutrons = mass number atomic number 3.4 Describe the formation of ions of atoms gaining or losing electrons 3.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of attraction of ions of opposite charges > An atom forms a positive ion when it loses an electron > An atom forms a negative ion when it gains an electron > The charge of an atom is x+ where electrons are lost and x is the number of electrons lost (by convention you dont write 1+, just +) > The charge of atom is x- where electrons are gained and x is the number of electrons gained > Monatomic ions: ions formed from one element e.g. Mg2+ = magnesium ion > Polyatomic ions: ions formed from compounds e.g. OH- = hydroxide ion > Opposite charged ions attract to each other forming ionic compounds; e.g. In MgO, 2+ Mg ions are attracted to 2- oxide ions forming a stable Magnesium Oxide compound that has no overall charge 3.5 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions atoms of metals and non-metals > Metal atoms lose electrons so they form positive ions Group 1 metals lose 1 electron and form 1+ ions Group 2 metals lose 2 electrons and form 2+ ions Group 3 metals lose 3 electrons and form 3+ ions > Non-metals gain electrons so they form negative ions Group 5 non-metals gain 3 electrons and form 3- ions Group 6 non-metals gain 2 electrons and form 2- ions Group 7 non-metals gain 1 electrons and form 1- ions > The Noble Gases have a full outer electron shell and are therefore stable, not forming ions in normal circumstances. > The transition metals can form a different number of ions. It is impossible to predict the number of charge of the ions apart from the fact their ions will always be positive.

> Substances that form positive ions are called cations because they are attracted to the negative charge of the cathode. > Substances that form negative ions are called anions because they are attracted to the positive cathode. > Elements that lose electrons are said to be electropositive. > Elements that gain electrons are said to be electronegative. 3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to the formation of ions and the electron sharing in some simple molecules > A Lewis electron dot structure uses dots to show the number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom only > Lewis electron dot diagrams can be used to show the sharing of electrons within molecules. The electrons that are shared are drawn side by side, or they can be shown by drawing a circle around them. By sharing electrons, each atom in the molecule has a full shell of electrons. Thus, the arrangement forms stable structures. > Some compounds occur as molecules forming covalent bonds. The covalent bond is often shown by drawing a circle around the pair of bonding electrons. 3.8 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other 3.9 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom > Molecule: the smallest unit of a substance that can move independently. > Molecules made of one atom are said to be monatomic. > Molecules made of more than one atom are said to be polyatomic. Molecules made of two atoms are said to be diatomic. 3.10 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing electrons > The covalent bonds sharing electrons. When two non-metal atoms react together, both of them need to gain electrons to achieve complete shells. To achieve this, the two atoms share electrons forming covalent bonds. > E.g. hydrogen contains one electron. Its shell needs two electrons to be complete. When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, their shells overlap. They share their single electrons, now both atoms have 2 electrons and are stable. 3.11 Construct formulae for compounds formed from ions and atoms sharing electrons > For a metal: [M (g)] (M+) + (e-) --- endothermic (absorbs heat) > For a non-metal: [X (g)] + (e-) (X-) --- exothermic (produces heat)

4.1 Identify the differences physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles > Physical changes are changes in physical properties and do not change the composition of the particles > Chemical changes are chemical reactions; new substances are formed. Chemical changes form substances with different compositions and properties 4.2 Summarise the difference between the boiling of water and electrolysis of water as an example of the differences between physical and chemical change > Boiling water is a physical change the physical state of water is modified from liquid to gas > Electrolysing water is a chemical change it is a chemical reaction whereby water decomposes to form gaseous hydrogen and oxygen Chemical Processes At least one new substance is formed Difficult to reverse Usually a large amount of heat energy involved in the process Physical Processes No new substances are formed Easily reversed by adding or subtracting heat energy or separating/mixing Usually a relatively small amount of heat energy involved in the process

4.3 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life Type of Energy Heat Light Electrical Industrial Example Decomposition of limestone to form lime Decomposition of silver bromide in photographic paper Production of aluminium through electrolysis Everyday Example Decomposition of baking soda to form carbon dioxide in baking Production of sugars and oxygen during photosynthesis Synthesis of nitrogen oxide by lightning strikes

4.4 Explain the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of attraction, or bond, between them > The stronger the forces of attraction holding the atoms in a compound together the more energy needed to break these bonds. > For covalent bonds, usually between 150-1100 kJ/mol is needed. > For ionic substances, around 400-4000 kJ/mol is needed. > Bond energy: the energy involved in making or breaking bonds and is usually quoted in kJ per mole of the particular bond involved. > The bond energy is an indication of the strength of attraction between atoms or ions.

5.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures > Each element and compound has its own distinct physical and chemical properties. > E.g. sodium, chlorine and sodium chlorine each have very different properties (as in the table below). Substance Chemical Properties Physical Properties (at 25*C) Sodium chloride Does not burn, no reaction White crystals, soluble in water, does with water and hydrogen not conduct electricity as a solid, does conduct electricity as a liquid Sodium Burns in oxygen, violent Soft silvery metal, conducts heat and reactions with water and electricity as a solid/liquid hydrogen Chlorine Burns in air, reaction with Green gas, does not conduct water, violent reaction with electricity at all hydrogen > The individual components (elements/compounds) of a mixture keep their own properties. 5.2 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic, covalent molecular or covalent network Physical Property Ionic Covalent Network covalent molecular Example Sodium chloride Water (H20) Silicon Dioxide (salt) (sand) Physical state Solids Variable Solids Appearance Powder/crystals Dull if solid Shiny Colour Variable Variable Silvery Odour Odourless Can have strong Odourless odour Density Medium Low to medium Medium Hardness Hard/brittle Varies, but Hard/brittle generally soft Structure Crystalline Shapeless Crystalline Solubility in H20 Some Some slightly Insoluble soluble Electrical Good Bad n/a conductivity of solutions Electrical Bad Bad Bad conductivity as a solid Thermal Poor Poor Good conductivity Melting point High Generally low High

5.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

> Metallic: an electrostatic attraction between a metal cation (+) the sea of mobile electrons (-) surrounding it > Ionic: bonds between metals (+) and non-metals (-) > Covalent: bonds between two non-metals (share electrons) 5.4 Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in sea of electrons > Metals are composed of cations (metal ions) arranged in a repeating, cubic pattern. The structure is crystalline. > The strong metallic bonds are formed through the attraction of the cations to the outer arrangement of delocalised electrons. These electrons are mobile, being shared around by all ions in the lattice. 5.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions > Ionic compounds are regular, crystalline structures created through the electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions > The strong forces of attraction are due to very strong ionic bonds - with cations forming sturdy bonds with anions 5.6 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula > Empirical formula: the simplest whole number ratio of different atoms in a substance > Since an ionic compound is a repeating structure of ions, the simplest ratio is useful when showing how the particles repeat to form the structure. > E.g. MgCl2 shows that the ratio of Mg ions to chloride ions is 1:2 there are really trillions of magnesium and chloride ions in the ionic compound but 1:2 shows the simplest ratio of atoms 5.7 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices > Molecules is the smallest particle of two or more atoms that retains the physical and chemical properties of that substances > Diatomic elements: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine > Polyatomic elements: phosphorus (P9), sulphur (S8) > Tetrahedral (each atom bonded to four others) covalent lattices: carbon (diamond), silicon, germanium > Hexagonal (each atom bonded to three others) covalent lattices: carbon (graphite), boron

5.8 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures Bonding type Ionic Ionic Physical property Poor electrical conductivity as solids Electrical conductivity as a molten or dissolved Hard, very brittle Structure The ions are localised in the crystalline lattice due to the strong electrostatic bonds Ions are free to move, able to carry electrical impulses The strong 3-D forces between ions resist compression and distortion (hard). When a force is applied to a small area of the crystal, the forces break and the crystal shears apart (brittle) No delocalised electrons nor ions capable of carrying an electrical current Weak inter-molecular forces All valence electrons are involved in bonding and thus, no electrons are available to carry a current Short, strong covalent bonds in the close packed lattice structure, which makes it unable to bend or distort

Ionic

Covalent molecular Covalent molecular Covalent Network Covalent Network

Poor electrical conductivity in all cases Soft Poor electrical conductivity Very hard, brittle