OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common services for application software. The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs require an operating system which are usually separate programs, but can be combined in simple systems. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently make a system call to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computerfrom cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.

Different Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems that create a link between users and the applications form the core of computer systems. An OS dissociates the programs from the hardware and simplifies resource management. Let us look at the different types of operating systems and know how they differ from one another. An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users interact with a computer operating system through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, an operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing realtime applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts. Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: Computer operating systems of this type

allow multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. Time-sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through time sharing. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by only one user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in case the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as a multitasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or cooperative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. If you are aware of the multi-threading terminology, you can consider this type of multi-tasking as similar to interleaved multi-threading. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. This kind of multi-tasking is similar to the idea of block multi-threading in which one thread runs till it is blocked by some other event. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and made to communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. Mobile Operating System: Though not a functionally distinct kind of operating system, mobile OS is definitely an important mention in the list of operating system types. A mobile OS controls a mobile device and its design supports wireless communication and mobile applications. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia formats. Tablet PCs and smartphones run on mobile operating systems. Batch Processing and Interactive Systems: Batch processing refers to execution of computer programs in 'batches' without manual intervention. In batch processing systems, programs are collected, grouped and processed on a later date. There is no prompting the user for inputs as input data are collected in advance for future processing. Input data are collected and processed in batches, hence the name batch processing. IBM's z/OS has batch processing capabilities. As against this, interactive operating requires user intervention. The process cannot be executed in

the user's absence. Online and Offline Processing: In online processing of data, the user remains in contact with the computer and processes are executed under control of the computer's central processing unit. When processes are not executed under direct control of the CPU, the processing is referred to as offline. Let's take the example of batch processing. Here, the batching or grouping of data can be done without user and CPU intervention; it can be done offline. But the actual process execution may happen under direct control of the processor, that is online. Operating systems contribute to simplifying human interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hardware, thus achieving easy user access to computers. Ever imagined a computer without an OS? It wouldn't be so userfriendly then

Functions of an Operating System

Process Management The operating system manages many kinds of activities ranging from user programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated in a process. A process includes the complete execution context (code, data, PC, registers, OS resources in use etc.). It is important to note that a process is not a program. A process is only ONE instant of a program in execution. There are many processes can be running the same program. The five major activities of an operating system in regard to process management are

Creation and deletion of user and system processes. Suspension and resumption of processes. A mechanism for process synchronization. A mechanism for process communication. A mechanism for deadlock handling.

Main-Memory Management Primary-Memory or Main-Memory is a large array of words or bytes. Each word or byte has its own address. Main-memory provides storage that can be access directly by the CPU. That is to say for a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. The major activities of an operating in regard to memory-management are:

Keep track of which part of memory are currently being used and by whom. Decide which process are loaded into memory when memory space becomes available. Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

File Management A file is a collected of related information defined by its creator. Computer can store files on the disk (secondary storage), which provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and access methods. A file systems normally organized into directories to ease their use. These directories may contain files and other directions.

The five main major activities of an operating system in regard to file management are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The creation and deletion of files. The creation and deletion of directions. The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions. The mapping of files onto secondary storage. The backing up of files on stable storage media.

I/O System Management I/O subsystem hides the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user. Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of the specific device to whom it is assigned. Secondary-Storage Management Generally speaking, systems have several levels of storage, including primary storage, secondary storage and cache storage. Instructions and data must be placed in primary storage or cache to be referenced by a running program. Because main memory is too small to accommodate all data and programs, and its data are lost when power is lost, the computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory. Secondary storage consists of tapes, disks, and other media designed to hold information that will eventually be accessed in primary storage (primary, secondary, cache) is ordinarily divided into bytes or words consisting of a fixed number of bytes. Each location in storage has an address; the set of all addresses available to a program is called an address space. The three major activities of an operating system in regard to secondary storage management are: 1. Managing the free space available on the secondary-storage device.

2. Allocation of storage space when new files have to be written. 3. Scheduling the requests for memory access. Networking A distributed systems is a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through communication lines called network. The communication-network design must consider routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security. Protection System If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple processes, then the various processes must be protected from one another's activities. Protection refers to mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Command Interpreter System A command interpreter is an interface of the operating system with the user. The user gives commands with are executed by operating system (usually by turning them into system calls). The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next user specified command. Command-Interpreter is usually not part of the kernel, since multiple command interpreters (shell, in UNIX terminology) may be support by an operating system, and they do not really need to run in kernel mode. There are two main advantages to separating the command interpreter from the kernel. 1. If we want to change the way the command interpreter looks, i.e., I want to change the interface of command interpreter, I am able to do that if the command interpreter is separate from the kernel. I cannot change the code of the kernel so I cannot modify the interface. 2. If the command interpreter is a part of the kernel it is possible for a malicious process to gain access to certain part of the kernel that it showed not have to avoid this ugly scenario it is advantageous to have the command interpreter separate from kernel.

Operating System Security

Overview of Operating System Security

It is unnecessary to say that all operating systems are not equal in every sphere. None of the most accepted operating systems now a day are developed keeping safe and sound electronic business in mind. From the moment the computer is booted (after loading the BIOS), the interaction with the operating system starts. This essential portion of software describes what can be done with the system of the computer and how it is to be done.

Whether the interaction is with the file system or while chatting with somebody with the help of an instant messenger line up, the operating system works at the back the pictures to provide with a perfect experience as it understands the procedures and changes them into those things that the computer can process. Even as operating systems differ on a lot of levels, the most ordinary operating systems offer much more than an easy crossing point between the user and the machine. These include many programs with the intention to provide the user with many extras, starting from the straightforward screen savers to multifaceted file-encryption plans. However, it's vital to know that these programs are add-ons which are added on to the OS and are not essential for the computer to function. A lot of users become closely familiar with the operating system's frills (such as the Solitaire), but do not remember about the security parameters that are incorporated to help the user preserve a secure and dependable operating setting. And therefore, a lot of information systems continue living in an insecure condition that keeps the system at the danger of a virus infection or at the total compromise by a hacker. From creation a protected home network to creating well-built passwords, it is very vital to know the particulars of using an operating system in a secure and safe and sound mode. In today's world, where the computer is an essential gadget it is foolish to set up a computer devoid of the security system. It is only one virus or Trojan horse that is enough to form a concurrent consequence of contaminated computers and compromise systems. UNIX which is the eldest and the majorly used networking operating system of todays world has got the benefit of having been patched and hacked by crackers and hackers for many years. Amongst all other UNIX derivatives, the most popular derivatives is Linux, which was developed by Linus Torvalds and now being maintained by a lot many of volunteers and a lot of software companies. But this Linux still has got errors which are being discovered in a day to day basis. It is tremendously significant to keep an eye on these incidences and use the essential patches of the updates as soon as they are accessible. Microsoft's Windows family platform has got an extraordinary expansion as a server and client platform. Whether it is installed in the thousands of home PCs, in the Internet server or on corporate LANs, its fame has made it more prone for breakage by many hackers. Bodily security is becoming more and more common through out the world as novel and graver terrorizations are emerging. Physical security of public and possessions comes in course of time to most human; still then the lost in the mix up is the prime necessitate for securing the data. Over and over again this data contains responsive information that is sought after by people against the law.

Encryption and Privacy resource

It acts as a source for learning about a range of encryption schemes. This includes privacy fortification tips and security fundamentals.

NIST Vulnerability and Threat Portal

It is an absolute portal for recent attacks or incidents, bugs, advisories, etc kept up by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

PC Talk - Security

This is the latest news from the field of IT security.

CERT/CCC Current Activity

Central depository for high force security vulnerabilities and incidents are being informed to the CERT or CCC.

The two best security oriented operating systems are: Back Track:

This is an Innovative Penetration Testing which comes live from Linux distribution. This brilliant bootable live-CD has generated as a result of from the merger of Whax and Auditor. It shows off an enormous diversity of Security and Forensics apparatus and provides an affluent maturity of the environment. The user modularity is highlighted so the allocation can be customized with no trouble by the user to incorporate private scripts, extra tools, customized kernels, etc.

Knoppix:

This is designed as the general purpose live bootable system to be taken on CD or DVD. It consists of a diplomatic set of involuntary hardware revealing, GNU/Linux software, and hold up for a lot of sound cards, graphics cards, USB and SCSI appliances and other peripherals. KNOPPIX can also be used as a creative Linux system as the educational CD, desktop, rescue system.

Flaws in the operating systems of computers are discovered almost daily. The majority of viruses take advantage of these flaws to infect your computer. Once a virus enters your system, it can potentially cause devastating damage. To avoid contracting a virus, you should take the following basic precautions:

Software Updates - Make sure that the software on your computer is regularly updated. By doing so, most viruses can be avoided. We recommend setting your computer to check for software updates automatically. Firewall - Run a firewall program on your computer. A firewall is a device or program that blocks undesired Internet traffic, including viruses, from accessing your computer. Both Windows and Mac OS X have built-in firewall programs that are easy to set up. By

blocking unwanted Internet traffic, a lot of viruses and bugs can be stopped dead in their tracks! Account Management - Manage the user accounts on your computer, so you can control exactly who can log into your machine. Especially on Windows XP machines, it is easy to accidentally leave your computer wide open to unauthorized users. Antivirus Software - Use your antivirus software to scan for viruses as files are being launched