Endocrine system: Chapter 48 Role: Reproduction, growth and development, regulation of energy Includes: hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,

s, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, testes and pineal gland Pineal gland: secretes melatonin stimulating gonadal fxn Structures and Fxns of E.S. Endocrine glands- produce hormones and secrete them into blood (Do Not have ducts) Exocrine glands secrete substances into ducts that then empty into a body cavity or onto a surface (ex. Salivary ducts) Hormone characteristics: - secretion in small amounts at variable but predictable rates - circulation through the blood - binding to specific cell receptors either in cell membrane or within the cell - Lipid soluble hormones include steroid (adrenal cortex and sex glands) and thyroid hormones - Water soluble hormones (protein based) - Important hormone fxns: reproduction, response to stress and injury, electrolyte balance, energy, metabolism, growth, maturation and aging Hormone Transport Lipid soluble hormones are bound to plasma proteins for transport in the blood hormones are inactive when bound to plasma protein Water soluble circulate freely and are not dependent on plasma protein Target and receptors Two types of receptors: those within the cell (steroid and thyroid hormone receptors) and those that are in the cell membrane (protein type hormone receptors) Steroid Hormone Receptors They pass through the target cell membrane by passive diffusion and bind to receptor sites located in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell Intracellular hormone receptors bind to specific sites on DNA to stimulate or inhibit mRNA when mRNA is synthesized it migrates to cytoplasm where it stimulates synthesis of a new protein these new proteins produce specific effects in the target cell Protein Hormone receptors (2 step process) Hormone itself is the 1st messenger the hormone receptor interaction stimulates production of a 2nd messenger such as cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) cAMP works by activating enzymes to regulate intracellular activity Regulation of hormone secretion Simple feedback based on the blood level of a particular substance 1. Negative feedback (most common) the glands responds by increasing or decreasing the secretion of a hormone based on the feedback from various factors (ex. Insulin/pancreas & calcium/parathyroid gland)

2. Positive feedback increases the target organ action beyond normal (ex. Action of oxytonin in childbirth) 3. Complex feedback involves communication via hormones among several glands to turn on or off target organ hormone secretion Nervous system control Neural involvement is initiated by the CNS and carried out by the SNS Rhythms Originate in brain structure Circadian rhythm a hormone level fluctuates predictably during a 24 hour period (cortisol rises during the day, declines toward evening, and rises again toward the end of sleep to peak by morning) (GH and prolactin secretion peak during sleep) (TSH secretion is also maximal during sleep and ebbs 3 hours after a person awaken in the morning) Ultradian- a body rhythm that is longer than 24 hours (menstrual) Hypothalamus Relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland are the most important Important hormones: Releasing and Inhibiting hormones (secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary) Contains neurons (receive input from the brainstem and limbic system) that influence the limbic system, brainstem, and spinal cord creates circuit to facilitate the coordination of endocrine system, ANS, and expression of complex behavioral responses, such as anger and feeling of fear/pleasure Pituitary Also called hypophysis Located above sella turcica under the hypothalamus at the base of the brain above the sphenoid bone Connected to the hypothalamus through the infundibular stalk Consists of the anterior lobe (adenohypophsis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) Anterior Pituitary Accounts for 80% of weight Regulated by the hypothalamus Hypothalamus reaches the AP through the network of capillaries called the hypothalamus-hypophyseal portal system Has 6 secretion hormones Tropic hormones 1. TSH thyroid stimulating hormone secretes thyroid hormones 2. ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone- stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroids

3. FSH follicle stimulating hormone stimulates secretion of estrogen and development of ova in the female and sperm development in the male 4. LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates ovulation in the female and secretion of sex hormones in both the female and male Growth Hormone Affects the growth and development of skeletal muscles and long bones Has a role in protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism Prolactin A hormone that stimulates breast development necessary for lactation after childbirth Referred to as lactogenic hormone Posterior Pituitary Communication with hypothalamus occurs through nerve tracts known as the median eminence Hormones secreted are ADH and oxytocin these hormones travel from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary and are stored until needed Antidiuretic Hormone - regulation of fluid volume by stimulating reabsorption of water in the renal tubules - Is a potent vasoconstrictor - Important stimulus is plasma osmolality (P.O. will increase when there is a decrease in ECF or an increase in solute concentration) this stimulus is sent to the hypothalamus which activate ADH release - When ADH is released, the renal tubules reabsorb water, creating a more concentrated urine (vice versa) Oxytocin - Stimulates ejection of milk into mammary ducts and contraction of uterine smooth muscle - Stimulated by touch receptors in the nipples of lactating women and vaginal pressure receptors Thyroid gland Highly vascular and regulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary Major fxn is production, storage, and release of hormones 3 hormones produced and secreted by this gland are thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine - T4 is by far most abundant (90% of thyroid hormones) - T3 (about 20%) is much more potent and has metabolic effects - Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, T4 and T3 affect metabolic rate, calorie requirements, oxygen consumption, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, growth and development, & brain fxns - More than 99% of thyroid hormones are bound to plasma proteins, especially thyroxine-binding globulin synthesized by the liver

When circulating level of thyroid hormones are low, the hypothalamus releases TRH, which in turn causes the anterior pituitary to release TSH Calcitonin - hormone produced by C cells (parafollicular cells) of the thyroid gland in response to high circulating calcium levels - Calcitonin inhibits calcium reabsorption from bone, increases calcium storage in bone, and increases renal excretion of calcium and phosphorus - Does not play a role in calcium balance Parathyroid glands 4 glands, major cell type is epithelial Parathyroid Hormone - secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone. - Major role: regulate the blood level of calcium - PTH acts on bone, kidneys, and indirectly on the GI tract - In bone, PTH stimulates bone reabsorption and inhibits bone formation, resulting in the release of calcium and phosphate into the blood - In kidneys, PTH increases calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion - PTH stimulates Vit. D to its most active form and enhances the intestinal absorption of calcium - Directly regulated by feedback system - When serum calcium is low, PTH secretion increases (vice versa) - High levels of active Vit D inhibit PTH and low levels of magnesium stimulate PTH secretion Adrenal glands Located superior to kidney (two parts: medulla and cortex) Adrenal Medulla - inner part of gland, consists of sympathetic postganglion neurons - medulla secretes the catecholamines epinephrine (major hormone), norepinephrine, and dopamine. - Catecholamines (considered Neurotransmitters) are hormones when secreted by the adrenal medulla - Exert their effects after binding to adrenergic receptors on cells - Essential part of the bodys response to stress Adrenal Cortex - Outer part of gland, secretes more than 50 hormones, classified as glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids, and androgens - Cholesterol is the precursor for steroid hormone synthesis - Glucocorticoids have effect on glucose metabolism - Mineralcorticoids are essential for the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance - Corticosteroid refers to any hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex (excluding androgens) Cortisol - most abundant and potent glucocorticoid, necessary to maintain life - major fxn: regulation of blood glucose concentration

Increases blood glucose through stimulation of hepatic gluconeogenesis (conversion of amino acids to glucose) and inhibiting protein synthesis - Major effect: glucocorticoids have an anti-inflammatory action and supportive actions in response to stress - Cortisol decreases the inflammatory response by stabilizing the membranes of cellular lysosomes and preventing increased capillary permeability lysosome stabilization reduces the release of proteolytic enzymes and therby destructive effects - Cortisol helps maintain vascular integrity and fluid volume it has a mineralcorticoid effect because it can bind to mineralcorticoid receptors - Major control of cortisol is by negative feedback that involves secretion of corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) - CRH stimulates the secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary - Levels are increased by surgical stress, burns, infection, fever, anxiety, and hypoglycemia Aldosterone - a potent mineralcorticoid that maintains ECF volume - Acts on renal tubule to promoe renal absorption of sodium and excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions - Aldosterone synthesis and secretion are stimulated by angiotensin II, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and they are inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide and hypokalemia Adrenal Androgens - 3rd class of steroids synthesized and secreted by the adrenal cortex - stimulate pubic and axillary hair growth and sex drive in females - In females, androgens are converted to estrogen in the peripheral tissues - In postmenopausal females the major source of estrogen is from the peripheral conversion of adrenal androgen to estrogen Pancreas Has both Exocrine/Endocrine fxns Hormone secreting portion referred to as the islets of Langerhans Islets account for less than 2% of the gland and consists of four types of hormone secreting cells 1. Alpha produce and secrete the hormone glucagon 2. Beta produce and secrete Insulin and amylin 3. Delta produce and secrete somatostatin 4. F cells secrete Pancreatic Polypeptide Glucagon is synthesized and released in response to low levels of blood glucose it increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis Glucagon and Insulin work in a recpricol manner to maintain normal blood glucose levels exception is when you eat a high protein, carb free diet in which then they both are secreted Insulin

Principle regulator of the metabolism and storage of ingested carbs, fats, and proteins Insulin facilitates glucose transport across cell membranes in most tissues Brain, nerves, lens of eye, hepatocytes, erythrocytes, and the cells in the intestinal mucosa and kidney tubules are not dependant on insulin for glucose uptake Increased blood glucose stimulates insulin secretion and synthesis, other factors that are stimulants are increased amino acid levels and vaginal stimulation Insulin secretion is inhibited by low blood glucose levels, glucagon, somatostatin, hypokalemia, and catecholamines Major effect of insulin occurs in the liver where hormone enhances glucose incorporation into glycogen and triglycerides by altering enzymatic activity and inhibiting gluconeogenesis Insulin is a storage, or anabolic, hormone After a meal, insulin is responsible for the storage of nutrients (anabolism). In the fasting state (during which ingested glucose is not readily available), hormones such as catecholamines, cortisol, and glucagon break down stored complex fuels (catabolism) to provide simple glucose as fuel for energy Effects of Aging on E.S. 1. Decreased hormone production and secretion 2. Altered hormone metabolism and biologic activity 3. Decreased responsiveness of target tissues to hormones 4. Alterations in circadian rhythms Sxs of endocrine dysfunction such as fatigue, constipation, or mental impairment in the older adult are often missed because they are attributed solely to aging.